literature review on 3d printing technology

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A systematic review of empirical research on learning with 3D printing technology

2021, Journal of Computer-Assisted Learning

Although 3D printing (3DP) technology has become an increasingly popular educational tool in recent years, very little is known about the learning benefits of this technology. This systematic literature review synthesized empirical research on learning with 3DP in various educational settings, focusing on publication and study participants' characteristics, curriculum areas, research methodologies, instructional approaches, educational outcomes and benefits. A comprehensive survey of published and unpublished studies identified 78 empirical studies that met the inclusion criteria. In addition to positive effects on learning, 3DP facilitated innovative curriculum development and created opportunities for cross-disciplinary research. The findings revealed five major trends in 3DP learning: (1) prepare a new generation of engineers, (2) democratize additive manufacturing technology and production, (3) support learning using low-cost 3D printed learning aids, (4) produce assistive technologies, and (5) promote creativity and innovation. The review identifies critical gaps in the literature and offers suggestions for future research.

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Organizational adoption of 3D printing technology: a semisystematic literature review

Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management

ISSN : 1741-038X

Article publication date: 10 December 2020

Issue publication date: 17 December 2021

Three-dimensional (3D) printing (3DP) offers a promising value proposition across multiple manufacturing industries. Despite the variety of production benefits the technology entails, its rate of adoption is still low compared to industry forecasts. In face of this challenge, industry as well as academia requires more information and guidance. This review aims to examine the characteristics of the existing body of research on the organizational adoption of 3DP as well as its underlying theoretical concepts. The most common criteria driving adoption will be derived, such as to facilitate the managerial decision-making process. Pathways for future research will be presented.

Design/methodology/approach

This study underlies a bibliometric literature review and additionally applies content analysis to systematically investigate the existing body of research and group decision criteria along the four major pillars of strategic decision-making.

The contributions of this paper are threefold. First, the bibliometric analysis reveals interesting aspects of the existing body of research. The most prominent characteristics of the contemporary literature are reflected along descriptive indicators, such as industry, method, model, origin, research outlet or adoption drivers, thus granting relevant insights into academia and practice. Second, the most notable adoption models are carefully analyzed on their inherent attributes and their application fit for the context of organizational 3DP adoption. Findings, for instance, revealed the dominance of diffusion of innovation (DOI) across the existing body of research and divulge that this construct is generally applied in combination with user-centered decision frameworks to yield more precise results. Third, an ample range of opportunities for future research are detected and thoroughly explained. Among others, the authors identified a clear lack of information on the impact environmental variables and contingency factors exerted on the organizational adoption of 3DP. Guidance in relation to the sourcing of industry data, usage of adoption frameworks and avenues for future scientific projects is supplied.

Originality/value

This study represents the first semi-systematic literature review on the organizational adoption of 3DP. Thus, it not only offers a valuable evaluation guide for potential adopters but also determines a future research agenda.

• Decision-making
• Manufacturing technology
• Organizational change
• Additive manufacturing
• 3D printing
• Technology implementation

Ukobitz, D.V. (2021), "Organizational adoption of 3D printing technology: a semisystematic literature review", Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management , Vol. 32 No. 9, pp. 48-74. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMTM-03-2020-0087

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2020 2020, Desiree Valeria Ukobitz

Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode 1 Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany 2 Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, USA 3 Institute of Psychology, Leuphana University Lüneburg, Lüneburg, Germany

1. Introduction

What is the current body of research regarding organizational adoption of 3DP in terms of descriptive indicators?

Which adoption theory and underlying decision criteria are most frequently applied for explaining organizational adoption of 3DP and what do we learn from these studies?

Where do we still lack knowledge, and therefore, which future research opportunities can be identified?

Existing literature reviews merely analyze publications on 3DP in terms of their frequency and count across different disciplines ( Gupta and Dhawan 2018 ). While the global research output in the field of 3DP amounted to 7300 papers in 2016, work examining 3DP from a management-science perspective is far more limited. Gupta and Dhawan (2018) in their assessment of 3DP research output encountered 372 publications on 3DP from the fields of business, accounting and management (2007–2016). Unfortunately, this study does not examine the underlying content in depth and as such does not generate learnings for theory and practice. Until to date, management science has not yet contemplated any review of literature on the organizational adoption of 3DP, i.e. the decision-making processes leading to 3DP adoption in firms. Knowledge on the adoption decision is yet fragmented, and unified sources of information to support the organizational decision-making process are scarce. As this area of investigation matures, the consolidation of existing knowledge on the underlying phenomenon is required more than ever. In an effort to fill this gap, this study aimed to examine the existing body of research on organizational 3DP adoption by means of a bibliometric analysis of predefined performance indicators, as well as a critical review of the theoretic constructs was employed to understand the phenomenon. Untapped opportunities of research are defined, and pathways for future studies are determined.

Until to date, the empiric evidence required to conduct a comprehensive literature review on the organizational adoption of 3DP was insufficient. However, during the last five years initial research exploring 3DP adoption through qualitative and quantities methods (e.g. Oettmeier and Hoffman, 2017 ; Schniederjans, 2017 ) evolved and granted first results on the distinct criteria affecting intrafirm adoption. Although the majority of qualitative studies employed explorative approaches to generate knowledge on this new field of research, recent work applied quantitative methods based on large empiric samples. These empiric analyses either applied firm-centered adoption models such as the technology–environment–organization (TOE) framework by Tornatzky and Fleischer (1990) (e.g. Yeh and Chen, 2018a ), the diffusion of innovation (DOI) theory by Rogers (1983) (e.g. Marak et al. , 2019 ) or user-centered decision frameworks, such as the unified theory of acceptance and usage of technology (UTAUT) by Venkatesh et al. (2003) (e.g. Schniederjans and Yalcin, 2018 ) or the technology acceptance model (TAM) by Davis (1985) (e.g. Chaudhuri et al. , 2018 ) to examine organizational decision-making. These models contrast not only in terms of the dependent- and independent variables but also in the underlying units of analysis. While some constructs study the action of adoption ( Tsai and Yeh, 2019 ), others merely examine the intention to adopt ( Oettmeier and Hofmann, 2017 ). Besides this characteristic, the dimensions impacting the adoption decision differ to a great extent. While the research study employing user-centered models emphasizes the impact of the individual decision-maker characteristics on the adoption decision ( Steenhuis and Pretorius, 2016 ), firm-centered models highlight the influence of external stakeholders ( Tsai and Yeh, 2019 ). Hence, a holistic overview of adoption criteria and drivers among firms would require analyzing the phenomenon from multiple theoretic angles.

The contributions of this paper are threefold. First, the bibliometric analysis reveals interesting aspects of the existing body of research. The most prominent characteristics of contemporary literature are reflected along descriptive indicators, such as industry, method, model, origin, research outlet or adoption drivers, thus granting relevant insights into academia and practice. Second, the most notable adoption models are carefully analyzed on their inherent attributes and their application fit for the context of organizational 3DP adoption. Findings, for instance, revealed the dominance of DOI across the existing body of research and divulge that this construct is generally applied in combination with user-centered decision frameworks to yield more precise results. Third, an ample range of opportunities for future research are detected and thoroughly explained. Among others, we identified a clear lack of information on the impact environmental variables and contingency factors exerted on the organizational adoption of 3DP. Guidance in relation to the sourcing of industry data, usage of adoption frameworks and avenues for future scientific projects is supplied.

The rest of this review is structured as follows. Section 2 provides an overview of the theoretical background underlying this investigation. The state of the art of 3DP is introduced, and the most commonly applied theoretic models for the adoption of technology are presented. Section 3 discloses the research methodology and explains the data collection and analysis process. Then, the descriptive results are presented and both quantitative findings from the reviewed publications, as well as the results from the latent content analysis, are demonstrated. Section 4 and 5 synthesize the results and discuss future research pathways. Finally, implications and limitations are presented.

2. Theoretical background

2.1 organizational vs consumer 3dp.

3DP has proliferated in the last 15 years among society and has gained vast attention, both, on an individual as well as on an organizational level. 3DP adoption among consumers ( Steenhuis and Pretorius, 2016 ), either as a facilitator to home fabrication ( Anastasiadou and Vettese, 2019 ) or as entrepreneurial starter kit ( Gartner et al. , 2015 ), has found increased awareness among research. Extensive media coverage and decreasing printer costs amplified the diffusion of 3DP on a consumer level. Hence, decision drivers and benefits of 3DP for individual consumers are widely studied ( Fox, 2014 ). The organizational adoption of 3DP, on the other hand, displays a rather untapped area of investigation. 3DPsystems and prices vary drastically depending on their purpose of usage, i.e. desktop or industrial application. Thus, decision-making for the adoption of 3DP on a firm level represents a complex process that involves the allocation of elevated financial and human resources, as well as organizational risks. A much broader range of decision drivers need to be considered for technology adoption on a firm level than on a user level ( Schniederjans, 2017 ). Turbulent market dynamics and firm-internal structures constitute only some of the complexities that need to be contemplated for the organizational adoption of novel technologies ( Tornatzky and Fleischer, 1990 ). Further investigation on this evolving field of research is required to support the managerial decision-making process and as such promotes the diffusion of 3DP among industry.

2.2 Understanding the technology adoption process

Multiple theoretical frameworks have been developed over time to study and understand the phenomenon of technology adoption from an empirical point of view. Depending on the unit upon analysis, these theories either observe adoption from an organizational or an individual perspective. To understand the phenomenon of organizational 3DPT adoption, this paper studies six theories of technology adoption. These frameworks have been selected based on their abundance as well as acceptance among technology adoption research. Among the most commonly discussed models are the theory of planned behavior (TPB) ( Ajzen, 1985 ), the TAM ( Davis, 1985 ), the UTAUT ( Venkatesh et al. , 2003 ), the TEO model ( Tornatzky and Fleischer, 1990 ), the DOI theory ( Rogers, 1983 ) and the institutional theory (IT) ( DiMaggio and Powell, 1983 ; Scott, 1995 ). Table 1 provides an overview of these adoption theories, their aim, drivers, dependent variable, applicability for organizational adoption, applicability among 3DP research as well as references. Dependent variables vary from intention to adopt to adoption behavior, thus emphasizing either actual or potential 3DP adoption.

2.2.1 Theory of planned behavior

The TPB aims to explain and predict human behavior , i.e. action. TPB assumes a behavioral intention prior to the actual behavior and hypothesizes that this intention is influenced by the individual’s attitude toward the behavior , the individual’s subjectively perceived norm of what should be done ( subjective norm ) and the individual’s degree of control over the factors influencing the behavior ( perceived behavioral control ) ( Ajzen, 1985 ). Although TPB was not designed to study technology-related decisions, the theory still sets the basis for major studies on human behavior and as such contributes to extended research on technology adoption among individual members of society. TPB explains the intention to adopt rather than the actual adoption behavior; thus, the time frame between intention and behavior is unknown. Both Schniederjans and Jalcin (2018) as well as Chatzoglou and Michailidou (2019) in their research on the organizational adoption of 3DP have included elements of TPB, such as to understand management’s attitude toward using 3DP. Both scientists studied the managerial intention to adopt 3DP by means of the managers’ attitude toward and perception of the technology. A major limitation of TPB is the lack of account for environmental or economical dimensions of influence on the intention to adopt 3DP. As such, TPB merely represents a tool to predict managerial behavior prior to actual adoption. Research on the organizational adoption of 3DPT has employed TPB only in combination with other adoption models, contemplating additionally for technological, organizational or environmental dimensions (e.g. DOI, TAM and UTAUT).

2.2.2 Technology acceptance model

The TAM aims to predict how users accept and employ technology and draws on behavioral aspects of TPB. TAM hypothesizes that technology usage is influenced by the attitude toward technology usage and consequently the intention to use the technology . The model claims that an individual’s attitude toward technology usage is derived from the user’s perceived ease of use (PEOU) and perceived usefulness (PU) of the technology, and it further acknowledges that external variables influence and moderate the relationship between PU and PEOU ( Davis, 1985 ). The body of research on technology adoption often criticizes the limited predictability of TAM and thus expanded the model to TAM II, including the variables of social influence and cognitive instrumental processes ( Venkatesh and Davis, 2000 ). While the users’ perceived ease of use as well as the perceived usefulness of 3DP represent helpful dimensions in understanding acceptance or rejection of 3DP, they do not explain actual adoption. Commonly labeled as intention-behavior gap, intention is an insufficient prerequisite for a successful action ( Sheeran and Webb, 2016 ). Similar to TPB, TAM I and II represent models that aim to analyze the adoption intention of individual members of society as opposed to organizations. TAM does not take environmental and organizational drivers, such as market dynamics or human resources, into consideration. As such, contemporary research on organizational 3DP adoption has employed TAM mostly in combination with the DOI theory ( Rogers, 1983 ), such as to constitute for the lack of context ( Wang et al. , 2016 ; Oettmeier and Hofmann, 2017 ; Marak et al. , 2019 ). Contemporary research often employs TAM to better comprehend the 3DP adoption intentions among top-management members ( Schniederjans and Yalcin, 2018 ). So far only TAM I has been studied by the underlying body of literature on organizational 3DP adoption.

2.2.3 Unified theory of acceptance and usage of technology

The unified theory of acceptance is based on various aspects of the aforementioned models and aims to explain the behavior of people in their use of technology. UTAUT is acknowledged as one of the most complete frameworks for predicting adoption behavior among individual members of society. UTAUT proposes that usage intention and facilitating conditions directly influence technology usage . Furthermore, the model suggests that the technology usage intention is directly determined by three key constructs ( performance expectancy, effort expectancy and social influence ). Additionally, four moderator variables ( gender, age, experience and voluntariness of use ) impact the relationship between the different exogenous and endogenous variables ( Venkatesh et al. , 2003 ). The increased amount of moderator variables is frequently criticized as artificially improving UTAUTs predictability ( Dwivedi et al. , 2019 ). Similar to TAM, UTAUT is also suffering from the intention-behavior gap, thereby examining intention to use a technology rather than its actual adoption. Alike TPB and TAM, UTAUT may also be applied to study the individual behavior of managers in organizations; however, it does not consider the impact of technology adoption on the organization from a holistic point of view. Despite the inclusion of social influence (e.g. society) and facilitating conditions (e.g. resources) as independent variables defining an individual's intention to adopt, organizational dynamics (e.g. competitors and human resources) and external dimensions (e.g. market and environment) are not contemplated. Hence, to reliably examine the phenomenon of organizational 3DPT adoption, research combined UTAUT with the DOI theory ( Rogers, 1983 ) ( Schniederjans, 2017 ; Marak et al. , 2019 ).

