communication model presentation

8 Communication Models: Understanding What They Are and How They Work

Every day we communicate with one another, so we all understand how communication takes place, right? 

Actually, not always. 

To understand how we communicate, communication theorists have developed models that illustrate how communication plays out.

In a way, as the US communication theorist Harold D. Lasswell said, the theorists’ task is to answer the question “Who says what to whom with what effect?” . 

So, in this guide, we will:

• Introduce you to the models of communication that are most frequently encountered in the literature, 
• Explain how these models help with workplace communication, and 
• Dive deep into major models of communication and explain them in detail.

Without further ado, let’s begin!

Table of Contents

What are communication models?

According to Denis McQuail’s book Mass Communication Theory , “a model is a selective representation in verbal or diagrammatic form of some aspect of the dynamic process of mass communication.”   

In other words, models of communication provide us with a visual representation of the different aspects of a communication situation .

Since communication is a complex process, it’s often challenging to determine where a conversation begins and ends. 

That is where models of communication come in — to simplify the process of understanding communication .

Some models are more detailed than others, but even the most elaborate ones cannot perfectly represent what goes on in a communication encounter. 

How can communication models help with work communication?

Since communication is the lifeblood of any organization , we have to strive to understand how it works. 

Understanding communication models can help us:

• Think about our communication situations more deliberately , 
• Learn from our previous experiences , and 
• Better prepare for future communication situations . 

Do you remember the last time you had a misunderstanding with a colleague? 

Was the workplace miscommunication caused by a wrongly interpreted tone of a message? 

Or, maybe the email you had sent to your coworker ended up in the spam folder, so they didn’t even get it? 

Whatever the misunderstanding was, we have to come to terms with the fact that some communication encounters are successful, others not so much.

That is why we have so many current communication models we can utilize to plan successful communication situations . 

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Now that we have seen what communication models are and why they are important for our workplace communication, it is time we take a closer look at the 8 models of communication.

8 Major communication models

There are 8 major models of communication, which can be divided into 3 categories:

• Aristotle’s communication model, 
• Lasswell’s communication model,
• The Shannon-Weaver communication model, and
• Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model.
• The Osgood-Schramm communication model, and
• The Westley and Maclean communication model.
• Barnlund’s transactional communication model, and
• Dance’s Helical communication model. 

In the following paragraphs, we will analyze each of these models in detail, starting with linear models. 

Linear models of communication 

The linear communication model is straightforward and used mainly in marketing, sales, and PR, in communication with customers.

What is a linear model of communication? 

Linear communication models suggest that communication takes place only in one direction . 

The main elements in these models are:

• The channel , 
• The sender , and 
• The receiver . 

Some linear models of communication also mention noise as one of the factors that have a role in the communication process. Noise acts as the added (background) element that usually distracts from the original message. 

But, we’ll talk more about the role of noise in the communication process later on. For now, let’s start with the basic elements of the linear communication model. 

As illustrated in the linear communication model diagram below, this communication model is pretty straightforward. 

Simply put, the sender transmits the message via a channel. 

The channel, as the medium, changes the message into speech, writing, or animation. 

The message then finally reaches the receiver, who decodes it. 

We already mentioned the 3 most prominent linear models of communication, and now it is time to analyze each one of them in more detail.

1. Aristotle’s model of communication 

The oldest communication model that dates back to 300 BC, Aristotle’s model was designed to examine how to become a better and more persuasive communicator . 

What is Aristotle’s model of communication? 

Aristotle’s model of communication primarily focuses on the sender (public speaker, professor, etc.) who passes on their message to the receiver (the audience).

The sender is also the only active member in this model, whereas the audience is passive. This makes Aristotle’s communication model a foolproof way to excel in public speaking, seminars, and lectures. 

What are the main elements of Aristotle’s communication model? 

Aristotle identified 3 elements that improve communication within this model:

• Ethos — Defines the credibility of the speaker. Speaker gains credibility, authority, and power by being an expert in a field of their choice.
• Pathos — Connects the speaker with the audience through different emotions (anger, sadness, happiness, etc.)
• Logos — Signifies logic. Namely, it is not enough for the speech to be interesting — it needs to follow the rules of logic.

As shown in Aristotle’s communication model diagram below, Aristotle also suggested that we look at 5 components of a communication situation to analyze the best way to communicate: 

• Speaker ,  
• Speech ,  
• Occasion ,  
• Target audience , and  
• Effect .  

Aristotle’s communication model example 

Picture this: 

Professor Hustvedt is giving a lecture on neurological disorders to her students. 

She delivers her speech persuasively, in a manner that leaves her students mesmerized. 

The professor is at the center of attention, whereas her audience — her students — are merely passive listeners. Nevertheless, her message influences them and makes them act accordingly. 

So, in this situation, professor Hustvedt is the speaker , and her lecture on disorders is the act of speech . 

