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• > The Cambridge Handbook of Group Interaction Analysis
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Book contents

• The Cambridge Handbook of Group Interaction Analysis
• Copyright page
• Contributors
• Editors’ Preface
• Organization of This Handbook
• How to Work with This Handbook
• Part I Background and Theory
• Part II Application Areas of Interaction Analysis
• Part III Methodology and Procedures of Interaction Analysis
• Part IV Data Analysis and Data Presentation
• Part V Coding Schemes for Interaction Research

Part IV - Data Analysis and Data Presentation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 July 2018

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• Data Analysis and Data Presentation
• Edited by Elisabeth Brauner , Brooklyn College, City University of New York , Margarete Boos , Michaela Kolbe
• Book: The Cambridge Handbook of Group Interaction Analysis
• Online publication: 19 July 2018

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Data Presentation and Analysis

• First Online: 20 June 2023

Cite this chapter

• Goran M. Muhamad   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9830-4744 3 , 4  

Part of the book series: Perspectives on Development in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) Region ((PDMENA))

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This chapter covers a variety of variables so as to identify the most important factors influencing private sector development, privatisation and taxation in the context of natural resource rich countries. It continues to introduce the description of data. In the elaboration of the data source, types and collection procedure, attention has been paid to the complementary role of non-economic factors, including governance, political instability and institutional quality, along with traditional factors, in determining diversified factors of private and public sector development. The chapter discusses the sampling strategy and its selection from a population of countries. It also explains how the data go through various stages. The method is parametric and estimated the aggregation weights. It reduces the dimension of the data and minimises the problems of collinearity and subsequent confounded effects. Then, the full list of variables related to dependent and independent variables is reported based on the literature, their relevance and data availability. The chapter further discusses the classification of the selected sample of 110 countries of different sizes and of different political systems. It accounts for country-specific and time-specific effects, by introducing two groups of dummy variables to capture country and time differences. Thus, attention is being paid to the multicollinearity issues and countries heterogeneity and variance heteroskedasticity. Then, summary statistic of the data is presented and explained how missing data is managed. The chapter, then provides the model specification and the estimation results of the traditional static model, the dynamic model, the dynamic flexible adjustment model, and the system of equations.

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The number of observations is changed according to the models’ due to missing unit values, use of lagged values, and different information.

The number of observations is changed according to the models due to missing unit values, use of lagged variables and different set of information.

In statistics, imputation is the process of replacing missing data with substituted values (Van Buuren, 2018 ).

This means a dependent variable is treated as an independent variable in another equation.

The result based on single equation estimation for all the four models is presented in Appendix 2.

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Muhamad, G.M. (2023). Data Presentation and Analysis. In: Reducing Natural Resource Dependency for Economic Growth in Resource Rich Countries. Perspectives on Development in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) Region. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-3640-3_4

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Chapter 3 PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

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Steady but Slow: Resilience amid Divergence

Projections table, chapters in the report, statistical appendix, global recovery is steady but slow and differs by region.

The baseline forecast is for the world economy to continue growing at 3.2 percent during 2024 and 2025, at the same pace as in 2023. A slight acceleration for advanced economies—where growth is expected to rise from 1.6 percent in 2023 to 1.7 percent in 2024 and 1.8 percent in 2025—will be offset by a modest slowdown in emerging market and developing economies from 4.3 percent in 2023 to 4.2 percent in both 2024 and 2025. The forecast for global growth five years from now—at 3.1 percent—is at its lowest in decades. Global inflation is forecast to decline steadily, from 6.8 percent in 2023 to 5.9 percent in 2024 and 4.5 percent in 2025, with advanced economies returning to their inflation targets sooner than emerging market and developing economies. Core inflation is generally projected to decline more gradually.

The global economy has been surprisingly resilient, despite significant central bank interest rate hikes to restore price stability. Chapter 2 explains that changes in mortgage and housing markets over the prepandemic decade of low interest rates moderated the near-term impact of policy rate hikes. Chapter 3 focuses on medium-term prospects and shows that the lower predicted growth in output per person stems, notably, from persistent structural frictions preventing capital and labor from moving to productive firms. Chapter 4 further indicates how dimmer prospects for growth in China and other large emerging market economies will weigh on trading partners.