2.2.4 Diffusion of innovation theory

The DOI theory analyzes how, why and at what rate new ideas or technology diffuse among a social system over time ( Rogers, 1983 ). DOI contributes the adoption decision to innovation-specific criteria and suggests that decision-makers undergo a thorough evaluation of the technology´s characteristics, both firm internal as well as external. As such, DOI theorizes that a technology’s relative advantage for the adopting organization, its compatibility with existing technological structures, its perceived complexity , the observability of technology-induced success as well as its anteceding triability all impact the adoption decision ( Rogers, 1983 ). As opposed to TPB, TAM and UTAUT, DOI acknowledges the context upon which technology adoption-decisions are taken and as such constitutes a proper theory for analyzing organizational technology adoption. DOI represents the most frequently applied method for examining the adoption of 3DP in organizations ( Oettmeier and Hofmann, 2017 ; Schniederjans, 2017 ; Chaudhuri et al. , 2018 ; Marak et al. , 2019 ). As DOI aims to understand the DOI among a social system over time, the theory focuses on the bigger picture of adoption rather than emphasizing on multiple distinct firm-internal and external drivers. Scientists employ this method to obtain a broad overview of the determinants of 3DP adoption in firms ( Chatzoglou and Michailidou, 2019 ). While the theory already comprehends a vast range of drivers for organizational technology adoption, still insufficient emphasis is put on the impact of environmental factors ( Hsu et al. , 2006 ), such as stakeholders influence, industry infrastructure or governmental regulation. Especially when examining the adoption of 3DP, environmental dimensions constitute major decision drivers (e.g. governmental funding/subsidies and commercial partner infrastructure). Moreover, research on 3DP adoption frequently combines DOI with individual adoption models (TAM and UTAUT), such as to dive deeper into understanding of individual decision-maker’s motivations ( Wang et al. , 2016 ). All in all, DOI is well-suited for generating an overview on the drivers for 3DP adoption in firms; however, if more profound insights are required, further specific dimensions need to be added to the model (e.g. environmental, organizational and individual) to obtain profound insights.

2.2.5 Technology–organization–environment framework

The TOE framework identifies three crucial aspects that influence technology adoption within an organization. TEO argues that technology- organizational- and environmental-related factors drive adoption. Technological factors describe the perceived characteristics of the technology in terms of its relative advantage for the organization and compatibility with existing structures. Organizational-related motives refer to internal characteristics such as firm size, financial and human resources, internal structure and future vision as well as outlook. Ultimately, environmental factors define all firm-external drivers such as industry dynamics, competitors, trading partners and authorities ( Tornatzky and Fleischer, 1990 ). As opposed to the aforementioned models, TEO examines the technology adoption decision rather than the mere intent of adoption. TEO is frequently employed to examine the adoption of radical technology and also found initial application in the literature on the adoption of 3DP (e.g. Yeh and Chen, 2018a ). The framework is consistent with DOI in terms of its general drivers, however complements the model through its emphasis on the environmental context ( Wang et al. , 2016 ). TEO, on the contrary to DOI, delves deep into the impact of industry stakeholders, governmental entities, market trends or legislation on the organizational adoption decision. Although TEO does not specify decision-maker characteristics to the extent of DOI, TPB, TAM or UTAUT, the management’s experience, vision and support receive attention in the variables constituting the organizational context. The literature on the organizational adoption of 3DP has employed TEO on its own. While no combinations with other adoption models have yet been conducted in this area of research, Tsai and Yeh (2019) and Yeh and Chen (2018) have added the independent variable of 3DP cost to the construct. As TOE has been developed specifically to examine complex technology adoption decisions from an organizational perspective, it emphasizes all processes and variables that impact the adopting entity as part of an industrial ecosystem. As such, extended research on technology adoption manifested that TEO is more appropriate to analyze intrafirm adoption than DOI ( Hsu et al. , 2006 ).

2.2.6 Institutional theory

IT argues that firm-external pressures lead to organizational actions and behavior ( DiMaggio and Powell, 1983 ). The scientific field of innovation and technology management frequently draws back to sociology and as such to IT to observe the phenomenon of isomorphism in decision-making (e.g. Teo et al. , 2003 ). IT hypothesizes that coercive, normative, and mimetic isomorphic pressures exerted by an organization's environment influence firm’s internal decisions. While coercive forces result from trading partner behavior, normative pressure is exerted from industry authorities and mimesis arises from competitor actions ( DiMaggio and Powell, 1983 ; Scott, 1995 ). As such, IT acknowledges that organizational decisions are not only driven by performance goals (e.g. relative advantage) but also by social and cultural factors. To emphasize the influence of stakeholder dynamics on adoption decisions, research on radical technology, frequently applies IT in combination with other adoption models (e.g. Yoon and George, 2013 ; Cao et al. , 2014 ). In order to highlight the impact of institutional pressures exerted on the adopting entity (e.g. from trading partners, competitors and institutions), the literature oftentimes proposes integrating IT in the context of environment as proposed by TEO ( Soares Aguiar and Palma-dos-Reos, 2008 ; Oliveira and Martins, 2011 ). Until to date, only one investigation examined the organizational adoption of 3DP by means of IT ( Schniederjans and Yalcin, 2018 ). Although IT constituted one of many models that have been employed by Schniederjans and Yalcin´s (2018) study, compelling evidence was found for the impact of isomorphic pressures on the adoption of 3DP in organizations. Unfortunately, no quantitative research has yet analyzed the 3DP adoption from an institutional lens. IT embodies a powerful approach to delve into the frequently overlooked impact of institutional forces on technology adoption decisions.

3. Research methodology

What is the current body of research regarding organizational adoption of 3DP in terms of descriptive indicators (methods and models applied, industries investigated, research activity along country and time, research outlet and frequency of drivers)?

Which adoption theory and underlying decision criteria are most frequently applied for explaining organizational adoption of 3DP, and what do we learn from these studies?

Where do we still lack knowledge, and therefore which future research opportunities can be identified in the field of organizational adoption of 3DP.

3.1 Description of analysis process

Once the purpose of the present research was established, the literature selection process was initiated. Screening for inclusion criteria was developed to identify the most appropriate literature for analysis ( Fink, 2014 ). The analysis commenced with an extensive keyword search to source relevant literature studies on the adoption of 3DP technologies. The databases employed were Business Source Complete, Science Direct and Web of Science. The predefined criteria were applied to reduce the search to the most relevant publications in the field of organizational 3DP adoption. Afterward, the articles were quantitatively analyzed on their year of publication, publication outlet, authorship and origin, underlying research methods and applied theoretical frameworks as well as industries upon investigation. This was followed by the content analysis of the underlying drivers for 3DP adoption. The information was coded and synthesized to a higher level of dimensions based on the TOE framework ( Tornatzky and Fleischer, 1990 ).

3.2 Search and selection process

The focus of this paper lies on the understanding of the organizational decision-making process for the adoption of 3DP. Thus, the following keyword string was generated to conduct the search across the three aforementioned databases: (“ 3D printing ” OR “ additive manufacturing ” ) AND (“ adoption ” OR “ decision ” OR “ usage ” OR “ application ” ) . While it was set as a prerequisite for the selected titles to include either the term 3DP or additive manufacturing , the keywords invariably had to include the label adoption OR decision OR usage OR application . The keyword diffusion was not included on purpose, as it represents the macro phenomenon of how many entities of the population have already adopted the technology over time. The search identified a total of 594 fully available articles.

To assure high quality and applicability of the research articles prespecified inclusion criteria were applied to the literature search ( Fink, 2014 ). First, the years of publication were restricted from 2010 to March 2020, as hardly any empiric research on the adoption of 3DP resulted before that year. The number of articles reduced to 483. Second, the search was narrowed down to peer-reviewed articles such as to guarantee scientific rigor of articles (401 articles). Next, we limited the search to English-only publications, thereby reducing the body of literature to 392. Fourth, we reduced the selection to articles originating from management journals only, excluding chemistry, biomedical and in-depth engineering outlets as these hardly draw attention to organizational decision-making processes. In total, 85 articles matched all the criteria and were selected for further content analysis. In the fifth step, we scanned the abstracts of all obtained articles on their fit for the underlying research. Research studies that did not strictly emphasize the organizational process of adopting 3DP and associated decision drivers were excluded. First, we omitted articles discussing the adoption of 3DP among individuals rather than organizations (49). Second, while articles based on quantitative research methods had to apply at least one adoption model, papers based on qualitative analysis had to discuss either drivers, barriers or other factors impacting the organizational adoption decision. As such, and for example, articles analyzing the impact of 3DP on supply chain and inventory or articles examining the adoption, advantages and disadvantages of different 3DP techniques in organizations were removed. In conclusion, 25 publications were identified and selected for this review. We conducted a backward search of all 53 articles to study the referenced literature for any further research ( Levy and Ellis, 2006 ). A total of two further studies were detected, summing up to a final total of 27 papers. In total, two additional research papers that would not have passed the predefined screening criteria have been identified by informal sources and included due to the fact that their results were of interest for the study, making a total of 29 articles. Next, the final selection of papers was evaluated on their quality ( Fink, 2014 ). Qualitative and quantitative research was treated differently. While quantitative research was assessed on the underlying data collection methodology as well as reliability and validity of results, qualitative research was evaluated on the explicitness, comprehensiveness and reproducibility of the employed empirical methodology. No papers were found to lack reliability or empiric evidence. Figure 1 graphically illustrates the selection process and reveals corresponding data.

3.3 Data extraction and analysis

To conduct the bibliometric literature review as well as the underlying content analysis, data needed to be extracted in a systematic manner. Qualitative and quantitative research had to be treated differently ( Rousseau et al. , 2008 ). To further proceed with the analysis, a spreadsheet database was generated. The bibliometric results of the selected articles were thoroughly examined, and the following information was retrieved: article title, authors, location and affiliation, journal, date of publication, keywords, research type, research method, theoretical framework and industry. Microsoft Excel was employed to synthesize and visually represent the recaptured data. Next, data were extracted for the content analysis. In this step, the adoption criteria were obtained from quantitative and qualitative studies. In terms of quantitative research, only those criteria that tested significant on the adoption decision were selected. Qualitative studies were subjected to individual researcher’s judgment; thus, the most frequently cited and evidenced decision criteria were extracted. For the sake of analysis, the selected articles were systematically analyzed, and data were coded according to predefined schemes. The TEO framework was employed to schematize the criteria underlying the organizational adoption of 3DP. Retrieved data were categorized following a deductive category approach and organized in terms of technology-, organization- and environment-specific drivers. The coding process was carried out in MAXQDA v.12. Finally, the results were quantitatively analyzed on their frequencies.

4. Descriptive results

4.1 trend among publications in time.

The literature review confirmed the novelty of the field of 3DP adoption for academia. As shown in Figure 2 , research activity was relatively thin before 2015. The topic first received attention in 2013, however hardly continued in the scientific radar for the next three years. The data observe that the adoption of 3DP from a business and innovation science perspective gained increased interest from 2015 onwards and peaked in 2018. This trend resonates with the overall rate of the technology’s diffusion among industry. Before 2010, 3DP was used mainly by the high-tech sector for rapid prototyping or concept proof. As a result of increased media exposure, the emergence of sophisticated 3DP suppliers as well as decreasing printer costs, the technology has heavily started to enter more mainstream industry after 2010 ( Sculpteo, 2019 ). Thus, empiric data on adoption behavior and trends became available only some years after.

4.2 Publication outlet

Figure 3 illustrates the most frequently employed journals in the field of 3DP adoption. Most articles have been published in Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management (5). An equal number of papers were found in Technology Forecasting and Social Change, International Journal for Production Economics and International Journal for Production Research (3). In total, two publications brought to our awareness by informal sources have been obtained through university databases (doctoral and master thesis). The remaining publications pertained to highly specific journals in the field of innovation management or manufacturing. These findings agree with Bradford’s law observing that a core of journals produces approximately a third of all articles ( Eyers and Potter, 2015 ).

4.3 Authorship and location

In total, 71 authors contributed to the identified literature on 3DP adoption. Approximately 45% of the identified body of research was elaborated by two authors and an additional 21% by three authors. Single-authored articles contributed only to 17% of the grand total, followed by contributions from four and five researchers. Only four out of 29 papers were developed through crosscountry collaborations and mostly constituted interEuropean research alliances. The primary authors country of residence was a selected as main location. The adoption of 3DP was analyzed by academics across various countries; however, it flourished in the USA and Europe.

4.4 Research methods and theoretical framing

The selected articles were furthermore examined on their underlying research methods. Figure 4 illustrates the distribution of publications based on the methodology employed as well as the year published. As visible, the early years of investigation were characterized by explorative research, conducted either through desk research, semistructured interviews or case studies. As a result of the topic's novelty and the consequent lack of empirical evidence, the most commonly employed research method is the in-depth interview with a total number of 12 publications. Once 3DP adoption diffused among industry, the first quantitative data became available and allowed survey-based research methods to consolidate in 2019. Moreover, the first empirical results derived through adoption theories emerged in 2016 along with quantitative studies. Desk research appeared consequently throughout the last ten years, indicating a consistent diffusion of 3DP across organizations.

Figure 5 illustrates the adoption models that have been employed to analyze the organizational adoption of 3DP along the different research methods. The DOI framework was the most employed theory among the underlying body of research, tightly followed by the technology acceptance model. The UTAUT was resulted as the third most-frequently applied model among publications. The TEO model as well as the TPB were both employed by an equal number of publications. Only one paper considered IT for analyzing 3DP adoption. While 76.5% of all quantitative research papers were based on their analysis on specific adoption models, only 47.7% of qualitative papers did so. Half of the publications represent explorative approaches that did not employ adoption theories. In total, eight publications combined indicators and aspects from multiple models. While six papers combined the TAM and the DOI theory, three articles merged DOI and UTAUT. Thus, DOI, UTAUT and TAM represent the most combined concepts among the underlying body of research.

4.5 Industries upon analysis

All reviewed publications based on qualitative and quantitative research methods focused their empirical analyses either on one or multiple industries ( Figure 6 ). Only four articles emphasized their investigation on a single industry, and one-fourth of these articles applied a qualitative research approach. The remaining publications under review, especially all quantitative research papers, revealed data corresponding to multiple industries. This may be the result of the novelty of the topic and still the limited amount of information on specific industries. In total, 15 articles investigated the organizational adoption of 3DP in an industrial manufacturing setting. These publications however did not state any further sub-categorization. The transport industry (automotive and aerospace) was analyzed by one-third of all articles, closely followed by the consumer good industry (textile, jewelry, furniture and sports equipment) and the health and medical sector. Additional settings upon analysis were represented by the electronic, chemical and construction industry. One study can analyze several industries.