The occasion in question is a university lecture, while the students are her target audience . 

The effect of her speech is the students gaining knowledge on this subject matter.

One of the major drawbacks of this model is that it does not pay attention to the feedback in communication because the audience is passive.

2. Lasswell’s model of communication 

The next linear model on our list is Lasswell’s Model of mass communication. 

What is Lasswell’s model of communication? 

Lasswell’s communication model views communication as the transmission of a message with the effect as the result. 

The effect in this case is the measurable and obvious change in the receiver of the message that is caused by the elements of communication. 

If any of the elements change, the effect also changes. 

What are the main elements of Lasswell’s communication model? 

Lasswell’s model aims to answer the following 5 questions regarding its elements: 

• Who created the message? 
• What did they say?
• What channel did they use (TV, radio, blog)?
• To whom did they say it?
• What effect did it have on the receiver?

The answers to these questions offer us the main components of this model:

• Communicator ,
• Audience/Receiver , and
• Effect .   

If we take a look at Lasswell’s communication model diagram below, we can get a better understanding of how these main components are organized.

Lasswell’s communication model example

Let’s say you are watching an infomercial channel on TV and on comes a suitcase salesman, Mr. Sanders. 

He is promoting his brand of suitcases as the best. Aware that millions of viewers are watching his presentation, Mr. Sanders is determined to leave a remarkable impression. 

By doing so, he is achieving brand awareness, promoting his product as the best on the market, and consequently increasing sales revenue. 

So, in this instance, Mr. Sanders is the communicator . 

The message he is conveying is the promotion of his brand of suitcases as the best. 

The medium he uses is television.

His audience consists of evening TV viewers in the US.

The effect he is achieving by doing this is raising brand awareness and increasing sales revenue. 

3. The Shannon-Weaver model of communication 

Maybe the most popular model of communication is the Shannon-Weaver model. 

Strangely enough, Shannon and Weaver were mathematicians, who developed their work during the Second World War in the Bell Telephone Laboratories. They aimed to discover which channels are most effective for communicating. 

So, although they were doing research as part of their engineering endeavors, they claimed that their theory is applicable to human communication as well. 

And, they were right. 

What is the Shannon-Weaver model of communication? 

The Shannon-Weaver communication model, therefore, is a mathematical communication concept that proposes that communication is a linear, one-way process that can be broken down into 5 key concepts. 

What are the main elements of the Shannon-Weaver communication model? 

As the Shanon-Weaver communication model diagram below shows, the main components of this model are:

• Decoder , and
• Receiver .  

Shannon and Weaver were also the first to introduce the role of noise in the communication process. In his book Introduction to Communication Studies , John Fiske defines noise as: 

“Anything that is added to the signal between its transmission and reception that is not intended by the source.”   

The noise appears in the form of mishearing a conversation, misspelling an email, or static on a radio broadcast.  

The Shannon-Weaver communication model example

Paula, a VP of Marketing in a multinational company, is briefing Julian on new marketing strategies they are about to introduce next month. 

She wants a detailed study of the competitor’s activity by the end of the week. 

Unfortunately, while she was speaking, her assistant Peter interrupted her, and she forgot to tell Julian about the most important issue. 

At the end of the week, Julian did finish the report, but there were some mistakes, which had to be corrected later on. 

Let’s take a moment to briefly analyze this example.

Paula is the sender , her mouth being the encoder . 

The meeting she held was the channel . 

Julian’s ears and brain were decoders , and Julian was the receiver . 

Can you guess Peter’s role? 

Yes, he was the noise .

The trouble in this process was the lack of feedback. Had Julian asked Paula for clarification after Peter interrupted her, the whole communication process would have been more effective, and there would have been no mistakes. 

Updated version of the Shannon-Weaver communication model 

Since the original version didn’t include it, the principle of feedback was added to the updated version, so the model provided a more truthful representation of human interaction. 

The concept of feedback was derived from the studies of Norbert Wiener , the so-called father of cybernetics. 

Simply put, feedback is the transfer of the receiver’s reaction back to the sender . 

It allows the speaker to modify their performance according to the reaction of the audience. 

Maybe the most important function of feedback is the fact that it helps the receiver feel involved in the communication process. 

That makes the receiver more receptive to the message because they feel their opinion is being taken into account.

🎓 Pumble Pro Tip  

In addition to being an important element in this communication model, feedback is also an integral part of effective workplace communication. To find out more about why it’s essential and how to practice it in the workplace, take a look at our resources:

• How to give constructive feedback when working remotely  
• How to ask your manager for feedback
• Feedback vs feedforward: Moving from feedback to feedforward  

4. Berlo’s S-M-C-R model of communication 

Berlo’s model of communication was first defined by David Berlo in his 1960 book The Process of Communication . 