Chapter 1: Global Prospects and Policies

Economic activity was surprisingly resilient through the global disinflation of 2022–23. As global inflation descended from its mid-2022 peak, economic activity grew steadily, defying warnings of stagflation and global recession. However, the pace of expansion is expected to be low by historical standards and the speed of convergence toward higher living-standards for middle- and lower-income countries has slowed, implying persistent global disparities. With inflationary pressures abating more swiftly than expected in many countries, risks to the global outlook are now broadly balanced compared with last year. Monetary policy should ensure that inflation touches down smoothly. A renewed focus on fiscal consolidation is needed to rebuild room for budgetary maneuver and priority investments, and to ensure debt sustainability. Intensifying supply-enhancing reforms are crucial to increase growth towards the higher prepandemic era average and accelerate income convergence. Multilateral cooperation is needed to limit the costs and risks of geoeconomic fragmentation and climate change, speed the transition to green energy, and facilitate debt restructuring.

Chapter 2: Feeling the Pinch? Tracing the Effects of Monetary Policy through Housing Markets

Why are some feeling the pinch from higher rates and not others? Chapter 2 investigates the effects of monetary policy across countries and over time through the lens of mortgage and housing markets. Monetary policy has greater effects where (1) fixed-rate mortgages are not common, (2) home buyers are more leveraged, (3) household debt is high, (4) housing supply is restricted, and (5) house prices are overvalued. These characteristics vary significantly across countries, and thus the effects of monetary policy are strong in some and weak in others. Moreover, recent shifts in mortgage and housing markets may have limited the drag of higher policy rates up to now in several countries. The risk that households may still feel the pinch should be taken seriously where fixed-rate mortgages have short fixation periods, especially if households are heavily indebted.

Chapter 3: Slowdown in Global Medium-Term Growth: What Will It Take to Turn the Tide?

The world economy's growth engine is losing steam, prompting questions about its medium-term prospects. Chapter 3 delves into the drivers behind the growth decline and identifies a significant and widespread slowdown in total factor productivity as a key factor, partly driven by increased misallocation of capital and labor between firms within sectors. Demographic pressures and a slowdown in private capital formation further precipitated the growth slowdown. Absent policy action or technological advances, medium-term growth is projected to fall well below prepandemic levels. To bolster growth, urgent reforms are necessary to improve resource allocation to productive firms, boost labor force participation, and leverage artificial intelligence for productivity gains. Addressing these issues is critical, given the additional constraints high public debt and geoeconomic fragmentation may impose on future growth.

Chapter 4: Trading Places: Real Spillovers from G20 Emerging Markets

As G20 emerging markets account for almost one-third of world GDP and about one-quarter of global trade, spillovers from shocks originating in these economies can have important ramifications for global activity. Chapter 4 documents that, since 2000, spillovers from shocks in G20 emerging markets—particularly China—have increased and are now comparable in size to those from shocks in advanced economies. Trade, notably through global value chains, is a key propagation channel. Spillovers generate a reallocation of economic activity across firms and sectors in other countries. Looking ahead, a plausible growth acceleration in G20 emerging markets, even excluding China, could support global growth over the medium term and spill over to other countries. Policymakers in recipient economies should maintain sufficient buffers and strengthen policy frameworks to manage the possibility of larger shocks from G20 emerging markets.

Statistical Appendix:

Data assumptions, conventions, and classifications

Statistical Appendix Table A:

Key Global Economic Indicators

Statistical Appendix Table B:

Supplemental Global Economic Indicators

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Introduction to standardization in business reporting.

Posted on June 27, 2024 by Numbers around us in R bloggers | 0 Comments

Why Standardization Matters

Hey there! Thanks for joining me on this exciting journey into the world of International Business Communication Standards (IBCS). Before we dive into the nitty-gritty of the SUCCESS acronym, let’s take a step back and chat about why standardization in business reporting is such a game-changer. If you’ve ever felt overwhelmed by messy reports with inconsistent formatting, you’re not alone. I’ve been there too, staring at a sea of numbers that don’t quite add up.

Standardization in business reporting ensures that data is presented in a consistent manner, enhancing comprehensibility and comparability across different reports. Imagine flipping through different reports where each one tells its story in its own unique language — confusing, right? Standardization is like translating all those languages into one that everyone can understand easily.