4.6 3DP adoption criteria

This section provides a categorization of the criteria influencing the adoption of 3DP and highlights the most interesting learnings associated with these decision drivers. While an ample range of theories have been applied to study 3DP adoption (see Figure 5 ), the underlying research aims to display the most recurrent adoption criteria along the TEO framework, as it represents one of the most appropriate models for analyzing intrafirm technology adoption ( Hsu et al. , 2006 ). As described in section 3.3 , the underlying extraction process differed among qualitative and quantitative studies. Out of the quantitative studies, only those criteria that proved significant in the empirical analysis were identified and counted for the underlying research. In the qualitative studies, those criteria were selected/counted because the authors of the studies found those to be the most influencing ones. As suggested by Weber (1990) criteria were coded as words. Following a deductive approach ( Neuendorf, 2017 ), the criteria were extracted and schematized along three dimensions. The technology context includes all factors that relate to the benefits and barriers, and the technology per se represents for the organization in terms of performance, impact and agility. The organizational context defines all company-internal aspects that impact the adoption decision, both positively as well as negatively. As such, these criteria refer to structural requirements (i.e. size, budget and processes) as well as to organizational readiness (i.e. top management support, technology readiness and experience). Finally, the environmental context describes all firm-external factors that impact the adoption decision. Validity is established through data triangulation, as different sources of data have been reviewed to develop the analysis ( Neuendorf, 2017 ). Table 2 illustrates the critical factors for adoption along three categories and indicates their frequency among the publications selected for this literature review.

4.6.1 Technology context

As observed in Table 2 , technology context represents the most prominent category of adoption drivers with a frequency of 167. Investment costs ( f  = 16) represent the most dominant barriers to adoption in terms of frequency. Literature points out high technology acquisition costs, unexpected maintenance costs as well as increased material pricing as important aspects of 3DP adoption (e.g. Yeh and Chen, 2018 ). This is followed by concerns on the technological maturity of 3DP ( f  = 13). In this context, the scientific community commonly observes the lack of standardization among printers and output quality (e.g. Weller et al. , 2015 ). In total, six articles emphasized the slowness of the production process that seems rather uncompetitive when compared to traditional manufacturing methods (e.g. Fontana et al. , 2019 ). The review reveals that the technology-specific benefits still outweigh the barriers in terms of frequency among articles. The majority of papers emphasize the possibility to accelerate time to market ( f =  16) through 3DP and elaborates on its positive impact on lead- and ramp-up times as well as manufacturing cycles (e.g. Schniederjans, 2017 ). The opportunity to simplify supply chains ( f =  11), thereby lowering inventory and production steps, as well as skipping tooling and molding functions, represents a further highly quoted driver for 3DP adoption (e.g. Oettmeier and Hofmann, 2017 ). Among the most prominent criteria for 3DP, adoption is the ability to customize products for end users ( f =  9) (e.g, Murmura and Bravi, 2018 ). Cohen (2014) states that 3DP allows the mass customization of up to 200 products a time. The reduction of the environmental impact ( f =  9) through the additive manufacturing technique (zero waste), the possibility to experience absolute design freedom ( f =  9) and create complex products or the option to manufacture small production batches ( f =  4), among others, represent further benefits driving 3DP adoption (e.g. Marak et al. , 2019 ). Interestingly, the limitation in terms of size of printed products and printers per se was only pointed out twice (e.g. Weller et al. , 2015 ). While the organizational context observes the importance of skilled human resources, only one publication mentioned software usage (CAD) as a barrier to 3DP adoption in organizations ( Garza, 2016 ).

4.6.2 Organizational context

Organizational drivers represent the second most important category for adoption among the reviewed literature ( f =  56). The most frequently quoted aspect for 3DP adoption among investigated cases is the organizational readiness ( f =  12). Among others, organizational readiness refers to the firms' willingness to adopt 3DP, its experience with similar technology and the degree of internal rejection (e.g. Candi and Beltagui, 2019 ). The existence of skilled workforce and the concomitant necessity of reskilling existing workforce ( f =  11) exhibit the second most mentioned factor impacting 3DP adoption from an organizational perspective (e.g. Chaudhuri et al. , 2018 ). Furthermore, it seems of utmost importance to evaluate the technologies compatibility ( f =  9) with existing production systems as well as the overall fit with the company’s overall mission and structure (e.g. Tsai and Yeh, 2019 ). The literature also repeatedly acknowledges the support and experience of top management teams ( f =  7) as well as the importance of a dynamic organizational culture ( f =  5 ) for3DP adoption (e.g. Mellor et al. , 2014 ). Some articles further emphasized the importance of the alignment among firm-internal departments ( f =  4), such as manufacturing and IT for 3DP adoption. An increased company size was found to be both, a promoter as well as an inhibitor of organizational 3DP adoption (e.g. Kianian et al. , 2016 ). Steenhuis et al. (2020) manifested the impact of company age and location on the adoption behavior.

4.6.3 Environmental criteria

Although, highly significant, environmental decision criteria appear less frequently among the 3DP literature and only represent a total of 31 quotes in this research. This results from the limited application of adoption models emphasizing firm-external decision drivers such as TEO or IT, among the underlying body of literature. Oettmeier and Hoffman (2017) emphasize the impact of coercive forces ( f =  5) exerted by trading partners, competitors ( f =  3) as well as the overall effect of social influence ( f =  5) on the adoption decision. Existing research repeatedly acknowledges market and technology turbulence ( f =  4 ) as well as the overall competitiveness of the industrial environment as adoption triggers (e.g. Candi and Beltagui, 2019 ). Various papers referred to facilitating conditions ( f =  5) (governmental or regulatory support and training initiatives) as incentive for 3DP adoption (e.g. Oettmeier and Hofmann, 2017 ). The readiness of the 3DP supplier landscape, in terms of number of technology and material vendors ( f =  4), also appears to play an important role for organizational technology adoption ( Tsai and Yeh, 2019 ). Furthermore, compliance with evolving market trends and expectations ( f =  2) was found as a driver to adoption ( Yeh and Chen, 2018a ).

5. Discussion of results

Although the organizational adoption of 3DP has gained increased scientific interest from 2015 onwards, our findings show that this field is still in its infancy. This understanding resonates with the overall diffusion of 3DP technology among industry ( Wohlers Associates, 2019 ). Until to date, research has been dominated by qualitative methods, such as to generate a common understanding of the topic and yield first explorative results on the factors driving 3DP adoption in organizations. Quantitative research activity was commenced in 2016, along with the availability of industry data, and since then it is employed in multiple adoption models to study the phenomenon in an empiric manner.

5.1 Theoretic constructs

While the most commonly applied adoption theory across the underlying body of research was the DOI, almost all studies combined this model with at least with one additional construct (TPB, UTAUT or TAM. TPB, UTAUT and TAM are user-centered decision models that emphasize the perception and characteristics of an individual toward an action, i.e. technology adoption. We discovered that, besides analyzing the impact of the technology per se (e.g. relative advantage) through DOI, this specific combination stresses the influence of top management on the adoption decision. The dimensions driving technology adoption among firms however differ vastly from user-centered adoption processes. Thus, they require a more holistic approach to analyze not only the technology and the individual decision-maker but also the organizational and environmental characteristics a firm is immersed into. The preceeding theoretic constructs, however, hardly study the adoption decision from an institutional angle. The TOE model and the IT on the other hand contribute organizational decision-making to environmental factors of influence. Even though the body of literature on the organizational adoption of radical technologies frequently emphasizes the impact of firm-external conditions on the adoption decision ( Wang et al. , 2010 ; Cao et al. , 2014 ), this topic has hardly experienced any discussion in the field of 3DP.

5.2 Data characteristics and origin

Our analysis suggests that as opposed to DOI, TPB, UTAUT and TAM, TEO and IT require industry-specific data to yield most adequate results. Industry homogeneity across the sample is a prerequisite to obtain conclusive and generalizable results on the impact of industry dynamics on technology decision-making. Due to the novelty of the field, industry data are still premature. Most quantitative studies have acquired their data from organizations pertaining to multiple industries. Only four out of 29 papers have employed a single-industry approach. Such heterogeneous results neither allow to identify differences in organizational behavior across industries nor to propose industry-specific adoption plans. The limited rate of diffusion across industries ( Steenhuis et al. , 2020 ) and the associated lack of information represent a major impediment for investigating the phenomenon from an holistic angle. We conclude that corporate adoption decisions ultimately have to be examined from an environmental, organizational, and technological point of view. We propose TEO as the most complete option for analyzing the phenomenon of 3DP adoption in organizations. Besides the integration of industry specific variables, TEO also represents the only model that analyzes the action of adopting a technology rather than the intent to adopt. This again is a reflection of existent industry data and sample characteristics. While research based on DOI, TPB, UTAUT and TAM included 3DP adopters and nonadopters in their sampling process, TEO emphasizes only those cases that have already taken a decision. Studying adoption, as opposed to hypothetical adoption, allows to draw conclusions on the actual impact of firm-internal and external drivers on the adoption decision.

5.3 Adoption drivers

Content analysis furthermore revealed that the technological dimensions, as compared to the organizational or environmental dimensions, of influence have received most attention among the scientific community. More than half of all researched articles recognized the significance of technology-related adoption drivers, such as the ability of 3DP in accelerating time to market, its ease of use and the associated simplification of supply chains. Furthermore, a third of all articles acknowledged the firm’s overall innovativeness, the existence of skilled work and characteristics of top-management as critical decision drivers. Contrarily, hardly any discussion occurred on the influence of organizational contingency factors (e.g. firm size and firm age) on adoption. Additionally, overall information on the impact of market trends, facilitating conditions, institutional pressures or supplier landscape is limited. While some articles discuss the effect of external pressures on the adopting entity ( Oettmeier and Hofmann, 2017 ; Schniederjans, 2017 ; Tsai and Yeh, 2019 ), no differentiation is made among its source of emission. According to IT, pressure is exerted from competitors, trading partners and authorities. The impact of isomorphism on the adoption of radical manufacturing technology is well known in the contemporary literature (e.g. Kuan and Chau, 2001 ; Alshamaila et al. , 2013 ), however understudied in the field of 3DP.

We conclude that the lack of industry data is limiting both, the extent of quantitative research methods across the field of organizational 3DP adoption as well as the application of integral theoretical constructs. This results in a polarized set of findings, with vast knowledge being generated on the benefits and barriers of the technology for the organization, but relatively little information on the impact of a firm’s environment or contingency factors exert on the adoption decision was obtained. Findings of interest for the managerial audience are yet limited, as hardly any in-depth information on specific industries was generated so far, neither through survey nor case studies. Moreover, most existent results emphasized the intent of adoption rather than the experience of already adopters.

6. Opportunities for future research

The underlying work detected various untapped areas of research; opportunities for future investigation are highlighted in the following paragraphs.

6.1 Maturity of industry data

In-depth analysis of the organizational adoption of 3DP and underlying drivers requires more and specialized industry data, both from (1) specific industries as well as from (2) 3DP adopters. First, future research should emphasize on the action of adoption rather than the intent, and thus investigate adoption behavior among organizations that have already integrated 3DP into their manufacturing processes. This would not only support in validating past hypothesis but also induce more generalizable results on 3DP adoption. Second, as adoption behavior varies across industries, data from single industries, either quantitatively or qualitatively (industry case study) derived, would allow to analyze the impact of the industrial environment on the adoption decision. Results from single industries would constitute a useful tool for comparing 3DP diffusion and adoption characteristics across industries and moreover facilitate decision-making for future adopters.

6.2 Characteristics of adopters vs nonadopters

We recommend future studies to compare the characteristics of adopting and nonadopting organizations from an empirical perspective. The frequency analysis revealed that organizational readiness represents one of the most crucial drivers for adoption. A comparison among adopters and nonadopters would yield valuable insights into how to prepare firms for technology adoption. Also the experience of top management with the technology seems of utmost importance for successful organizational adoption. Here future research could investigate the impact of top management experience on 3DP usage by means of user-centered models (UTAUT and TAM).

6.3 Emphasis on the environmental context

The underlying research has placed little emphasis on the impact of firm-external factors on the organizational adoption decision. The environmental context represents only 12% of overall quotes in our content analysis. Hardly any research studied the impact that stakeholders have on organizational adoption behavior. Governmental and regulatory support, i.e. subsidies or educational initiatives or restrictions, i.e. environmental legislation, IP rights, received even less attention among literature studies. As such, profound analyses of the impact of institutional drivers (industry stakeholders: competitors, trading partners and government) on the adoption decision through IT would represent a fruitful area of research. Future studies might also conduct semistructured interviews with regulatory institutions to understand how contemporary regulation and legislation promotes or inhibits the diffusion of 3DP among industries.

6.4 Impact of contingency factors

While the impact of organizational characteristics, such as technology readiness and existence of skilled workforce, was frequently validated among existing research, contingency criteria were hardly investigated. Firm origin, size and age may be of utmost importance for technology adoption. Future research could aim to answer the question of whether firm age impacts the technology adoption decision, thus whether incumbent firms are more likely to adopt 3DP technology than new entrants. Furthermore, a macro study may be conducted to holistically analyze the phenomenon, applying TEO and integrating contingency factors as independent rather than moderator variables.

6.5 Metaanalysis on adoption drivers

While the content analysis revealed that the relative advantage offered by 3DP represents a significant adoption driver across almost all quantitative studies, other drivers appear to depend on the organizational and environmental context the firm is immersed into. Until today, no metaanalysis has yet been conducted to study the relevance of single adoption criteria across the quantitative studies on the organizational adoption of 3DP. Future research by means of metaanalysis could support the existing body of research in generalizing and validating existent findings.

7. Implications and limitations

This study thoroughly reviewed the existing body of research on the adoption of 3DP and generated valuable insights into both academia as well as management. Our findings support this growing scientific community in encountering untapped areas of research and channeling upcoming scientific projects. The bibliometric analysis of literature conveys an overview of the existing body of research, patterns and opportunities. Additionally, the critical analysis of contemporary adoption models, as well as their inherent characteristics, allows to better understand the interplay between results and theory, thus supporting future research in selecting the most appropriate adoption model. As such, the underlying review represents a valuable base of information, theory and sources for any empirical work on 3DP. Our results also offer relevant insights for practice, especially managerial decision-makers on the verge of technology adoption. The adoption drivers revealed in our study represent appropriate factors of consideration for manufacturing managers during the decision-making process. Furthermore, our results generate awareness on the effect 3DP adoption exerts on the different areas of an organization, thus supporting management in appraising the impact of technology integration in a holistic manner. Hence, the underlying work can serve as a guide for decision-making and as support in evaluating all possible implications of 3DP adoption in organizational environment.

Even though an ample range of literature was examined to develop the underlying review, and the screening criteria employed were developed in an inclusive way, there may still exist literature of interest that has not been included. Furthermore, it is paramount to acknowledge that due the nature of content analysis, the prominence of the adoption criteria is measured in terms of frequencies as opposed to their effective impact on the phenomenon under analysis. Thus, content analysis cannot serve to generalize the impact of particular drivers on the adoption of 3DP. To measure the impact, the obtained results would require to be quantitatively tested.