This communication model is unique in the sense that it gives a detailed account of the key elements in each step.

What is Berlo’s S-M-C-R model of communication?

Simply put, Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model is a linear model of communication that suggests communication is the transfer of information between 4 basic steps or key elements.  

What are the main elements of Berlo’s Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model? 

As shown in Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model diagram below, these steps are the following:

• Source , 
• Channel , and

Let’s consider the key elements that affect how well the message is communicated, starting with the source. 

Step #1: The source

The source or the sender carefully puts their thoughts into words and transfers the message to the receiver. 

So, how does the sender transfer the information to the receiver according to Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model?

With the help of:

• Communication skills —  First and foremost, the source needs good communication skills to ensure the communication will be effective . The speaker should know when to pause, what to repeat, how to pronounce a word, etc.
• Attitude —  Secondly, the source needs the right attitude. Without it, not even a great speaker would ever emerge as a winner. The source needs to make a lasting impression on the receiver(s). 
• Knowledge — Here, knowledge does not refer to educational qualifications but to the clarity of the information that the source wants to transfer to the receiver.  
• Social system — The source should be familiar with the social system in which the communication process takes place. That would help the source not to offend anyone. 
• Culture — Last but not least, to achieve effective communication , the source needs to be acquainted with the culture in which the communication encounter is taking place. This is especially important for cross-cultural communication . 

🎓 Pumble Pro Tip

For more on how to improve cross-cultural communication and adapt to the global workforce, learn all about cultural intelligence and how to improve it in our blog post: 

• Cultural intelligence: Definition, importance, and tips   

Step #2: The message

The speaker creates the message when they transform their thoughts into words. 

Here are the key factors of the message:

• Content — Simply put, this is the script of the conversation. 
• Elements — Speech alone is not enough for the message to be fully understood. That is why other elements have to be taken into account: gestures, body language, facial expressions, etc. 
• Treatment — The way the source treats the message. They have to be aware of the importance of the message so that they can convey it appropriately.
• Structure — The source has to properly structure the message to ensure the receiver will understand it correctly. 
• Code — All the elements, verbal and nonverbal, need to be accurate if you do not want your message to get distorted and misinterpreted.

Step #3: The channel 

To get from the source to the receiver, the message goes through the channel .

Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model identifies all our senses are the channels that help us communicate with one another. 

Our sense of hearing lets us know that someone is speaking to us. 

Through our sense of taste , we gather information about the spiciness of a sauce we are eating.

Our sense of sight allows us to decipher traffic signs while driving.

We decide whether we like a certain perfume or not by smelling it. 

By touching the water we feel whether it is too cold for a swim.

Step #4: The receiver

A receiver is a person the source is speaking to — the destination of the conveyed message.

To understand the message, the receiver should involve the same elements as the source. They should have similar communication skills, attitudes, and knowledge, and be acquainted with the social system and culture in which they communicate.

Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model example 

Watching the news on television is the perfect example of Berlo’s S-M-C-R Model of communication.

In this case, the news presenter is the source of the news and they convey the message to the audience. 

The news is the message, the television is the channel, and the audience are the receivers of the message. 

Now that we have become acquainted with linear models of communication, it is time we move on to something a little more complex and dynamic — interactive models of communication.

Interactive models of communication 

Interactive models are used in internet-based and mediated communication such as telephone conversations, letters, etc. 

What is an interactive model of communication?

As more dynamic models, interactive communication models refer to two-way communication with feedback.

However, feedback within interactive communication models is not simultaneous, but rather slow and indirect.

What are the main elements of interactive communication models? 

The main elements of these models, illustrated in the interactive communication model diagram, include the following:

• Feedback , and 
• Field of experience .

You probably noticed the new, previously not seen element — field of experience . 

The field of experience represents a person’s culture, past experiences, and personal history. 

All of these factors influence how the sender constructs a message, as well as how the receiver interprets it. Every one of us brings a unique field of experience into communication situations.

We have already mentioned the most noteworthy interactive models of communication. 

Now it is time for us to consider them in greater detail.

5. The Osgood-Schramm model of communication

In their book Communication Models for the Study of Mass Communications , Denis Mcquail and Sven Windahl say that the emergence of this model “meant a clear break with the traditional linear/one-way picture of communication.”  

What is the Osgood-Schramm model of communication? 

The Osgood-Schramm model is a circular model of communication, in which messages go in two directions between encoding and decoding. 

As such, this model is useful for describing synchronous, interpersonal communication , but less suitable for cases with little or no feedback.

Interestingly, in the Osgood-Schramm communication model, there is no difference between a sender and a receiver . Both parties are equally encoding and decoding the messages. The interpreter is the person trying to understand the message at that moment. 

Furthermore, the Osgood-Schramm communication model shows that information is of no use until it is put into words and conveyed to other people. 

What are the main principles and steps in the communication process according to this model? 