Consistency is Key

Think of standardized reports as a well-organized bookshelf. You know exactly where to find what you’re looking for, and every book (or in this case, piece of data) is presented in a way that makes sense. This consistency is crucial for making informed business decisions quickly and accurately. No more wasting time trying to figure out what’s what!

I remember a time when I was working on a project that involved analyzing sales data across multiple brands. Each region had its own way of reporting — different formats, different terminologies, and different visualization styles. It was a nightmare to compile all this information into a coherent report. That’s when I discovered the power of standardization. By applying consistent formats and visual styles, the report not only became easier to read but also revealed insights that were previously hidden in the chaos.

Time-Saving and Efficiency

Let’s be honest, who wouldn’t want to save time? Standardization not only reduces the risk of misinterpretation but also enhances the efficiency of report generation and review processes. Once you have a standardized template, creating new reports becomes a breeze. You can focus more on analyzing the data rather than formatting the report.

Understanding IBCS Standards

Now that we’ve established why standardization is so important, let’s get to know IBCS. The International Business Communication Standards provide a comprehensive framework for the design of business communication, particularly in the context of reports, presentations, and dashboards. The goal of IBCS is to improve the clarity, efficiency, and effectiveness of business communications.

The SUCCESS Formula

The heart of IBCS is the SUCCESS formula:

• SAY : Convey a clear message.
• UNIFY : Apply consistent semantic notation.
• CONDENSE : Increase information density.
• CHECK : Ensure visual integrity.
• EXPRESS : Choose proper visualization.
• SIMPLIFY : Avoid clutter.
• STRUCTURE : Organize content logically.

Let’s break down each component briefly:

• SAY : It’s all about making your key message unmistakably clear. Your audience should be able to grasp the main point at a glance. This involves using clear titles, highlighting key figures, and ensuring that the message is front and center.
• UNIFY : Consistency is key. This principle ensures that all visual elements (like colors, shapes, and fonts) are used consistently throughout your reports. This helps in creating a familiar look and feel, making it easier for readers to navigate and understand.
• CONDENSE : More information doesn’t necessarily mean more clutter. This principle focuses on presenting data in a compact and dense format, without overwhelming the reader. Think of using small multiples, sparklines, and condensed tables that pack a lot of information in a small space.
• CHECK : Accuracy and integrity are paramount. This involves verifying the data, ensuring that scales and labels are accurate, and avoiding any visual misrepresentations. It’s about being honest and precise with your visuals.
• EXPRESS : Choosing the right type of visualization for your data is crucial. This principle guides you on selecting the most effective chart types to convey your message clearly, whether it’s bar charts, line charts, scatter plots, or more advanced visualizations.
• SIMPLIFY : Less is more. Avoiding unnecessary elements and focusing on what’s important helps in reducing cognitive load on the reader. This means removing gridlines, reducing colors, and using white space effectively.
• STRUCTURE : Organize your content logically. This involves structuring your reports in a way that guides the reader through the data naturally. Sections, subsections, and a logical flow of information are essential here.

Clarity and Comprehension

I’ve been standardizing reports in my previous roles for quite some time. But I only came across IBCS recently, and let me tell you, I’m absolutely loving it as a framework. It has transformed the way I think about presenting data. Suddenly, my reports are not just a collection of numbers but a coherent story that my audience can easily understand and act upon. Each element of the SUCCESS formula plays a critical role in achieving this clarity.

Practical Steps to Implement Standardization

Alright, let’s get practical. How can you start standardizing your reports? Here’s a step-by-step guide that I’ve found incredibly useful:

• Evaluate Current Practices : Start by evaluating your current reporting practices. Identify inconsistencies and areas for improvement. Trust me, you’ll find plenty of “aha!” moments here.
• Educate and Train : Educate your team about the importance of standardization and the principles of IBCS. Knowledge is power, after all. Conduct workshops or training sessions to get everyone on the same page.
• Develop Templates and Tools : Develop standardized templates and tools that align with IBCS guidelines. This step is crucial for ensuring consistency across all reports. Tools like Quarto can be incredibly helpful here.
• Monitor and Collect Feedback : Regularly review your reports for compliance with the standards and gather feedback from users. Continuous improvement is the name of the game. Set up a feedback loop where users can suggest improvements and share their experiences.