Publication selection strategy and final selection

Distribution of publications from 2010 to 2020

Distribution of publications across journals

Number of publications per year and per research method

Theoretical perspectives used in publications

Industries upon analysis (multiple industries per publication)

Adoption theories

3DP adoption drivers in organizations

Note(s) : * Relevant authors but not exclusive

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A comprehensive review on 3D printing advancements in polymer composites: technologies, materials, and applications

• Critical Review
• Published: 31 May 2022
• Volume 121 , pages 127–169, ( 2022 )

Cite this article

• Praveenkumara Jagadeesh 1 ,
• Madhu Puttegowda 2 ,
• Sanjay Mavinkere Rangappa   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8745-9532 1 ,
• Karfidov Alexey 3 ,
• Sergey Gorbatyuk 3 ,
• Anish Khan 4 ,
• Mrityunjay Doddamani 5 &
• Suchart Siengchin 1  

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3D printing is a constantly expanding technology that represents one of the most exciting and disruptive production possibilities available today. This technology has gained global recognition and garnered considerable attention in recent years. However, technological breakthroughs, particularly in the field of material science, continue to be the focus of research, particularly in terms of future advancements. The 3D printing techniques are employed for the manufacturing of advanced multifunctional polymer composites due to their mass customization, freedom of design, capability to print complex 3D structures, and rapid prototyping. The advantages of 3D printing with multipurpose materials enable solutions in challenging locations such as outer space and extreme weather conditions where human involvement is not possible. Each year, numerous research papers are published on the subject of imbuing composites with various capabilities such as magnetic, sensing, thermal, embedded circuitry, self-healing, and conductive qualities by the use of innovative materials and printing technologies. This review article discusses the various 3D printing techniques used in the manufacture of polymer composites, the various types of reinforced polymer composites (fibers, nanomaterials, and particles reinforcements), the characterization of 3D printed parts, and their applications in a various industries. Additionally, this review discussed the limitations of 3D printing processes, which may assist future researchers in increasing the utility of their works and overcoming the shortcomings of previous works. Additionally, this paper discusses processing difficulties, anisotropic behavior, stimuli-responsive characteristics (shape memory and self-healing materials), CAD constraints, layer-by-layer appearance, and void formation in printed composites. Eventually, the promise of maturing technology is discussed, along with recommendations for research activities that are desperately required to realize the immense potential of operational 3D printing.

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A review on 3D printed matrix polymer composites: its potential and future challenges

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This project was funded by King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok (KMUTNB), Grant No. KMUTNB-PHD-65–02.

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Jagadeesh, P., Puttegowda, M., Rangappa, S.M. et al. A comprehensive review on 3D printing advancements in polymer composites: technologies, materials, and applications. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 121 , 127–169 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-022-09406-7

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Implementation of 3D Printing Technology in the Field of Prosthetics: Past, Present, and Future

Albert manero.

1 Limbitless Solutions, University of Central Florida, 4217 E Plaza Drive, Orlando, FL 32816, USA; [email protected] (P.S.); [email protected] (J.S.); gro.snoitulos-sseltibmil@DttaM (M.D.); gro.snoitulos-sseltibmil@euqinimod (D.C.); [email protected] (A.K.)

Peter Smith

John sparkman, matt dombrowski, dominique courbin, anna kester, isaac womack.

2 Division of Trauma, Critical Care & Acute Care Surgery Department of Surgery, Oregon Health and Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Rd, Portland, OR 97239, USA; [email protected] (I.W.); ude.usho@aihc (A.C.)

There is an interesting and long history of prostheses designed for those with upper-limb difference, and yet issues still persist that have not yet been solved. Prosthesis needs for children are particularly complex, due in part to their growth rates. Access to a device can have a significant impact on a child’s psychosocial development. Often, devices supporting both cosmetic form and user function are not accessible to children due to high costs, insurance policies, medical availability, and their perceived durability and complexity of control. These challenges have encouraged a grassroots effort globally to offer a viable solution for the millions of people living with limb difference around the world. The innovative application of 3D printing for customizable and user-specific hardware has led to open-source Do It Yourself “DIY” production of assistive devices, having an incredible impact globally for families with little recourse. This paper examines new research and development of prostheses by the maker community and nonprofit organizations, as well as a novel case study exploring the development of technology and the training methods available. These design efforts are discussed further in the context of the medical regulatory framework in the United States and highlight new associated clinical studies designed to measure the quality of life impact of such devices.

1. Introduction

Prosthesis design can be dated back to the ancient Egyptian and Roman empires and has continued to develop across the world throughout the course of history [ 1 , 2 ]. In the late 1800s, John Hanger’s prosthesis, the Hanger Limb, was developed in response to the American Civil War [ 3 ], ushering prosthesis design into the modern era. Medical advancements since the invention of the Hanger Limb have significantly reduced limb loss due to traumatic events [ 4 , 5 ]. In 2005, an estimated 1.6 million people in the United States had a limb difference [ 6 ], and approximately 541,000 individuals had some level of upper-limb loss [ 6 ]. Based on current projections, this value may double by 2050 [ 6 ]. Trauma remains the most significant cause of upper-limb amputation, predominantly for males [ 7 ], though the subsection of dysvascular-driven adult amputations is rapidly growing. Global monitoring for congenital limb loss is reported annually by the International Clearinghouse for Birth Defects Surveillance and Research Annual Report [ 8 ]. It is reported that congenital and pediatric amputations account for a significant population [ 9 , 10 , 11 ] of overall limb difference.

In the United States, more than 32,500 children have experienced a major pediatric amputation [ 10 ]. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention highlights an estimate that approximately 1500 children are born with upper-limb reductions each year, or approximately 4 of 10,000 live births [ 12 ]. Internationally, limb reductions vary from 7.8/10,000 [ 9 , 13 ] (France) to 13/10,000 [ 14 ] (Finland), 21.1/10,000 [ 14 ] (Netherlands), and 30.4/10,000 [ 14 ] (Scotland). Due to the variety of complexities limiting both access and affinities to devices, usage rates by amputees with a prosthesis are still limited.

Substantial percentages of people with congenital limb loss or acquired limb loss choose not to use a device, despite having access to one [ 15 ]. Usage rates have been reported for upper-limb devices between 37% [ 16 , 17 ] and 56% [ 18 ] among individuals with upper-limb loss. Lower-limb devices are often viewed as more of a necessity than upper-limb devices and have usage rates that vary in literature between 49% [ 19 ] and 95% [ 20 ]. This difference is particularly expressed among children with transverse upper-limb amputations [ 21 ], where usage rates fall between 44% and 66% [ 22 , 23 , 24 ].

Low usage rates of upper-limb prostheses may result from a lack of aesthetic design, weight, availability of insurance and health care, and high costs [ 25 ]. Additionally, device acceptance is complex at the user, provider, parental, and insurance levels. The combination of form and function in the design of prostheses has emerged to provide a higher degree of functionality patterned after the organic 21 degree of freedom human hand [ 2 , 26 ]. Much of the design efforts have been prioritizing achieving a high degree of realism in comparison to the organic analog. Graham Pullin proposed in his book, Design Meets Disability [ 27 ] that prostheses should not be limited to functional design and that duality should exist between aesthetics and functionality.

Limited research has focused on the benefits of improved aesthetics of prosthetic limbs [ 28 ]. Research has found that those with limb difference may have lower self-esteem and higher concern of others’ negative overall perception of their body image [ 29 ]. Psychosocial development effects and quality of life considerations for this demographic are still being understood. Research has found that those with limb difference can have lower self-esteem and an overall negative perception of their body image. Donovan et al. [ 28 ] highlighted the use of a prosthesis improved social engagement and confidence in those with limb difference. This study did not focus on the visual treatment or appearance of the limbs. Murray [ 30 , 31 ] approached their studies from the prosthesis user’s perspective and found that prostheses use improved the psychoemotional health of those who wore them. Additional research investigating both the functional benefits of prostheses and the role of aesthetic design on the user’s psychosocial development could lead to improved design considerations.

2. Contemporary Issues

3D printing is becoming an integral part of upper-limb prosthesis, resulting in response to several tangible issues, including reduced access to conventional prostheses in a timely manner and, in some cases, restricted access. This review focuses on the history of 3D printed prostheses, the populations they support, and the concerns that have driven the work. This is followed by a discussion on the path forward to link the current outcomes into the medical system.

2.1. Prosthetic Limb Abandonment

Expectations and daily goals for patients using their prosthetic device have been shown to differ depending on the style of the device the patient receives [ 32 ]. An investigation found for device users that the relative importance of many factors, including comfort, vary based on the perception of the device [ 32 ]. It can be surmised that a device with increased hand articulation will change the user’s expectation of needed comfort, decreasing its relative weighted importance to the user. The promise of increased control establishes an expectation and level of importance for robust performance. It has also been seen that the factors that contribute to rejections change with the type of amputation method, gender, and age [ 25 ]. Congenital limb loss patients are more likely to reject and forgo using a device as an adult, while females with acquired limb loss were more likely to reject devices than their male counterparts [ 25 ]. Prosthesis abandonment is a major issue in all populations and can be caused by many reasons. In the adult population, sensory feedback, appearance, function, control, comfort, and durability were all cited as key areas in need of study concerning prosthesis design and acceptance [ 25 ].

Biddiss et al. [ 33 ] reviewed over 200 research articles and found that pediatric rejection rates ranged from 38% for passive devices, 45% for body-powered devices, and 32% for electric devices. For adults, rejection rates range from 39% for passive devices, 26% for body-powered devices, and 23% for electric devices. Myoelectric devices were not prevalently seen in long term follow-up [ 34 ]. The factors driving rejection rates for devices necessitate a conversation of how new approaches can be taken to improve user affinities and outcomes.

2.2. Appearance

Those with limb difference can be ostracized due to their perceived impairments. The benefits of having a prosthetic limb can help eliminate some of that stigma. The additional inclusion of art and design in prosthesis development can further empower those involved. Goffman [ 35 ] theorized that stigma or rejection by others lead those with disabilities to try to compensate by adopting practices that would hide the disability. This response may be seen in those with limb difference adopting behaviors like holding their different limb behind them for pictures, diminishing the ability for viewers of the picture to notice.

Prostheses for children have often comprised a body-powered hook or a skin tone colored passive device. Even at the current time of publication, passive or body-powered devices with a hook, which may have a silicone glove for aesthetics, are still a common course of care [ 25 , 32 ]. Current trends in prostheses are to push normalization and reduce the level of stigma a user may encounter. Frank [ 36 ] has shown that early prosthesis users have found empowerment through various methods. These positive interactions are not limited to the user’s social engagement but also allow the individual to develop their personal acceptance of their limb difference. This development is a complex process [ 29 ]. With modern materials, the ability to simulate a natural limb look is becoming more feasible. Huang et al. [ 37 ] proposed a LivingSkin™ silicone elastomer gloving material and novel motors to a more realistic look without increasing weight. These devices aim to project a natural appearance; as seen in other fields, art can give those with disabilities ways to express themselves while also increasing their self-esteem [ 38 ].

Our research team has theorized that the blend of aesthetic design for functional prostheses, including those that diverge from traditional human form, may be able to support the development of positive social identities and interactions. This will be a point of investigation for the investigators as the research progresses.

2.3. Function and Control

Three methods for control of modern bionics include [ 39 ]: (i) Body-powered through cable extension or contraction, (ii) button press [ 40 , 41 ], and (iii) electromyography (EMG). All three methods provide unique experiences that users may prefer for use in daily life. Body-powered devices require the complete movement of a different section of the body to move a mechanical section of the hand, claw, or fingers. This additional functionality goes beyond the cosmetic and looks to address specific tasks the individual will encounter in daily life. The selection of a prosthesis is often based off a patient’s particular needs, experience, and functional requirements [ 42 ]. Often, in the case of children, their participation in the selection process can be limited. Long duration studies comparing patient outcomes of children fit with devices to those without have not been well reported [ 43 ].

Body-powered devices are more predominantly prescribed in the United States and have, in many cases, been viewed as a more robust option than myoelectric devices [ 25 , 32 , 34 ]. Body-powered devices provide users with a physical sensation feedback, while myoelectric devices may only provide visual feedback [ 44 ]. Because of this and further challenges related to robustness, training, and technical limitations, such as overall system weight [ 25 , 32 ], many professionals and users are reported to prefer body-powered devices. When using skin movement or button-press techniques, these control schemes require the use of an essential part of the patient’s body to control this function, which may result in a high degree of false positives, giving the user a bad experience.

Electromyography uses the measurement observation of the resulting electrical potential of a muscle during contraction [ 45 ]. This method has stood out due to its many benefits, including small form factor, reliability, and stability. An EMG sensor that has an amplification and rectification circuit to condition the signal and an integrated band pass filter to remove unwanted artifacts and noise can capture the intentionality of the user through a muscle contraction. This filtered signal is able to correlate the intensity of a patient’s contracted muscle, which can be used in actuating the electromechanical hand’s function states. Many prosthetic systems use a group of sensors placed on a set of local muscle groups to capture a set of signals for engagement, or calibrate the resulting signal set derived from various organic (amputated) limb motions [ 46 , 47 ].

3. A New Approach to Prosthetic Limb Design

Being able to digitally share 3D design models through the internet has led to a growing maker community globally. A carpentry accident in 2011 led to a global collaboration in an effort to regain some of the carpenters’ lost dexterity due to the loss of several fingers [ 48 ]. The carpenter, Richard Van As, enlisted the help of a mechanical special effects artist Ivan Owen. This collaboration led to the world’s first 3D-printed upper-extremity prosthesis device in 2012, and the designs were uploaded as an open-source format for the global maker community to reproduce and evaluate. This body-powered device utilized the wrist-flexion of the residual limb to activate uniform contraction of the phalanges and is featured in Figure 1 .

The Robohand assistive device, first made available for 3D printing globally via Thingiverse. Image from the Food and Drug Administration https://www.flickr.com/photos/fdaphotos/9564033498 .

3.1. The Rise of 3D Printed Prosthetic Arms

The availability of the designs led by both the Robohand and the designer Ivan Owen had a lasting effect globally on the potential application for a variety of accessibility technologies. This inspired researchers and maker enthusiasts to contact the designers wanting to have a similar impact. Upon seeing the effectiveness and impact of collaborative design and production, several maker communities and nonprofit organizations were developed to support local access in their communities, including: e-NABLE ( http://enablingthefuture.org/ ), Enable Community Foundation ( http://next2.e-nable.me/ ), Robohand ( http://robobeast.co.za/rich-van-as/ ), and Limbitless Solutions ( https://limbitless-solutions.org/ ). These groups have included both local at home designers as well as research groups based at various universities, including: Rochester Institute of Technology (RIT), Creighton University, University of Central Florida (UCF), and the University of Washington at Bothell. Additive manufacturing techniques have utilized everything from home-built kit 3D printers to industry-grade machines. While much of the work has been done for body-powered devices, some groups have pushed the research on electromyographically actuated devices to accommodate for higher degrees of limb loss via biosensing and electromechanical motors [ 49 ].