The Osgood-Schramm communication model proposes 4 main principles of communication: 

• Communication is circular. — Individuals involved in the communication process are changing their roles as encoders and decoders.
• Communication is equal and reciprocal. — Both parties are equally engaged as encoders and decoders.
• The message requires interpretation. — The information needs to be properly interpreted to be understood.
• As shown in the Osgood-Schramm communication model diagram below, this model proposes 3 steps in the process of communication: 
• Decoding , and 
• Interpreting . 

The Osgood-Schramm communication model example

Imagine you have not heard from your college friend for 15 years. Suddenly, they call you, and you start updating each other about what happened during the time you have not seen each other. 

In this example, you and your friend are equally encoding and decoding messages, and your communication is synchronous. You are both interpreting each other’s messages. 

In Information Theory and Mass Communication , Schramm even says: 

“ It is misleading to think of the communication process as starting somewhere and ending somewhere. It is really endless. We are really switchboard centers handling and re-routing the great endless current of information .”

6. The Westley and Maclean model of communication 

The next interactive communication model on our list is the Westley and Maclean model of communication. 

This communication model is primarily used for explaining mass communication.

What is the Westley and Maclean communication model? 

The Westley and Maclean communication model suggests that the communication process does not start with the source/sender, but rather with environmental factors .

This model also takes into account the object of the orientation (background, culture, and beliefs) of the sender and the receiver of messages. 

The very process of communication, according to this communication model, starts with environmental factors that influence the speaker — the culture or society the speaker lives in, whether the speaker is in a public or private space, etc.  

Aside from that, the role of feedback is also significant.

What are the main elements of the Westley and Maclean communication model? 

This model consists of 9 crucial components: 

• Environment (X) ,
• Sensory experience (X¹) ,
• Source/Sender (A) ,
• The object of the orientation of the source (X²) ,
• Receiver (B) ,
• The object of the orientation of the receiver (X³) ,
• Feedback (F) ,
• Gatekeepers (C) , and 
• Opinion leaders .

The Westley and Maclean communication model diagram below shows how these components are organized in the communication process. 

The Westley and Maclean communication model example

Imagine that on your way to the office, you witness a road accident. 

This is the type of stimulus that would nudge you to call your friends and tell them about what you had seen, or call your boss to say you are going to be a bit late. 

So, the communication process in this example does not start with you, but with the road accident you have witnessed. 

Acknowledgment of the environmental factors in communication, therefore, allows us to pay attention to the social and cultural contexts that influence our acts of communication.

Now that we have seen what the elements of communication in this model are, let’s look at all of them in greater detail.

9 Key elements of communication in the Westley and Maclean communication model

As mentioned above, this model shows that the communication process does not start from the sender of the message, but rather from the environment. 

So, we will start with this element.

Element #1: Environment (X)

According to the Westley and Maclean Model, the communication process starts when a stimulus from the environment motivates a person to create and send a message. 

Element #2: Sensory experience (X¹)

When the sender of the message experiences something in their environment that nudges them to send the message, then that sensory experience becomes an element of communication.

In the example above, the sensory experience would be witnessing a road accident. 

Element #3: Source/Sender (A)

Only now does the sender come into play.

In the above-mentioned example, you are the sender, as well as a participant in the interpersonal communication situation . 

However, a sender can also be a newscaster sending a message to millions of viewers. In that case, we are talking about mass communication . 

Element #4: The object of the orientation of the source (X²)

The next element of communication in this model is the object of the orientation of the source. 

Namely, the object of the orientation of the source is the sender’s beliefs or experiences . 

If we take the previously-mentioned road accident as an example, you (A) are concerned (X²) that you are going to be late for work because of the accident (X¹), and that is why you are calling your boss (B). 

Element #5: Receiver (B)

The receiver is the person who receives the message from the sender. 

In mass communication, a receiver is a person who watches TV, reads a newspaper, etc.

When speaking about interpersonal communication, a receiver is a person who listens to the message . 

In the example of a road accident, mentioned above, the receivers of the message are your friends and your boss. 

Element #6: The object of the orientation of the receiver (X³)

The object of orientation of the receiver is the receiver’s beliefs or experiences , which influence how the message is received. 

For example, your friend (B) watching the news is worried about your safety (X³) after receiving the message. 

Element #7: Feedback (F)

Feedback is crucial for this model because it makes this model circular, rather than linear. 

As a matter of fact, feedback influences how messages are sent . 

That means that a receiver and a gatekeeper are sending messages back to the sender. 

After they have received the feedback, the sender modifies the message and sends it back. 

Let’s go back to our example (about the road accident). 

So, you have witnessed the accident and feel the urge to call your best friend. 

You: “There was a terrible accident downtown!”

Your friend: “My goodness! Are you hurt?”