Personal Experience in Implementation

In my previous role, we initiated a project to standardize our sales reports. Initially, there was some resistance — change is always hard. But after a few training sessions and some hands-on practice, the team started to see the benefits. The reports were not only easier to produce but also much more impactful. We even started receiving positive feedback from our clients who appreciated the clarity of our presentations.

Here’s a personal tip: Start small. Implement standardization in one type of report first. This approach allows you to refine the process and make adjustments before rolling it out across all reports.

Challenges and Solutions

Of course, it wasn’t all smooth sailing. We faced challenges like getting everyone to adopt the new standards and ensuring consistency across all reports. But with persistent effort and open communication, we overcame these hurdles. The key was to make everyone understand the long-term benefits of standardization.

One challenge we faced was with custom reports requested by different departments. These reports often deviated from the standard format. Our solution was to create a flexible template that allowed for some customization while still adhering to the core IBCS principles. This compromise ensured that the reports remained standardized but could still meet the specific needs of each department.

Types of Data Analysis

Before we dive deeper into reporting, let’s quickly touch on the different types of data analysis. Understanding these will help you tailor your reports to your specific needs.

Descriptive Analysis: The What

Descriptive analysis is all about summarizing past data to understand what happened. Think of it as the “what” of your data. It’s like looking at your car’s speedometer to see how fast you went. This type of analysis uses statistics like mean, median, and mode to describe the data.

For instance, if we look at the nycflights13 R dataset, a descriptive analysis might involve calculating the average delay time for flights, the total number of flights, or the distribution of flight delays across different months. This helps to paint a clear picture of historical performance.

Diagnostic Analysis: The Why

Diagnostic analysis moves us to the “why.” This type of analysis examines data to understand why something happened. It’s like figuring out why your car’s speed dropped suddenly — maybe there was a traffic jam? Diagnostic analysis involves looking at correlations and potential causal relationships to uncover the reasons behind certain trends or anomalies.

In the context of nycflights13, we might investigate why certain flights are delayed more frequently. This could involve examining variables like weather conditions, carrier performance, or airport congestion. Understanding these factors can help pinpoint the causes of delays.

Predictive Analysis: The What Might Happen

Predictive analysis uses statistical models and forecasting techniques to predict future outcomes based on historical data. It’s like forecasting whether you’ll hit traffic on your next trip based on past experiences. This type of analysis helps in anticipating future trends and making proactive decisions.

Using nycflights13, a predictive analysis might involve forecasting future flight delays based on historical delay patterns and upcoming weather forecasts. This can help airlines and passengers plan better and mitigate potential issues.

Prescriptive Analysis: The What Should We Do

Finally, prescriptive analysis provides recommendations for actions based on predictive analysis. It’s like your GPS suggesting an alternate route to avoid that predicted traffic jam. This type of analysis uses algorithms to suggest various courses of action and their potential outcomes.

For nycflights13, prescriptive analysis could recommend optimal flight schedules or routes to minimize delays. It might also suggest operational changes, like adjusting staffing levels during peak hours or implementing new maintenance protocols.

Reporting Delivery Platforms

Not all reports are created equal, and neither are the platforms we use to deliver them. Let’s break down the different platforms and how they impact standardization:

Interactive Dashboards

Interactive dashboards are dynamic and allow users to explore data in real-time. Standardization here ensures consistency across various views and interactions. Think of platforms like Power BI or Tableau. These dashboards are great for providing an overview and enabling detailed drill-downs.

Using the nycflights13 dataset, an interactive dashboard might include various widgets and filters that allow users to view flight performance by date, carrier, or destination. Ensuring that these elements are standardized makes the dashboard intuitive and user-friendly.

Presentations

Presentations are typically used for communicating key findings to stakeholders. Standardized slides enhance clarity and ensure that key messages are consistently communicated. PowerPoint or Google Slides are your friends here.

Imagine preparing a quarterly review using nycflights13 data. A standardized presentation template would include consistent slide layouts, color schemes, and fonts, making it easier for the audience to follow along and understand the insights.

Static Reports

Static reports provide a fixed snapshot of data. Standardization in static reports ensures that all necessary information is included and presented clearly. PDF reports or printed documents often fall into this category.

For example, a static report using nycflights13 data could be a detailed monthly performance report. Standardized headers, footers, and table formats ensure that the report is easy to read and understand.