Custom sizing, designed specific to the end-user through either volumetric scaling or more precise parametric tailoring, allowed for rapid production and iteration. While many printers now allow for a variety of colors of filament materials, the same base 3D model could be constructed with a user-specified color scheme. This has provided additional affinities and involvement for participatory design. In 2014, a conference for “Prosthetists Meet 3D Printers” was held at Johns Hopkins Hospital, bringing together the maker community and medical professionals, including surgeons, prosthetists, and therapists, to discuss the use of 3D printing for improving access and quality of care [ 50 ]. This conference and the e-NABLE web platform were coordinated by a team, including Jen Owen and Jon Schull. The conference brought together a significant amount of limb-different individuals, designers, and medical professionals.

Collaborative design efforts, many utilizing cloud-based real-time design software such as Autodesk Fusion 360, allowed for group support and advances in the functionality, robustness, and a user-driven feedback opportunity. The Enable network developed substantial advances, which were made available through the Thingiverse.com website’s open-source, with attribution, repository. These design schematics and an image of an example printed and assembled part were made available ( https://www.thingiverse.com/thing:476403 ) and are presented in Figure 2 . These devices have reached new heights of accessibility for children all over the globe, made possible due to the availability of open-source customizable designs and new 3D printers used in schools, libraries, and even residences [ 51 , 52 ].

The Raptor reloaded hand by Enable available for download via Thingiverse. ( a ) Exploded view of design and user assembly methods. ( b ) Completed assembly of device. https://www.thingiverse.com/thing:476403 .

This type of global support has allowed for an accelerated prototyping phase utilizing such collaborative design mindsets. A repository or “family tree” of how the designs and global chapters have progressed is visually available on the https://e-NABLE.org website, including a full visualization at https://kumu.io/jonschull/devices .

As the maker movement has continued to propagate, there has been integration with the university research environment. Some research groups have sought to standardize production methodologies and establish best practices through data-driven analytics. One example is the work of Jorge M. Zuniga, established during his time at Creighton University (at time of this paper’s publication, at the University of Nebraska). Their work [ 53 , 54 , 55 ] has pushed the design efforts and field regarding the implementation of additive manufacturing to accelerate bio-medical research and its translation to the medical environment. Their design of the Cyborg Beast hand, a wrist powered design, built on the prior work and improved integration and assembly challenges, has seen significant implementation for children with limb differences and is pictured in Figure 3 .

The Cyborg Beast by Creighton University’s Jorge M. Zuniga and available on Thingiverse https://www.thingiverse.com/thing:261462 . ( a ) Personalized assembled device. ( b ) A group of assembled hands featuring different cosmetic treatments.

One of the founders and curators of the e-NABLE movement, Jon Schull, and his research team developed significant contributions to the field at RIT, including new body-powered forearms and hands actuated by elbow or wrist movement. This has led to substantial developments for introducing new educational techniques incorporating project-based learning [ 56 ] utilizing 3D printers and global design networks [ 57 ].

3.2. Appearance-Cooperative Expression

Design work using 3D printers has allowed for a higher degree of individual customization of devices. As the collaborative minded network of developers has grown, the role of user-driven design points has been of significant emphasis. In an effort to improve affinities to bionic designs, participation by the end-user has been prioritized. This effort, applied by our research team to prosthesis design, is described as “cooperative expression” and is built on the methodology of participatory design and its strategies, such as cooperative inquiry.

Participatory design represents a field of research, distinguished by a variety of methods, investigating the role of direct user participation with designers [ 58 ]. While this was originally discussed for computer-based systems in the workplace, it can also be applied for learning from children and their perspectives while in the development of low-tech design prototypes [ 59 ]. In the design process, specific inquiries in the brainstorming methods have become known as cooperative inquiry [ 59 , 60 ]. Druin et al. [ 59 ] categorized three dimensions related to children as design partners to be considered, including: (i) The child’s relationship to the participating adults, (ii) their relationship to the technology, and (iii) the goals for the inquiry. Cooperative inquiry, when applied as a method of developing technology, is flexible in construct. Foss et al. [ 61 , 62 , 63 ] applied the technique to study the role of children with special learning needs and adults as partners in the design process of software while empowering children to customize their experience [ 62 , 63 ]. Their study using a cooperative inquiry approach found reports of emotional engagement in children when the method was applied. Ultimately, this higher engagement is speculated to develop more ownership of the project for the children [ 62 ].

A new modified participatory design approach, entitled cooperative expression, is now being applied to visual aesthetic treatment in an effort to improve affinities to the bionic limbs. Our design team’s efforts have taken this participatory and cooperative approach to support the customization of the aesthetics for 3D-printed bionic limbs. Recipients of the bionics have the ability to artistically customize their interchangeable sleeves using an interactive website. Various 3D designs can be compared, selected, and further personalized with customizing color and effect regions. Artists support the initial creation of the aesthetic scaffolding, such as the design of color pallets and the discretization of the zones for customization. This scaffolding is designed to provide an initial framework to minimize selection fatigue and maximize the participants’ ability to explore artistic designs potentially outside their reference frame.

This unique customization design process and methodology highlighted in Figure 4 looks to integrate the end-user from start to finish in the design process. The structural and mechatronic components of the arm have been standardized for the digital designers to create a digital 3D representation of the artistic shell. An interactive web portal allows the user to customize colors and effects and regions of the sleeve, allowing expressive visualization of the final design. In some cases, modifications are made to the artistic design visualized on the user portal to support the human–machine interface. Production of the aesthetic sleeves uses an interdisciplinary process including: 3D printing, surface preparation and priming, automotive finishing techniques, and painting. During the painting process, artists capture the effects and colors selected through the user portal and deepen the visual effect. The full system is then validated and prepared for fitting to the participant. This system allows participants to be actively involved with their arm before production or fitting, and an example interaction is presented in Figure 5 . This early interaction is anticipated to establish an emotional connection to the limb before the participant is fitted.

Overview of design process and methodology from design generation, user participation, and interdisciplinary manufacturing.

( Left ) Example interactive web page for children to customize color and effect regions during the design process, and how user participation can be translated to ( Right ) the final design with artistic input from art team and production teams. Sleeve design made in partnership with Riot Games.

Part of the design process offers the ability for different categories or “empowerment classes” of interchangeable aesthetic sleeves. These classes are broken down into four individual groups, Warrior, Shadow, Ethereal, and Serenity . These classes are designed to represent different personalities linked to emotional affinities. Artists create these inspired 3D models to connect with these personalities, and in some cases, external artists representing characters have added designs to the catalog. Examples of the “empowerment classes” are presented in Figure 6 . This variety coupled with the interchangeable options allows the child to have more freedom over their expression; this should improve development of affinity to the device, lower social stigma factors, and support a longer-term engagement, thereby improving user performance. An evaluation of the role of the device on psychosocial development and stigma factors will be conducted in future research.

3D-printed electromyographic actuated limb device with interchangeable artistic covers from Limbitless Solutions at the University of Central Florida. ( a ) Warrior class, ( b ) Ethereal class, ( c ) Serenity class, and ( d ) Shadow class.

3.3. Function–Electromyography

Antfolk et al. [ 44 ] found that a 16-sensor EMG was capable of predicting participants’ desired control with 86% accuracy after a two-day training session. This system was used with a 25-year-old male transradial amputee. The result was produced by the system learning how the user’s EMG input should be interpreted, based on movements performed similarly to how they would have been prior to the amputation [ 44 ]. Much of the increased complexity arises from the use of multiple EMG inputs mapping to multiple computer-controlled outputs. Each additional monitored region requires intentional actuation of a corresponding muscle group and, in some cases, simultaneous actuation [ 64 ]. When used by children, this complexity may be overwhelming and has led to a reported impact on rejection of devices [ 33 ].

This team’s unique 3D-printed prosthesis leverages a single EMG measurement, which may support simplicity in daily calibration and application. On-board signal processing can correlate the intensity of the measured muscle contraction or the number of contractions in a specific time period. This can result in actuating different types of hand-state gestures, including individual finger actuation motor position. The limitations associated with current EMG devices are an opportunity to examine improvements to both the design and training methodology.

3.4. Control-Gamification and Training

Single-surface EMG providing multigestural control allows the user, using contraction intensity and patterns, to control their prosthesis. Due to the complexity of the controls, a custom video game-based training system was developed to train the user in a risk-free environment. The video game system collects the filtered EMG input from the user and routes it to the computer system; where it is either interpreted as a multifunction controller or analog input. Training systems with mechanics that are similar to the active arm control, similar to punching or slapping, using an EMG controller have increased usability scores [ 65 ].

This research team’s newest game for the prosthetic arm training, called Magical Savior of Friends (MSOF), places the character in a ‘Mario style’ side-scrolling game with a magical character that can initiate superpower attacks and defenses based on the amplitude of their contraction. After going through a thresholding calibration sequence, the player is able to vary their measured contraction magnitude, which correlates to how hard the player activates their muscle contraction. For example, calibration can be set for low, mid and max thresholds. Calibration for setting the low threshold is applied to move the reading above the noise threshold. In application, these gestures initiate three completely different superpower attacks to occur.

While the game is designed to be fun and approachable on the surface, it provides meaningful training through simulation to learn complex multigesture hand states. Preliminary results are promising, as players become significantly more accurate with the tuned contraction after playing the game for one hour [ 66 ]. By gamifying the training, this method provides many opportunities for failure and feedback in a safe low-pressure environment. Multiple studies have found that feedback is crucial in improving control of a myoelectric prosthesis [ 33 , 44 ]. Disguised as a game, simulation is effective in allowing practice and training the prosthesis user. An extension of this work is underway to provide prosthesis users with new opportunities to play games they otherwise might not have the dexterity or proper interface for.

3.5. Comfort and Durability

3D printing, as with most manufacturing processes, has its advantages and limitations. The promise of personalized medicine and ability to rapidly produce models has been shown to be effective in the clinical setting [ 67 ]. While not significantly impacting professionals that use 3D printing to help to plan procedures via the production of representative models, concerns for the safety of 3D-printed parts have been expressed [ 68 ]. Professionals using material properties to optimize design must be aware of the manufacturing process’ impact. In testing of additive manufacturing ABS plastic, samples have been reported to have variable mechanical properties based on print orientation and are estimated to have between 10% to 73% of the strength of samples produced by injection molding [ 69 , 70 ]. While the method through which layers are printed has an impact on the deviation from material standards, optimization can be used to improve reliability and predictability of performance [ 69 , 71 ]. In an effort to have consistent and reliable 3D-printed components for use in the medical environment, consistent standards and best practices should be implemented. While FDA guidelines make many recommendations toward work-flow and documentation for part tracking in the event of a part failure [ 71 ], better understanding the underlying principles behind part vulnerability can help to minimize those risks preemptively. When designed with realistic loading expectations and considerations for manufacturing, additive manufacturing can provide stable and resilient parts that can reduce overall system weight and manufacturing costs [ 72 ].

4. Discussion of Regulatory Framework

While a tremendous body of work is available on attempts to advance the novel manufacturing techniques, reviews of various studies have identified areas for continued work [ 73 , 74 ]. An independent review [ 73 ] of 314 current studies evaluated for levels of evidence and validity highlighted a trend of the reports to be more in line with case studies as opposed to randomized control trials. Several areas of evidence and clarity, including sufficient study power, statistical tests, reliable outcome measures, and clarity in recruitment, were all identified as needing expounding. The review [ 73 ] called for a significant appraisal of both efficacy and effectiveness to provide healthcare professionals with more information to make critical decisions on readiness for broader patient care.

In order to advance the state-of-the-art and to quantify the impact and effectiveness of our research team’s new 3D-printed electromyographically actuated multigesture arms, a novel clinical trial has been proposed in collaboration between Oregon Health & Science University and the University of Central Florida. This study is considered nonsignificant-risk. Twenty patients between the ages of 6 and 17 will participate in a one-year clinical trial with four total assessments. Assessment has been designed in two parts: Influence on quality of life (Children’s Hand-Use Experience Questionnaire (CHEQ) and PedsQL) and myoelectric control (Assessment of capacity for Myoelectric Control (ACMC)).

CHEQ uses a four-category rating scale to assess the functionality and limitations of a child, developed for ages 6 through 18 years old, and is available on the internet ( www.cheq.se ) for easy access [ 75 ]. It uses a variety of questions with a nested structure, such as: “The first question reads: ‘Is this something you usually do independently?’ and has the response options:

• ‘yes’
• ‘no’
• ‘I get help/avoid doing it’
• or ‘not applicable’.

If the answer is ‘no’ or ‘not applicable’, the item is scored as missing, and the respondent moves to the next item. If the answer is ‘yes’, the second opening question appears: ‘Do you use one hand or both hands together?’, with the response options:

• ‘one hand’
• ‘both hands’
• ‘with the involved hand supporting but not holding’
• ‘both hands, with the involved hand holding the object’.

This type of assessment [ 75 ] provides a reliable baseline to understand how the child’s daily life is influenced by their limb difference.

PedsQL is a well-validated survey that asks twenty-three questions of both parents and children about various aspects of health-related quality of life over the past month. Published results are available for the general population. The PedsQL scoring algorithm translates the available responses to questions (“never”, “almost never”, “sometimes”, “often”, or “almost always”) into scores of 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and a maximum of 100% for each of the four generic core scales (Physical Health, Emotional Functioning, Social Functioning, and School Functioning).

Assessment of capacity for myoelectric control (ACMC) [ 76 , 77 ] is a Rasch rating scale that is used to detect expected change in a person’s ability using objective variables. There are 30 items that evaluate a prosthetic arm’s ability to do specific functions that involve gripping, holding, releasing, and coordinating between limbs. This is done by asking the subject to perform certain tasks and scoring their motions, including traditional chores such as making simple meals and setting a table. Additional questions look at hobby and leisure activities, such as assembling a simple project such as LEGO bricks [ 76 , 77 ]. The occupational therapy team supporting the evaluation will support evaluation of performance, with feedback from the study participants documented. The findings from this study will be reported following the assessment and evaluation, and the data used to continue to improve both the design methodology and study methodology.