You: “No, no, I just witnessed it. I wasn’t involved! Don’t worry!”

In this example, after the feedback from your worried friend, you modify your message and send it back to them. 

Element #8: Gatekeepers (C)

This element usually occurs in mass communication, rather than in interpersonal communication. 

Gatekeepers are editors of the messages senders are trying to communicate to receivers. 

For example, these are newspaper editors who edit the message before it reaches the readers. 

Element #9: Opinion leaders

Again, this element of communication refers to mass communication situations. 

Namely, opinion leaders have an immense influence as an environmental factor (X) on the sender of the message (A). 

These are political leaders, celebrities, or social media influencers. 

Now that we are familiar with interactive models, all we have left to analyze are the transactional communication models. 

Transactional communication models

Transactional models are the most dynamic communication models, which first introduce a new term for senders and receivers — communicators. 

What is a transactional communication model? 

Transactional communication models view communication as a transaction , meaning that it is a cooperative process in which communicators co-create the process of communication, thereby influencing its outcome and effectiveness. 

In other words, communicators create shared meaning in a dynamic process .

Aside from that, transactional models show that we do not just exchange information during our interactions, but create relationships, form cross-cultural bonds, and shape our opinions. 

In other words, communication helps us establish our realities .

These models also introduced the roles of: 

• Social, 
• Relational, and 
• Cultural contexts.

Moreover, these models acknowledge that there are barriers to effective communication — noise .

What are the main elements of transactional communication models? 

If we take a look at the transactional communication model diagram below, we can identify the key components of this communication model:

• Decoding ,  
• Communicators ,
• The message ,
• The channel , and  
• Noise .  

We have already mentioned the most prominent transactional models of communication, and now it is time to thoroughly analyze them.

7. Barnlund’s transactional model of communication

Barnlund’s transactional communication model explores interpersonal, immediate-feedback communication.

What is Barnlund’s transactional communication model? 

Barnlund’s model of communication recognizes that communication is a circular process and a multi-layered feedback system between the sender and the receiver, both of whom can affect the message being sent. 

The sender and the receiver change their places and are equally important. Feedback from the sender is the reply for the receiver, and both communicators provide feedback. 

At the same time, both sender and receiver are responsible for the communication’s effect and effectiveness. 

What are the main elements of Barnlund’s communication model? 

Barnlund’s transactional communication model diagram below illustrates the following main components of this communication model:

• The message (including the cues, environment, and noise), and
• The channel .

This model accentuates the role of cues in impacting our messages. 

So, Barnlund differentiates between:

• Public cues (environmental cues),
• Private cues (person’s personal thoughts and background), and
• Behavioral cues (person’s behavior, that can be verbal and nonverbal). 

All these cues, as well as the environment and noise, are part of the message. Each communicator’s reaction depends on their background, experiences, attitudes, and beliefs. 

Barnlund’s transactional communication model example

Examples of Barnlund’s Model of communication include:

• Face-to-face interactions, 
• Chat sessions , 
• Telephone conversations, 
• Meetings , etc. 

Let’s illustrate this model with an example from a business messaging app Pumble . 

Why was there a misunderstanding in this conversation even though everything seemed fine at first glance? 

This misunderstanding has arisen due to cultural cues. 

Namely, Catherine had thought that Irene wanted a day off on July 4th. 

However, Irene comes from Canada and celebrates Independence Day on July 1st. 

On that day, she does not show up at work to Catherine’s bewilderment, because she has expected Irene to take a day off on July 4th, on US Independence Day. 

So, due to cultural cues, there was a misunderstanding between them. 

Still, this misunderstanding could have easily been avoided, had they cleared up the dates by providing each other with feedback. 

8. Dance’s Helical model of communication 

According to Dance’s Helical model of communication, with every cycle of communication, we expand our circle. 

Therefore, each communication encounter is different from the previous one because communication never repeats itself. 

What is Dance’s Helical communication model? 

Dance’s Helical communication model views communication as a circular process that gets more and more complex as communication progresses. 

That is why it is represented by a helical spiral in the Dance’s Helical communication model diagram below. 

In their book Communication: Principles for a Lifetime , Steven A. Beebe, Susan J. Beebe, and Diana K. Ivy state: 

“Interpersonal communication is irreversible. Like the spiral shown here, communication never loops back on itself. Once it begins, it expands infinitely as the communication partners contribute their thoughts and experiences to the exchange.” Steven A. Beebe, Susan J. Beebe, Diana K. Ivy

According to this communication model, in the communication process, the feedback we get from the other party involved influences our next statement and we become more knowledgeable with every new cycle. 

Dance’s Helical communication model example 

Dance himself explained his model with the example of a person learning throughout their life. 

Namely, a person starts to communicate with their surroundings very early on, using rudimentary methods of communication. 

For instance, as babies, we cry to get our mothers’ attention. Later on, we learn to speak in words, and then in full sentences.