How Different Types and Delivery Points Affect Standardization

Alright, let’s tie it all together. Different types of analysis and delivery platforms influence how you apply standardization:

• Descriptive Analysis on Dashboards : Ensure that interactive elements are standardized so users can easily compare past performance across different metrics.
• Diagnostic Analysis in Presentations : Use consistent visuals to explain why certain trends occurred. This helps stakeholders grasp the insights quickly.
• Predictive Analysis in Static Reports : Present forecasts in a standardized format to make it easier for readers to understand and trust the predictions.
• Prescriptive Analysis Across Platforms : Whether it’s a dashboard, presentation, or report, standardized recommendations ensure that the suggested actions are clear and actionable.

Tools for Standardizing Reports in R

In this chapter, we’ll discuss the tools I’ll be using in R to ensure our reports adhere to IBCS standards. Standardizing reports involves a combination of data manipulation, visualization, and documentation tools. Here are the main tools and packages we’ll be using throughout this series:

Data Manipulation with dplyr and tidyr

To start, we need robust tools for data manipulation. The dplyr and tidyr packages from the tidyverse suite are indispensable for cleaning, transforming, and organizing our data.

• dplyr : This package is perfect for data wrangling. With functions like select(), filter(), mutate(), summarize(), and arrange(), we can easily manipulate our data frames to get them into the right shape for analysis.
• tidyr : This package helps in tidying data, ensuring that it follows the tidy data principles. Functions like pivot_longer(), pivot_wider(), unite(), and separate() make it straightforward to reshape data as needed.

Data Visualization with ggplot2

Visualization is a cornerstone of effective reporting, and ggplot2 is the go-to package for creating high-quality graphics in R. It follows the grammar of graphics, which makes it highly flexible and powerful.

• Consistent Themes : We’ll use ggplot2's theming capabilities to apply consistent colors, fonts, and layouts across all our visualizations. This aligns with the UNIFY principle of IBCS.
• Custom Visuals : We’ll create custom visuals that not only look good but also convey the right message clearly, adhering to the EXPRESS principle.

Enhancing ggplot2 with Extensions

There are several extensions to ggplot2 that can help enhance its capabilities and ensure our visualizations are both informative and aesthetically pleasing:

• ggthemes : Provides additional themes and scales that help in standardizing the look and feel of plots.
• gghighlight : Allows us to highlight specific data points in a plot, making it easier to draw attention to key information.
• ggrepel : Helps in adding labels to plots without overlapping, ensuring that our visualizations remain clear and readable.
• patchwork : Facilitates the combination of multiple ggplot2 plots into a single cohesive layout, supporting the CONDENSE principle by increasing information density.

Reporting with Quarto

For generating and maintaining our reports, we’ll use Quarto, a new, powerful tool for creating dynamic documents in R.

• Dynamic Reports : Quarto allows for the integration of R code and markdown, enabling us to create reports that are both reproducible and interactive.
• Standardized Templates : We can create standardized templates that ensure consistency across all reports.

Table Formatting with kableExtra

Tables are a crucial part of any report, and kableExtra is an excellent package for creating well-formatted tables in R.

• Enhanced Tables : kableExtra provides functionality to produce beautiful tables within Quarto documents. It supports various table styling options, including striped rows, column alignment, and more.
• Interactive Tables : This package also supports the creation of interactive tables, making it easier for readers to explore data.

Supplementary Tools

• scales : This package works with ggplot2 to ensure that our scales are appropriately formatted, enhancing readability and accuracy.
• lubridate : Useful for handling date-time data, ensuring our time series data is properly formatted and easy to manipulate.
• stringr : Helps with string manipulation, making it easier to clean and prepare text data for reporting.

So, there you have it — a comprehensive introduction to the importance of standardization in business reporting and an overview of how IBCS can help you achieve it. In the next episodes, we’ll dive deep into each component of the SUCCESS formula, starting with SAY: Convey a Message . We’ll explore how to clearly and effectively communicate the main message in your reports, using practical examples and the nycflights13 dataset to illustrate these principles in action.

Remember, the goal here is to make your reports not just informative but also engaging and easy to understand. Let’s embark on this journey together and transform your business reporting skills!

Stay tuned, and happy reporting!

Introduction to Standardization in Business Reporting was originally published in Numbers around us on Medium, where people are continuing the conversation by highlighting and responding to this story.

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