5. Conclusions

The outlook for using 3D printing manufacturing techniques and collaborative design is bright, with rapidly progressing iteration and designs that can better develop affinities for users. At this time, limited work has been reported involving sufficient power and clinical assessment [ 73 , 74 ]. By designing and conducting novel clinical assessment of these electromyographic 3D printed bionic limbs with well defined outcome metrics, this may lead to being able to add to the field and better capture the readiness for broader distribution. Continuing efforts to validate and assess both design and performance will improve translation of the technology and design methods. The process for designing specifically for the end=user with significant reduction in costs may radically change the accessibility of functional prosthesis for pediatric patients.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the many members of the Limbitless Solutions team who have supported the project throughout its development. Our appreciation to the corporations and external artists from both Riot Games and 343 Industries for supporting additional designs in the sleeve catalog.

Author Contributions

This paper involved author contributions including conceptualization, A.M., P.S. and A.C.; writing–original draft preparation, A.M. and P.S. with support from J.S., M.D., D.C., A.K., I.W. and A.C.; and writing–review and editing, all authors.

This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no personal conflict of interest, but want to disclose that the Limbitless Solutions organization has received support from the 3D printer manufacturer Stratasys.

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• Review Article
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• Published: 03 June 2024

A comprehensive review of sustainable materials and toolpath optimization in 3D concrete printing

• Zicheng Zhuang 1   na1 ,
• Fengming Xu 1   na1 ,
• Junhong Ye 1   na1 ,
• Liming Jiang 3 &
• Yiwei Weng 1  

npj Materials Sustainability volume  2 , Article number:  12 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Climate sciences
• Environmental sciences

The construction sector has experienced remarkable advancements in recent years, driven by the demand for sustainable and efficient building practices. Among these advancements, 3D concrete printing has emerged as a highly promising technology that holds the potential to revolutionize the construction industry. This review paper aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of the latest developments in three vital areas related to 3D concrete printing: sustainable materials, structural optimization, and toolpath design. A systematic literature review approach is employed based on established practices in additive manufacturing for construction to explore the intersections between these areas. The review reveals that material recycling plays a crucial role in achieving sustainable construction practices. Extensive research has been conducted on structural optimization methodologies to enhance the performance and efficiency of 3D printed concrete structures. In the printing process, toolpath design plays a significant role in ensuring the precise and efficient deposition of concrete. This paper discusses various toolpath generation strategies that take factors such as geometric complexity, printing constraints, and material flow control into account. In summary, the insights presented in this paper may serve as guidelines for researchers, engineers, and industry professionals towards sustainable and efficient construction practices using 3D concrete printing technology.

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Introduction.

Climate change has emerged as a global challenge due to the substantial carbon emissions and energy consumption. In 2022, the global carbon emissions and energy consumption reached 36.8 gigatons and 14,585 million tonnes of oil equivalent 1 , 2 , respectively. The construction sector is a major contributor to global carbon emission and energy consumption, accounting for 40% and 36% in 2022 3 , respectively. With the urban population estimated to increase to 68% by 2050, the environmental impacts of the construction sector will continuously increase 4 , underscoring the urgent need for developing sustainable construction technologies.

3D concrete printing (3DCP), also known as additive manufacturing (AM) in the construction sector 5 , offers a promising solution for achieving sustainable construction. 3DCP constructs structures by depositing printable concrete materials layer-atop-layer based on a pre-designed building model. The unique construction process possesses the advantages of enhanced sustainability and design flexibility. For example, a prefabricated bathroom unit (PBU) constructed by 3DCP achieved a reduction of 85.9% and 87.1% in carbon emissions and energy consumption, respectively, compared to that of a mold-cast counterpart 6 .

3DCP has gained much attention from both academia and engineering. Figure 1a shows the rapid growth in the publications and citations related to the keywords of “3DCP” based on data obtained from Web of Science. The number of publications reached 444 and 420 in 2022 and 2023, respectively. In these publications, several review works have been conducted in the fields of 3DCP and its potential applications 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 . Wangler et al. 8 present a technical review of 3DCP from fresh materials to hardened materials and further practical applications. Lu et al. 9 provide a comprehensive review of the material behaviors of 3DCP. However, the review articles primarily focus on the technical or material advancements of 3DCP, with less attention given to its sustainability aspects. Figure 1b illustrates the growth of publications related to the keywords of “3DCP and Sustainability”. Despite the growing interest in 3DCP, only 46 publications in 2023, approximately 10% of total 3DCP-related publications, focused on sustainability (Fig. 1a ). Among these publications, Dey et al. 11 provide a comprehensive review of the utilization of industrial wastes in printable materials to improve the sustainability of 3DCP. However, there is a lack of in-depth understanding of how to improve sustainability in 3DCP across its various construction processes.

a Keywords of “3DCP”; b keywords of “3DCP and Sustainability”.

The typical construction processes of 3DCP include the development of printable materials, structural optimization, toolpath design, and printing 12 , as shown in Fig. 2 . Each of these processes offers opportunities for enhancing sustainability. At the material level, sustainability can be improved by developing printable materials incorporated with waste materials. The waste materials are used as the substitutions of aggregate and binder contents, thereby reducing the carbon emission associated with the material extraction. At the structural level, the design of hollow structures via topology optimization (TO) 13 , 14 reduces the material usage and thus enhances sustainability. TO involves the optimization of material distribution to achieve the desired performance. In addition, the design flexibility of 3DCP is compatible with the structural TO. Finally, to implement the optimized structure into 3DCP, toolpath design methods 15 , 16 are adopted to determine the efficient path for sustainable concrete printing. The integration of sustainable printable materials, TO, and toolpath design techniques with 3DCP represents a promising synergy for future research and sustainability development in the construction sector. However, comprehensive reviews covering these three aspects are currently lacking in the existing literature.

The typical processes include the development of printable materials, structural optimization, toolpath generation, and printing.

This paper aims to fill the abovementioned research gap by providing a comprehensive review of sustainable materials, structural topology optimization, and toolpath planning for the enhancement of sustainability in 3DCP. Based on the findings of these reviewed articles, the perspectives and methods to enhance sustainability with respect to the abovementioned three aspects of 3DCP are highlighted. Finally, Section 5 conclusions are summarized and future research directions are identified.

Sustainable materials in 3D concrete printing

Integrating sustainable materials into 3DCP is a potential strategy for enhancing the sustainability of 3DCP 17 since the construction sector increasingly focuses on the recycling of natural resources, reduction in material waste and carbon emissions. The commonly developed 3D printable cementitious materials consist of binder materials (primarily cement), natural fine aggregates, additives, admixtures, and water 18 . However, two main challenges impede the development of sustainable 3D printable cementitious materials. Firstly, the high usage of ordinary Portland cement (OPC, 700–800 kg/m 3 ) 18 impacts sustainability due to the associated carbon footprint 8 . Secondly, during the printing process, most developed material mixtures only use fine aggregates for 3DCP due to the limitation of the pumping process and nozzle opening 19 , 20 .

Employing sustainable binder and aggregate alternatives is a potential solution to address these challenges 6 , 21 . This section reviews relevant advancements in adopting recycled aggregates and supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) into 3D printable materials. Figure 3 shows the number of publications associated with the keywords “3D printed concrete”, “Recycled glass”, “Recycled sand”, “Recycled concrete aggregate”, “Recycled plastics”, “Recycled rubber”, “3D printed concrete”, “Silica fume”, “Rice husk”, “Fly ash”, “Limestone”, “Calcined clay”, “Granulated blast-furnace slag” and “Sustainable” from the Web of Science database. As shown in Fig. 3 , a growing academic interest is observed related to recycled aggregates and SCMs. The following sections discuss the performance characteristics and implications of these sustainable materials in 3DCP applications.

The literature study includes research on two main types of sustainable materials, recycled aggregates and SCM, from 2018 to 2023.

The impact of recycled aggregates, such as recycled glass 22 , concrete 23 , plastics 24 , and rubber 25 , alongside SCMs, such as silica fume 26 , rice husk ash 27 , fly ash 28 , limestone 29 , calcined clay 30 , and granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) 31 , on the fresh and hardened properties of 3D printable materials are analyzed. The analysis underscores the importance of these materials in advancing 3DCP sustainability but also reveals the future potential research direction to mitigate environmental impacts and foster sustainable development in 3D printable cementitious materials 19 , 32 , 33 .

3D printable material performance with recycled aggregates

The primary recycled materials in 3D printed concrete for sustainability enhancement include sand 34 , glass 22 , concrete 35 , plastics 24 , and rubber 25 . According to the data from the Hong Kong Environmental Protection Department in 2022 36 , daily waste generation in Hong Kong includes 222.6 tons of glass and 2336.9 tons of plastics. In addition, concrete and sand, derived mainly from construction and demolition debris and construction waste, account for a considerable portion of the waste, with daily production of construction waste reaching 49,865 tons 36 . In the blueprint for Hong Kong 2035 37 , the government proposes a new target concerning “Waste Reduction, Resources Circulation, Zero Landfill”, which presents a significant challenge for the recycling of waste materials in sustainable construction.

In 3DCP, it is essential to achieve a balance of fresh properties and hardened properties for printable materials. Fresh properties such as printability and pumpability, hardened properties such as strength and durability, and sustainability are critical factors for material tailoring 19 , 38 . Recycled aggregates are sustainable alternatives to natural aggregates, helping to conserve natural resources and reduce land waste from landfills 24 , 39 , 40 , 41 . This section discusses the various recycled aggregates in 3DCP (see Table 1 for details) to illustrate their impact on material fresh and hardened performance as well as sustainability.

Impacts of recycled aggregates on fresh properties

Summarizing the findings from Table 1 , the usage of recycled aggregates impacts the fresh properties of cementitious materials. The fresh properties are critical factors, which determine the printability of materials during the printing process. The printability can be characterized by workability, pumpability, extrudability, and buildability 34 . In the 3D printing process, the most essential steps are conveying mixed materials to the nozzle via a delivery system and depositing materials to build the solid object in a layer-by-layer manner 42 . In the conveying step, the materials are required to have good workability and pumpability, which indicates how easily the material can be conveyed. In addition, extrudability indicates the ability of a material to be extruded with minimal energy consumption during the delivery 43 . In the deposition step, the materials are required to have good buildability, which indicates how well the materials can be stacked stably.

With respect to workability, research has indicated that the presence of recycled sand, characterized by its high water absorption rate and irregular shape, tends to reduce the workability of concrete 44 . Similarly, incorporating recycled rubber particles with poor shape and rough surfaces has diminished the workability of 3D printed concrete, resulting in the slow relative motion of rubber particles within the concrete mixture, causing reduced processability 25 . In terms of pumpability, studies conducted by Ting et al. 45 have shown that adding recycled glass to concrete reduces its pumpability. This phenomenon can be attributed to recycled glass particles’ angular and sharp-edged nature, which obstruct flow and decrease pumpability.

Analyzing the extrudability in recycled aggregate concrete, it has been observed that the high water absorption of recycled sand necessitates the addition of extra water and superplasticizers to enhance the extrudability of 3D printed concrete 34 . In addition, the water-absorbing nature of surface cracks in recycled rubber can result in reduced extrudability. However, subjecting recycled rubber to heat treatment can partially close these surface cracks, reducing water absorption and significantly improving extrudability 46 .

Finally, with respect to buildability, increasing the substitution rate of recycled concrete aggregates has been found to improve the buildability of 3D printed concrete. Liu et al.’s 35 research suggests that the buildability increases with the rising substitution rate of recycled concrete aggregates due to the reduction in concrete density. Conversely, studies involving recycled plastics have revealed that while plastic’s hydrophobic nature enhances material flow, it also delays the hydration reaction of calcium silicate, slowing the thixotropic behavior of concrete and ultimately reducing its buildability 24 , 41 .

In summary, recycled aggregates’ influence on cementation materials’ fresh properties is multifaceted and crucial for 3D printing applications. Workability can be compromised by recycled sand and rubber, while pumpability may be hindered when using recycled glass due to its angular characteristics. Extrudability can be improved with additional water and heat treatment for specific recycled materials. In addition, buildability is positively correlated with higher substitution rates of recycled concrete aggregates, while challenges arise from the delayed hydration reaction of calcium silicate when recycled plastics are involved. These insights underscore the need for careful material selection and processing adjustments to optimize the performance of 3D printable materials.

Impacts of recycled aggregates on mechanical properties and sustainability

The mechanical performance of printed structures is paramount for ensuring their structural integrity and safety. Table 1 summarizes the mechanical properties of various types of recycled aggregates, revealing their impact on the mechanical properties of 3D printed concrete. Specifically, incorporating recycled materials such as recycled sand, coarse aggregates, glass, and plastics as sustainable alternatives in concrete leads to decreased compressive strength with increasing substitution rates 22 , 24 , 34 , 35 . This reduction in compressive strength can be attributed to the increased porosity within the concrete resulting from the addition of recycled materials, with higher porosity leading to reduced compressive strength 24 , 39 .

Beyond the problem of increased porosity, the bond between recycled aggregates and the cement matrix plays a significant role in the mechanical performance of 3D printed concrete. The smoother surface and sharper edges of recycled glass particles compared to that of natural sand particles may result in weaker bonding between the particles and the cement matrix at the interface transition zone, decreasing mechanical strength 45 . The inherent properties of recycled aggregates also impact the strength of 3D printed concrete. Recycled concrete aggregates containing old mortar and aggregates with adhering old mortar, which have lower mechanical properties, can serve as weak areas of a structure, decreasing mechanical performance 35 . On the contrary, adding cement-coated modified recycled rubber in 3D printed concrete enhances its compressive strength. This enhancement is primarily attributed to the transformation of the rubber from a hydrophobic material to a hydrophilic material after modification, promoting its interaction with the fresh mortar during mixing and resulting in a more compact interface transition zone within the structure 33 .

These findings emphasize the necessity of incorporating recycled aggregates in 3D printed concrete in appropriate amounts after considering the structural integrity and safety to achieve the desired overall properties of 3D printed concrete. As a type of sustainable material, utilizing recycled aggregates in 3DCP can reduce material costs and mitigate environmental impacts 47 . Han et al. indicate that as the proportion of recycled aggregates increases from 0% to 100%, the CO 2 emissions of 3D printed concrete decrease from 5637.647 kg to 5499.505 kg 48 . Cost analyses demonstrate a downward trend in the total cost of 3D printed concrete with the increasing proportion of recycled aggregates. For instance, the costs of 3D printed concrete with recycling proportions of 0%, 50%, and 100% are 12,913.54 CNY, 12,555.77 CNY, and 12,194.97 CNY, respectively 48 . This underscores that increasing the proportion of recycled aggregates can effectively reduce greenhouse gas emissions during concrete production and enhance building materials’ sustainability in the practical application.