During the whole process, we build on what we know to improve our communication. 

Every communication act is, therefore, a chance for us to learn how to communicate more effectively in the future, and feedback helps us achieve more effective communication. 

In a way, our whole life is one communicational journey toward the top of Dance’s helix.

Wrapping up: Communication models help us solve our workplace communication problems 

Communication in real life might be too complex to be truly represented by communication models. 

However, models of communication can still help us examine the steps in the process of communication, so we can better understand how we communicate both in the workplace and outside of it.

Let’s sum up the key takeaways from this guide.

In this guide, we have covered the most important models of communication, divided into 3 categories:

• Linear models — Mainly used in marketing, sales, and PR, in communication with customers, these models view communication as a one-way process.
• Interactive models — Used in internet-based and mediated communication, they refer to two-way communication with indirect feedback.
• Transactional models — The most complex models of communication, which best reflect the communication process.

Although none of these models represent our communication 100%, they can help us detect and solve potential problems and improve our communication skills.

References:

• Beebe, S. A., Beebe, S. J., & Ivy, D. K. (2022). Communication: Principles for a lifetime . Pearson Education Limited. 
• Berlo, David K. (1960). The Process of Communication . Harcourt School. 
• Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. (n.d.). Models of communication . Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved September 7, 2023, from https://www.britannica.com/topic/communication/Models-of-communication
• Fiske, J. (2011). Introduction to communication studies . Routledge.
• Hartley, J. (2020). Communication, cultural and Media Studies: The key concepts . Routledge.
• Iyer, N., Veenstra, A. S., & Sapienza, Z. (2015, January 1). Reading Lasswell’s model of communication backward: Three scholarly misconceptions . Mass Communication and Society. Retrieved September 7, 2023, from https://www.academia.edu/13182400/Reading_Lasswells_Model_of_Communication_Backward_Three_Scholarly_Misconceptions
• Jones, R. G. (2018). Communication in the real world . Flat World Knowledge.
• Learning, L. (n.d.). Principles of public speaking . Principles of Public Speaking | Simple Book Production. Retrieved September 7, 2023, from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/publicspeakingprinciples/
• McQuail, D. (2012). McQuail’s mass communication theory . SAGE.
• McQuail, D., & Windahl, S. (2016). Communication models: For the study of Mass Communications . Routledge.
• MSG Management  Study  Guide . Communication Models – Aristotle, Berlos, Shannon and Weaver, Schramms. (n.d.). Retrieved September 7, 2023, from https://www.managementstudyguide.com/communication-models.htm
• Pierce, T., & Corey, A. M. (2009). The evolution of human communication: From theory to practice . EtrePress.
• Schramm, W. (1955). Information theory and mass … – journals.sagepub.com . SAGE Journals. Retrieved September 7, 2023, from https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/107769905503200201 

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1.2: Basic Process Models of Communication

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• Page ID 90671

• Daniel Usera & contributing authors
• Austin Community College

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LEARNING OUTCOMES

• Identify and define the basic components of different communication models.
• Discuss how various communication models can be applied to real-world situations.

BASIC PROCESS MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

Imagine you are learning how to build your own computer. You are familiar with how to use computer technology and on a functional level you understand how computers work. Have you ever taken the time to examine and learn the process of computing to understand the series of actions necessary to make them work?

Learning about the communication process is like learning about any other process. We are familiar with different ways we communicate through channels like the spoken word or text messaging. What are some of the processes that shape communication? How can we understand these processes to become more competent communicators?

Understanding interpersonal communication is enhanced by internalizing processes of interaction. To continue this process, we turn to interaction models that elucidate the unique phenomena involved in human communication. The basic process models covered in this module do not include every model but focus on important models pertinent to grasping communication.

Transmission models

Transmission models of communication focuses on the transportation of message(s) from one communicator to another to disseminate knowledge over space (Sapienza, et. al., 2016). Transmission models are focuse on communication as a linear process where the sender is projecting a message to a target without much consideration to ongoing process or feedback loops as described in other models.

In 1949 mathematician Claude Shannon and engineer Warren Weaver developed a basic transmission model of communication that serves as a foundational tool to understanding the communication process (Shannon & Weaver, 1949). The Shannon and Weaver model breaks communication down into five parts- Sender, Encoder, Channel, Decoder, Receiver (Figure 1).

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Shannon-Weaver’s Model of Communication

Note . Notice how the sender and receiver both undergo the transaction simultaneously.

The sender is the original information source of the message. Encoder refers to the transmitter that converts the message into signals. Channel is the means by which the message is conveyed. Decoder is the location of the signal that converts the message. Receiver is the intended target of the message. As a message passes from sender to receiver, it can be impeded by noise , which can alter or distort the message meant for the receiver.

For example, let’s say that Blake is a chemistry professor who is explaining the periodic table in class. Blake would represent the sender or information source.

Blake’s means of encoding or transmitting would be his brain converting the ideas into a message. The channel professor Blake is using is their voice accompanied by writing a diagram on the board.

The decoders would be the ears and eyes of the students in the class. The receivers or destinations are the brains of the students. In this chemistry class there is an abundance of noise that is inhibiting the transmission of the message that Professor Blake is sending. Jamie and Dakota are mischievous class clown types who are intent on derailing the learning experience by making various animal noises at their lab station.

Alex is more interested in watching YouTube videos on a phone with one earbud in and one out, feigning attention to Professor Blake’s message. Meanwhile, Jordan who is desperately attempting to learn chemistry is internally enraged at the inattentive classmates and periodically sneers and makes gestures imploring others to be silent.

In mass mediated communication, messages are encoded into various channels. In a State of the Union address, the President of the United States has a target audience- the American public. The President and his team craft the speech over a period to be delivered to Congress and broadcast live to a television audience. This speech will be simultaneously broadcast through radio and internet channels.

The process described above differs from the immediate interpersonal context of transaction because it is not as dependent on immediate feedback. Yes, people will respond in real time through discussions and social media posts. However, this has no impact on the original message created as it was designed as a one-way communication event. How the President’s message is interpreted will differ significantly due to subjective interpretations based on identity.

Even in a process that is more one-way than immediately interactive, human beings are still communicating meaning to each other. Understanding the differences in structure, code and channel help us gain insight in how these processes influence our interactions on a macro and micro level. In a State of the Union address the President is speaking to the entire country with specific ideas and declarations to embolden ardent supporters.

All of these examples show how noise can impede the quality of a message. Now that we have briefly discussed the Shannon and Weaver model, we will turn to Berlo’s adaptation of the Shannon and Weaver model.

Berlo’s SMCR Model

In 1960, David Berlo expanded the Shannon and Weaver model to more accurately reflect the communication process (Turaga, 2016). Berlo’s model is divided into four basic components: source, message, and channel and receiver. In each pillar of Berlo’s model are subcategories that describe the interaction process in greater detail (Figure 2).

Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication

Adapted from Berlo's SMCR Model of Communication, by Communication Theory ( https://www.communicationtheory.org/...communication/ )

The source is the origin of the message. Source can also be analogous to sender as the messenger provides the initial context of the interaction. The source must have basic communication skills such as reading, speaking and listening to be an effective communicator. In addition, the attitude of the sender is important in developing a relationship with the audience. The sender must also be knowledgeable regarding the subject matter she/he is discussing.

Inherent in every message are the social systems (values, beliefs, religion) the sender is immersed in, which impacts the rhetorical choices the sender makes. Culture also influences the sender’s message as messages can be interpreted differently depending on an individual’s cultural background.

The first element to consider in a message is content. What is included in the message from beginning to end? Elements are additional aspects such as gestures and signs, that accompany the transmission of the message. Treatment is the way the message is sent, similar to gift wrapping of a present where the message itself is wrapped inside the treatment.

Structure refers to the framework of the message or how the message is constructed. Code refers to form, i.e. text or language that the message is conveyed in.

Similar to the Shannon and Weaver model, channel refers to the medium in which the message is delivered. In order for the message to be received it must be perceived by one or more of the five senses: sight, hearing, smell, touch or taste. Most often, messages are conveyed through sight and sound but non-verbal elements such as touch, taste or smell can also convey meaning, as any chef or dancer will tell you.

Receiver is the person, destination or decoder of the message. As we discussed with the sender, attitude, knowledge, social systems and culture must be considered in understanding how this process works.

Berlo’s model is a simplistic description of the communication process. All messages begin with a person of origin and destination. Let’s return to our scenario involving Professor Blake’s chemistry class. Professor Blake needs to relay and important message to students involving next week’s test. Blake wants to inform them about changes to the study guide but has noticed a few of the students were absent in the last class meeting.

Professor Blake is the source and the message describes the important changes. To ensure continuity, Blake decides to send the message through the channel of email. The message is marked “URGENT” in capital letters to increase the chances the students will open it.

The tag “URGENT” is an example of an element to punctuate the message. Despite the fact Blake has been frustrated lately with some of the students in class, Blake makes sure to use an upbeat tone to not display frustration. Good teachers need to be balanced and exhibit patience.

Always remember attitude is important in developing and maintaining a relationship with the audience. If Professor Blake does not get the desired feedback then changes may need to be made to the communication channel or code.

Transactional model

The transactional model of communication is a more simplified model for understanding the communication process. Developed by Dean Barnlund (2008), the transactional model can be understood as a circular model of communication, more focused on the simultaneous interaction of participants than a linear process (Figure 3).