3D printable material performance with supplementary cementitious materials

This section explores the impact of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) on the performance of 3D printable cementitious materials. In the area of 3DCP, a significant aspect is its heavy reliance on OPC compared to traditional concrete 18 . Specifically, 3D printable cementitious materials contain more than 20% of OPC, expressed by mass weight due to the requirements of printability 19 . Including SCMs in material mixtures is an alternative solution to address his problem. Various types of SCMs have been adopted for the mixture design of 3D printable concrete in the existing literature, such as fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag, and calcined clay from various industrial processes 49 . Fly ash, a residue from coal combustion in power plants 50 , and calcined clay, derived from high-temperature treatment of clay materials 29 , are among these industrially sourced SCM. In addition, GGBS originates from the milling process of waste slag from steel production 51 , while silica fume comes from silicon ferroalloy smelting 52 , and rice husk ash is a by-product of rice milling 27 . Incorporating these SCMs reduces the environmental burden associated with concrete production and addresses the high carbon dioxide emissions from cement production 29 , 53 .

In the selection of SCMs for 3D printable concrete, optimizing characteristics such as fresh properties, mechanical properties, durability, and sustainability is crucial 29 , 30 , 54 . These attributes directly impact the efficiency of the printing process and the performance of the final structure. Table 2 summarizes the material characteristics of individual SCM used in 3DCP and their impacts on the performance of 3D printable concrete by a systematic literature review.

Impacts of SCMs on fresh properties

Based on Table 2 , the utilization of SCMs affects the printability of 3D printed concrete. These parameters serve as crucial indicators of the stability and performance of materials during processes such as pumping, extrusion, and bearing continuous printing layer loads. In terms of workability, adding silica fume reduces the workability of 3D printed concrete. This is primarily attributed to the high surface area of silica fume, which easily aggregates with cement particles to form flocculent structures, partially hindering the free flow of water, and therefore, affecting the workability 26 , 53 .

In terms of pumpability and extrudability, the appropriate addition of fly ash and GGBS can enhance the pumpability and extrudability of cementitious materials. This is primarily attributed to the spherical and smooth surface characteristics of fly ash 55 and GGBS 56 , as shown in Table 2 , and therefore, contribute to improving the extrudability of concrete. However, excessive fly ash and GGBS may diminish extrudability due to increased water absorption. As the dosage increases, the water absorption rate rises, resulting in increased viscosity, thereby impeding the extrusion process during 3D printing 57 . The replacement of cement with silica fume 26 , rice husk ash 27 , limestone, and calcined clay 29 can enhance buildability. For example, torque viscosity rises while flow resistance and thixotropy are decreased with the rise of fly ash-to-cement ratio, negatively impacting the buildability 55 . Conversely, the influence of the silica fume-to-cement ratio shows an opposite trend on rheological properties as compared to that of the fly ash-to-cement ratio. Adding silica fume increases the filler content in concrete, strengthening the interaction between particles and thereby improving the 3D printing performance of the material 50 . Rice husk ash exhibits strong water absorption capability, reducing voids between concrete particles and promoting flocculation and hydration product formation, thereby enhancing the buildability of 3D printed concrete 27 . The addition of limestone and calcined clay can enhance the buildability due to the reduced water film thickness 30 .

In summary, incorporating SCMs significantly impacts the workability, pumpability, extrudability, and buildability of 3D printed concrete. While silica fume reduces workability due to its high surface area 26 , fly ash and GGBS can enhance pumpability and extrudability when added appropriately. However, excessive amounts may hinder extrudability due to increased water absorption 57 . Substituting cement with fly ash, silica fume, rice husk ash, limestone, and calcined clay enhances buildability 26 , 27 , 58 .

Impacts of SCMs on mechanical properties and sustainability

The mechanical performance of 3D printed concrete is crucial for construction practices. Incorporating SCMs can reduce the environmental impact and directly influence the mechanical properties of 3D printed concrete. Studies have shown that materials such as silica fume 26 , limestone, and calcined clay 29 can positively impact the mechanical properties of concrete. Silica fume acts as an inert filler in 3D printed concrete, filling voids, improving pore structure, and therefore, enhancing mechanical performance 50 . Liu et al. 26 attributed the improvement in the mechanical properties of silica fume to the fact that silica fume increases the density of the concrete, which increases the pore densities and reduces the number of connecting and oversized pores.

Moreover, the quantity of SCMs added also affects the mechanical properties of 3D printed concrete. Increasing the content of limestone and calcined clay can increase the amount of fine particles in concrete, promoting microstructure development 54 . However, small additions of fly ash and GGBS can enhance mechanical properties but excessive amounts may compromise concrete strength. This is mainly due to that the high amount of replacement of cement with fly ash or GGBS reduces the initial cement hydration at the early stage 57 . As a result, the mechanical performance of 3D printable concrete decreases. Therefore, when designing formulations for 3D printed concrete, it is essential to consider the type, quantity, and interactions of SCMs to achieve optimal mechanical performance and ensure the sustainability and durability of structures.

In 3DCP, the CO 2 emission in the material production stage is 583.1 kg CO 2 -eq/m 3 , 75% of which is contributed by the production of cement and other binder materials 18 . Therefore, using SCMs as the substitution of binder materials showed possible advantages in enhancing the environmental sustainability of 3D printable concrete 26 , 28 , 54 . Most of the reviewed studies focus on the fresh and hardened properties of 3D printable concrete with SCMs, with limited attention to the quantitative carbon emission assessment of the materials. Long et al. 59 reported that the 3D printable Limestone & Calcined clay cement composites (LC3) reduced carbon emission by 45% and energy consumption by 40%. Conversely, Yao et al. 60 reported that the carbon emission of printable materials was when geopolymer was used as the binder material. The increased carbon emission of geopolymer was due to the use of silicate (alkaline activator). Liu et al. 61 reported that the printable materials with fly ash showed less carbon emission compared to that of the printable geopolymer concrete. Different conclusions were drawn from the existing articles in terms of the carbon emission of 3D printable materials with SCM. Therefore, to comprehensively assess the sustainability effectiveness of SCMs in 3DCP, additional research is necessary in future works by conducting the quantitative carbon emission assessment.

Conventional structural topology optimization methods

Traditional design principles and considerations are being re-evaluated to leverage the unique capabilities provided by 3D printing 62 . This section aims to review the specific structural optimization methods and considerations tailored for 3DCP technology, with a particular focus on the potential to create functional, efficient, and sustainable designs using topology optimization approaches.

Structural topology optimization is the process of arranging the distribution of materials within a specified design domain to maximize specific mechanical or physical properties, while adhering to prescribed constraints. This concept arose in 1904 when Michell proposed a theoretical analysis to obtain the lightest truss 63 . The advent of finite element analysis (FEA) and the development of the widely used homogenization method 64 , 65 in the late 1980s significantly progressed this concept. Since then, the field has seen substantial advancements, thanks to methods such as Solid Isotropic Microstructure with Penalization (SIMP) 66 , Evolutionary Structural Optimization (ESO) 67 , Bi-directional Evolutionary Structural Optimization (BESO) 68 , 69 , and level set method 70 , 71 . These developments have allowed for more sophisticated and efficient designs and further expanded the possibilities of structural topology optimization. As shown in Table 3 , the various topology optimization approaches have continuously evolved to improve their effectiveness and efficiency, which are introduced individually in this section.

After the introduction of the homogenization-based topology optimization method by Bendsoe and Kikuchi 64 and later developments by Bendsoe 72 , the SIMP method was proposed 73 , 74 . Sigmund 75 provided a clear explanation of the numerical implementation of the SIMP method in 2001 using a concise 99-line Matlab code. The SIMP method assumes constant material properties for the solid material within the design domain. The design variables in the optimization process are the relative densities of each element, which range between zero and one. The material properties are modeled as the relative material density raised to a power multiplied by the properties of the solid material. During the early 1990s, Xie and Steven initially put forth the Evolutionary Structural Optimization (ESO) method to attain optimal topologies for continuum structures 67 , 76 , 77 . Subsequently, Querin et al. 68 and Yang et al. 78 advanced the ESO method to develop the Bi-directional Evolutionary Structural Optimization (BESO) method. The level set-based topology optimization method utilizes a higher-dimensional embedded function to implicitly represent solid-void interfaces 79 , 80 . In the traditional level set method, the Hamilton-Jacobi equation (PDE) is solved using the velocity normal to the interface 71 , 81 , 82 . The zero-level contour of the embedded function in the conventional level set method defines the material boundary, serving as the partition between the solid and void domains.

Advanced structural topology optimization methods

In recent years, a variety of innovative optimization algorithms have emerged to tackle the practical challenges associated with flexible design domains, smooth material boundaries, and complex fabrication constraints. One such method is the Reaction diffusion-based level set (RDLS) approach, which was initially introduced in 2014 83 . The RDLS method enables the specification of geometrical complexities within the optimal configuration, thereby facilitating the identification of the desired structure shape through the evolution of the level set function. Another notable advancement is the Floating projection topology optimization (FPTO) method, which was unveiled in 2021 84 . FPTO ensures that design variables take discrete values, resulting in more robust and practical optimization outcomes. Lastly, the Node moving-based topology optimization (NMTO) method, introduced in 2023 85 utilizes a narrowband offset from the structural profile to establish a signed-distance function, which determines the direction of node movement. NMTO aims to optimize the structural topology and enhance its overall performance by manipulating node positions. These cutting-edge methods show great promise for advancing the capabilities of 3DCP and optimizing the production of high-performance structures.

Nowadays, structural topology optimization has become increasingly popular in various fields, including additive manufacturing 69 , 86 , architectural design 87 , 88 , biochemical 89 , 90 , and aerospace engineering 91 , 92 . Among them, the high design flexibility of 3DCP makes it compatible with topology optimization to decrease material usage and improve sustainability. With the integration of these approaches and 3DCP, it becomes possible to create intricate designs that are both structurally sound and resource-efficient.

To find an appropriate method for 3DCP, the benefits and limitations of each topology optimization method should be fully understood, which are introduced and summarized in this subsection. The key scientific differences between the various topology optimization methods include mathematical formulation, optimization algorithms, material models, sensitivity analysis, and post-processing techniques.

The advantages and disadvantages of these topology optimization methods can be concluded to judge whether they can be integrated with 3DCP to fabricate efficient and environmentally friendly structures. For instance, the homogenization method allows for accurate computation of material properties using a systematic approach to obtain optimal topology. However, it may not be suitable for structures with complex material distributions and may struggle with handling geometric complexities. The SIMP method is advantageous as it provides a simple and effective way to model material properties and incorporate manufacturing constraints. Nevertheless, it produces designs with intermediate densities and may suffer from numerical instabilities. Next, the ESO method offers improved utilization of material resources by gradually removing ineffective material but may require a large number of iterations and struggle with complex geometries. Similarly, the BESO method efficiently optimizes structures by employing fundamental strategies but may produce designs with checkerboard patterns and require careful parameter tuning. On the other hand, the conventional level set method utilizes higher-dimensional embedded functions to implicitly represent solid-void interfaces accurately, which can handle topological changes during the optimization process. Nonetheless, it requires careful handling of interface tracking to avoid spurious geometries and may suffer from numerical diffusion and grid-related issues.

On the other hand, the RDLS method allows for specifying geometrical complexity but requires significant computational resources. Besides, this method is sensitive to parameter settings. The FPTO method incorporates floating projection constraints and heuristically simulates 0/1 constraints of design variables, leading to discrete and practical solutions, that provide robust optimization results by considering upper and lower bounds. However, the method’s heuristic nature may not guarantee global optimality, and it may require careful tuning of parameters to balance feasibility and optimality. The NMTO method establishes a signed-distance function to determine node-moving directions, allowing for efficient topology optimization, complex structure design, and flexibility in node manipulation. The disadvantage of the NMTO method is that it may struggle with handling complex boundary conditions and geometric constraints. These are just some general advantages and disadvantages of the topology optimization methods mentioned.

In summary, the suitability of each method regarding 3DCP depends on specific applications and requirements. Different topology optimization methods employ various mathematical formulations to represent and solve the optimization problem. Each formulation has its advantages and limitations in terms of modeling flexibility, convergence behavior, and computational efficiency. Besides, topology optimization methods may differ in the sensitivity analysis approach employed to evaluate the influence of design changes on the objective function and constraints. After obtaining an optimized design, different methods employ various post-processing techniques to interpret and convert the obtained results into manufacturable forms. These techniques can include filtering, mesh smoothing, or shape reconstruction algorithms. The selection of post-processing techniques impacts the final quality, manufacturability, and practicality of the optimized design.

Structural topology optimization in 3D concrete printing

Structural topology optimization has been widely applied in the field of 3DCP, due to the benefits to create efficient and optimized structures. By combining these two techniques, engineers can maximize the use of material, reduce weight, and enhance load-bearing capabilities, resulting in more sustainable and cost-effective structures.

The emergence of 3DCP technology has revolutionized the field of structural design by providing unprecedented freedom in creating intricate geometries and customized structures 93 . This capability opens up new opportunities for designers to push the boundaries of traditional design principles 94 , 95 . By harnessing the inherent freedom of design, 3DCP can create structures that are aesthetically appealing and optimized for performance and functionality 87 . For instance, the optimization of material distribution in 3DCP is a vital research direction to minimize material waste and optimize structural efficiency 14 , 96 . Since the last decade, structural topology optimization has been increasingly applied in 3DCP 97 , 98 . Figure 4 shows the research article number in the last decade integrating different topology optimization approaches and 3DCP using the keywords “3D printed concrete”, “Homogenization method”, “SIMP method”, “ESO method”, “BESO method”, “Level set method”, and “Phase field method” based on data obtained from the Web of Science database. This section focuses on the approaches that have been explored to achieve structural topology optimization in 3DCP. These include using additive manufacturing techniques to build complex geometries and incorporating reinforcement elements during the printing process 14 , 86 , 99 . Existing works 96 , 97 have demonstrated the ability to optimize the internal structure of concrete components, resulting in improved mechanical properties and enhanced performance.

The literature study includes research on the application of six typical optimization methods from 2014 to 2024.

The integration of topology optimization and 3DCP has the potential to enhance the performance and resource efficiency of buildings. With the increasing emphasis on sustainable and eco-friendly practices, optimized structural design has emerged as a critical strategy to reduce material usage while maintaining structural strength 99 , 100 . For instance, the varying physical properties present in functionally graded materials can be customized to meet specific requirements, all while making efficient use of material resources 101 . Building on the multi-material BESO method, a novel approach to 3DCP structural design was introduced 102 . In this approach, 3DPC components primarily experience compression without the need for extra reinforcement. Instead, they synergistically collaborate with tensioned steel cables to create an effective composite structural system. The previous study 96 examined the production process of a topology-optimized 3D printed concrete bridge structure, highlighting its significant deviation from the manufacturing procedures of conventional concrete structures. Yang et al. 103 presented an integrated design method for 3DCP by incorporating extrusion-based manufacturing characteristics into the topology optimization algorithm. Lightweight structures tend to have better seismic performance, increased durability, and reduced energy consumption compared to their heavier counterparts 61 . In addition, lighter structures require less foundation support, resulting in cost savings during construction 104 . Since construction activities are responsible for a significant amount of carbon emissions, reducing the amount of material used can significantly decrease the carbon footprint of a building.

Several examples of a combination of topology optimization and waste materials have been achieved using additive manufacturing 105 , 106 . These technologies provide benefits including minimized waste materials, accelerated construction timelines, and the capacity to create distinctive designs with intricate details. In addition, they classify large-scale 3DCP technologies, emphasizing the importance of optimizing printing ink to enhance economic and environmental results by utilizing waste materials in 3DCP applications. The combination of topology optimization and waste materials offers numerous benefits. Firstly, it promotes sustainable design practices by utilizing recycled or waste materials, contributing to the circular economy and reducing waste. Secondly, it helps reduce costs as waste materials are often less expensive or even available for free compared to conventional materials. In addition, incorporating waste materials into the design improves resource efficiency by minimizing the need for extracting and processing new materials. Moreover, the unique properties of waste materials can enhance the performance of the optimized design, such as strength, durability, or lightweight. This combination also encourages innovation and creativity by exploring unconventional design solutions.

In summary, the integration of topology optimization and 3DCP can enhance the performance and resource efficiency of buildings. The impact of structural lightweighting on seismic performance, durability, and energy consumption makes it a compulsory consideration in achieving resource efficiency. In terms of future research directions, further advancements in structural topology optimization for 3DCP are anticipated. This includes developing advanced algorithms that can handle anisotropic, large-scale optimization problems and integrating multi-material printing capabilities. In addition, research efforts could focus on exploring the potential of bio-inspired design principles and incorporating functional requirements such as interlocking, thermal insulation, and acoustic performance into the optimization process.

Toolpath design and optimization in 3D concrete printing

Toolpath design is a critical aspect of 3DCP as it directly impacts the quality, efficiency, and structural integrity of the printed components. Firstly, toolpath design takes into account material-related problems, such as the flowability and workability of the concrete mixture. By carefully planning the toolpath, engineers can ensure that the material is properly deposited, minimizing problems, such as clogging or inconsistent layering. Toolpath design also addresses process-related concerns, such as the prevention of sagging or deformation during printing. Optimizing the toolpath by the integration of factors such as load-bearing capabilities, stress distribution, and reinforcement placement, can enhance the structural integrity of the printed components.

Toolpath planning determines the success of the 3DCP process. Toolpath design involves mapping out the trajectory and deposition strategy of the printing toolhead to ensure accurate material placement and optimal structural integrity 101 , 107 , 108 . By carefully coordinating the movement of the toolhead, designers can achieve precise layering, intricate geometries, improved sustainability, and desired material properties in the printed structure. Xia et al. 109 proposed an integrated design method to improve the mechanical performance and manufacturability of material extrusion structures according to the technical characteristics of material extrusion. The technical aspects of toolpath planning encompass various considerations, such as path optimization 110 , 111 , 112 , layer sequencing 113 , 114 , manufacturing constraints 14 , 115 , 116 , and support structure generation 86 , 117 , 118 .

Figure 5 illustrates the number of publications during the past decade related to the keywords “3D printed concrete”, “Extrusion-based toolpath design”, “Geometric toolpath design”, “Toolpath visualization”, “Manufacturing constraints”, “Topology optimization-based toolpath design”, “Sliced toolpath design”, and “Toolpath design efficiency/performance” based on data obtained from the Web of Science database. Path optimization algorithms aim to minimize print time, reduce material waste, and enhance printing efficiency by optimizing the toolhead’s movement trajectory. Layer sequencing determines the order in which layers are printed to ensure stability and prevent collapse during the printing process. Material flow control involves adjusting the printing parameters, such as nozzle speed and extrusion rate, to achieve consistent material deposition and avoid defects. Lastly, support structure generation ensures the stability of overhanging or complex geometries during printing.

The literature study includes research on different toolpath design approaches from 2016 to 2024.

In recent years, there have been key research developments 14 , 15 , 96 , 119 in toolpath design and optimization. One of the key areas of focus has been on optimizing toolpaths for material efficiency and print time reduction. Researchers have explored various toolpath design methods with the instruction of topology optimization to achieve efficient and environmentally friendly structures. In addition, advancements in path optimization algorithms 110 , 111 , 112 , layer sequencing 113 , 114 , and support structure generation 86 , 117 , 118 have helped to enhance the printing efficiency and accuracy of 3DCP. Two novel printing techniques, “knitting” and “tilting” filaments, were proposed to address the anisotropy inherent in 3D printed ECC, emulating the natural crossed-lamellar structure of conch shells 120 . Three-dimensional spatial paths were devised to distribute tensile and flexural resistance in multiple directions and establish an interwoven interface system to enhance the strength of the structure.

The integration of toolpath design, 3D concrete printing, and topology optimization

Toolpath planning includes the strategic arrangement of the printing toolhead’s movement paths and deposition patterns to achieve the desired structural form 121 , 122 , 123 , 124 . This section aims to highlight the significance of toolpath planning in 3DCP and topology optimization. Existing methods for toolpath design in 3DCP involve a combination of computational algorithms, simulation techniques, and empirical knowledge. These methods consider various constraints and challenges, including printer limitations 14 , geometric complexity 16 , surface finish requirements 125 , overhang (self-support) problem 86 , interlocking 126 , and stability 127 during the printing process. They aim to generate toolpaths that maximize printing efficiency while ensuring the structural integrity and quality of the final product.

The toolpath design methods displayed in Fig. 5 can be integrated with 3DCP to fabricate efficient and high-performance structures depending on the fabrication requirements. Extrusion-based toolpath design in 3D concrete printing refers to the process of planning and creating the specific paths along which the extrusion nozzle will move to deposit layers of concrete material in a three-dimensional printed structure. Extrusion-based toolpath design 128 , 129 offers several advantages. It allows for the generation of toolpaths tailored to the specific material deposition process, resulting in efficient and optimized printing trajectories. By considering the extrusion process, this method can minimize print time, reduce material waste, and enhance printing efficiency. However, it may be limited in its ability to handle complex geometries and struggle with intricate support structure generation. Geometric toolpath design 16 , 130 focuses on creating toolpaths based on the geometric characteristics of the part being printed. This approach can lead to precise toolpaths that align with the part’s geometry, potentially reducing material waste. However, it may be less effective in optimizing toolpaths for overall printing efficiency and may struggle with handling complex layer sequencing. Toolpath visualization 131 , 132 provides a visual representation of the toolpaths, aiding in the identification of potential issues such as collisions, inefficient trajectories, or inadequate support structures. While it can help in identifying and addressing these issues, it may not actively optimize the toolpaths for print time, material waste, or printing efficiency. This method allows for precise control over layer sequencing and material flow control, ensuring stable and accurate printing. However, it may require additional computational resources and not fully optimize toolpaths for overall printing efficiency.

Toolpath design can be integrated with topology optimization to generate better performance 103 , 133 . Topology optimization-based toolpath design integrates the principles of topology optimization into the generation of toolpaths. By considering material deposition constraints and printing process dynamics, this method aims to create toolpaths that are not only geometrically optimized but also aligned with manufacturing constraints and support structure requirements. This approach can lead to highly efficient toolpaths that minimize print time, material waste, and enhance overall printing efficiency.

In summary, each of these toolpath design methods offers unique advantages and considerations. The selection of the most suitable method depends on the specific printing requirements, material characteristics, geometric complexity, and manufacturing constraints of the part being printed.

Benefits and challenges for future applications

The impact of toolpath optimization on the quality and efficiency of 3DCP has garnered significant attention. This section aims to analyze how optimized toolpaths positively influence printing quality and efficiency, emphasizing the reduction of waste and energy consumption. Advanced algorithms and computational models 119 , 127 , 134 are being developed to strategically plan the movement paths and deposition patterns of the printing toolhead, enabling precise material placement and optimized structural performance. A well-planned toolpath can result in structurally sound and aesthetically pleasing printed structures, while inadequate planning can lead to issues like material sagging, poor bonding between layers, or excessive material use 15 , 135 , 136 . Therefore, understanding and optimizing the toolpath planning process is vital for successful and reliable 3DCP 137 , 138 . Furthermore, toolpath planning also provides opportunities for customization and innovation in construction 16 , 125 . With the ability to precisely control the deposition pattern and material properties, designers can explore novel architectural forms, integrate functional features, and optimize performance characteristics.

Through systematic toolpath planning, it becomes possible to mitigate issues such as over-extrusion, uneven material distribution, and inaccuracies in layer deposition, ultimately leading to superior printing quality 112 , 139 . Moreover, the relationship between toolpath planning and material efficiency is paramount in the context of sustainable manufacturing practices. Optimized toolpaths contribute to the reduction of material waste and energy consumption by streamlining the printing process. Efficient toolpaths enable precise material deposition, minimize unnecessary movements, and optimize the use of support structures, thereby reducing material consumption and enhancing overall sustainability in 3DCP 132 , 140 , 141 .

The technical considerations involved in toolpath optimization for 3DCP encompass path optimization algorithms, print speed adjustments, and support structure generation. Path optimization algorithms aim to minimize print time and reduce material waste by optimizing the toolhead’s movement trajectory, while print speed adjustments ensure consistent material flow and deposition 132 . In addition, support structure generation and layer sequencing contribute to the stability and efficiency of the printing process 86 . Real-world case studies provide valuable insights into the benefits and challenges associated with toolpath optimization in construction projects 142 , 143 .

In terms of future research directions, there is a requirement to address additional constraints for the practical usage of 3DCP. For instance, the development of artificial intelligence empowered toolpath design methods for structures with complex geometric features. The integration of real-time monitoring and feedback systems into the toolpath design process can help improve accuracy and adaptability during printing. In addition, considering sustainability aspects, such as the use of recycled materials or minimizing waste, presents another avenue for future research in toolpath design for 3DCP.

Conclusions

This study presents a comprehensive overview of three vital aspects integrated with 3D concrete printing (3DCP) that contribute to enhancing sustainability in the construction sector. The first area of focus is sustainable material, which involves optimizing the constituents of printable materials through the recycling of waste materials into aggregates and supplementary cementitious materials. This approach reduces the environmental impact of the materials but also enhances the economic viability of 3DCP. The second vital area discussed is structural optimization, which plays a crucial role in maximizing structural performance and efficiency by rearranging material distribution. This optimization leads to improved structural integrity, reduced material usage, and minimized construction time and cost. Lastly, advances in toolpath planning have significantly improved the quality and efficiency of 3DCP. By strategically planning the movement paths and deposition patterns of the printing toolhead, toolpath optimization enhances printing accuracy, minimizes defects, and improves overall structural integrity. Furthermore, the review article also explores the influence of printing parameters on the quality and integrity of printed structures, providing valuable insights for future research and development in the field. By investigating the synergies between these three elements, this research aims to provide valuable insights for advancing sustainable and efficient building practices through the implementation of 3DCP technology.

The future of 3DCP in the construction sector is promising, while more systematic works are required to facilitate the practical application and sustainability of 3DCP:

Integration of Advanced Technologies: Future research should focus on integrating advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence and robotic control into toolpath optimization. These technologies can be adopted in the material design, system integration, and real-time optimization of printing processes.

Development of New Algorithms: There is a need for the development of new algorithms for toolpath optimization that can address specific challenges in 3DCP, such as handling complex geometries, optimizing material flow, and managing overhangs. These algorithms should also aim to optimize multiple objectives simultaneously.

Exploration of Novel Applications: Future research should explore novel applications of toolpath optimization in construction, such as printing complex architectural forms, integrating functional features, and creating customized structures. The potential of toolpath optimization in challenging environments, such as underwater or in space, should also be investigated.

Systematic literature review

This review article employs a systematic literature review approach based on established practices in additive manufacturing for construction to explore the intersections between 3DCP, material sustainability, structural topology optimization, and toolpath design. The Web of Science Core Collection, including indices such as SCI, SSCI, SCI-Expanded, and ESCI, is utilized to gather diverse publications until December 2023, encompassing journal articles, conference proceedings, books, and reports. A three-stage review method is meticulously designed to ensure objectivity and reproducibility.

Initially, relevant keywords, including “3D concrete printing,” “sustainable material,” “structural topology optimization,” and “toolpath design,” are defined to ensure a focused review. The literature reviews for sustainable material, TO, and toolpath design sections are conducted independently by different researchers. In the first stage, 1033 papers related to 3DCP are identified, with further breakdowns of 400 papers for sustainable material, 472 for structural topology optimization, and 161 for toolpath design. In the second stage, manual screening is conducted based on predefined criteria, including methodology robustness, published year, bibliographic information, and sustainability considerations. Comparative analysis results in the identification of 476 papers, comprising 245 for sustainable material, 136 for structural topology optimization, and 95 for toolpath design, as displayed in Figs. 3 , 4 , and 5 . In the third stage, the literature was further narrowed down to 160 references for inclusion in this review according to the specific criteria, including published journals, impact in the field, and number of citations. This three-step screening procedure guarantees that the literature review remains focused and relevant.

An analytical synthesis is then performed to summarize the primary studies of additive manufacturing in construction. The 160 studies obtained by the screening procedure are integrated systematically and classified into three sections according to their context, study design, and outcomes. The references cited in the sections on sustainable material, structural topology optimization, and toolpath design are 61, 76, and 23, respectively. In conclusion, the systematic literature review methodology minimizes reliance on subjective judgments, mitigates personal biases and errors, and upholds the integrity of scholarly research 144 .

Data availability

No datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.

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Acknowledgements

This project was funded by National Science and Foundation of China (52308284), Department of Science and Technology of Guangdong Province (306071352047), and Hong Kong Polytechnic University (P0038598, P0038966, P0044299, P0045796). The funder played no role in study design, data collection, analysis and interpretation of data, or the writing of this manuscript.

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These authors contributed equally: Zicheng Zhuang, Fengming Xu, Junhong Ye.

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Department of Building and Real Estate, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China

Zicheng Zhuang, Fengming Xu, Junhong Ye & Yiwei Weng

Department of Civil Engineering and Transportation, South China University of Technology, Hong Kong, China

Department of Building Environment and Energy Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China

Liming Jiang

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Z.Z., M.X., and J.Y. conducted the review and wrote the manuscript. H.N., L.J., and Y.W. made suggestions and revised the manuscript. Y.W. provided the resources and supervision. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Zhuang, Z., Xu, F., Ye, J. et al. A comprehensive review of sustainable materials and toolpath optimization in 3D concrete printing. npj Mater. Sustain. 2 , 12 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44296-024-00017-9

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Received : 30 December 2023

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s44296-024-00017-9

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