Both sender and receiver are continually affected by the messages being sent and received back and forth. The transactional model reflects an exchange of ideas, meaning and feelings. Similar to a relationship between a business owner and a client, communication depends on the giving and receiving of information or content.

Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): Transactional Model of Communication

Note . Observe that the Transactional Model recognizes feedback in communication, suggesting the joint activity and meaning-making that occurs between interlocutors.

In the transactional model, communication is simultaneous and interdependent. Riley is a physical therapist who helps clients recover from injuries. Much of Riley’s job is to understand the pain and discomfort of the clients in order to effectively help them recuperate. In this situation, both Riley and the clients must exchange information in order to accomplish mutual goals. Riley wants to help the clients recover and the clients want to feel better.

Riley’s newest client, Cameron is a challenge to help. Cameron has suffered from several injuries from playing soccer, including a few concussions. The problem is Cameron does not like to verbally disclose the injuries because of the desire to continue playing. This unwillingness to disclose injuries makes it difficult for Riley to properly treat Cameron.

In this situation, both Riley and Cameron are dependent on each other to reach the desired outcome. They both have different goals. While Riley wants to do the job properly and ensure Cameron’s health and safety, Cameron is reluctant to disclose information in order to stay on the field. Each person in this situation must mitigate the other’s feelings, ideas and goals in real time to come to a shared meaning or mutually beneficial outcome.

The transactional model of communication emphasizes the role of feedback and the ongoing negotiation of participants in an interpersonal context. How is communication different in situations that are less personal and immediate? To help answer this question, we turn to the transmission model of communication.

Now that we have discussed the idea of communication as transmission we turn to a discussion of rituals. Often, our communication practices depend on a repetitive dynamic of sharing meaning through symbolic interaction and the reinforcement of cultural values.

Ritual model

The ritual model of communication focuses on the sharing of information and preserving that information over time (Figure 5). Ritual communication relies on shared belief systems (Carey, 2009).

Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\): Ritual model

Note . The ritual model emphasizes how communicators draw from outside sources to establish the meaning of everyday messages.

Developed by James Carey, the ritual model considers symbolism, shared practices and codes which produce a cultural identity. An audience is more participant than receiver in an ongoing dance of familiar steps. Communication is not a simple process of sending a message to a receiver. Communication is shaped by the process itself, rather than the content of the message.

Take the evening news for example. Often these broadcasts begin with morbid subjects like the coverage of a murder or kidnapping. Then the broadcast will cover the weather, sports and a human-interest story. Viewers have an expectation of how this format will proceed because of the familiarity of the format.

Content does not change much from broadcast to broadcast as the same types of stories are plugged into the recognizable format. Evening news broadcasts may be viewed while the family eats dinner and discusses the day’s proceedings. Engagement with the evening news serves as cultural currency for the consumer and the messages therein become conversation points to expand on in everyday conversations. Thus, communication content is shaped directly by the evening news ritual.

In closing, we have covered three types of models of communication to understand how interactions work and are affected by feedback and context. Our everyday interactions are shaped by a variety of factors that can alter the meaning or understanding of content. Often, the same message can be understood more effectively by changing the code or channel in which it is presented. By learning process models, we can more effectively encode and decode messaging to become more competent communicators.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Activity 1: Personal Model of Interpersonal Communication

In small groups of 3-5 students, have them develop their own model of interpersonal communication. Include all of the components that are necessary to describe how communication between people works. The model could be a drawing or an object (such as a toaster or slinky toy) that symbolizes the communication process. Prepare to share the model with the class, explaining in detail about the model.

Activity 2: Barriers to Communication

In small groups of 3-5 students, assign each group a different communication context (i.e., verbal, written and/or online). Have them discuss within their group potential communication barriers for their context and ways to reduce those barriers. They should be prepared to discuss their answers with the class. During this discuss, the instructor should highlight common barriers that overlap the varied contexts for further discussion about the communication process (in general).

Examples of different communication contexts that may be used in this activity include:

· Verbal : interpersonal conversations with friends, family, co-workers, acquaintances and others; presentations in public settings; and communication business situations.

· Written : writing a personal letter; text messaging with family, friends or others; and business writing such as a proposal, memo or presentation.

· Online : emailing family or friends; using social media to connect with friends or others; communicating with others via instant messaging or video conferencing software.

Barnlund, D. C. (2008). A transactional model of communication. In. C. D. Mortensen (Ed.), Communication Theory (2 nd ed., pp. 47-57). Routledge.

Carey, J.W. (2009). A cultural approach to communication. In Communication as Culture (pp. 11-28). Routledge.

Sapienza, Z.S., et. al. (2016). The transmission model of communication: Toward a multidisciplinary explication. A Review of General Semantics, 73 (4).

Shannon, C.E., & Weaver, W. (1949). The mathematical theory of communication . University of Illinois Press.

Turaga, R. (2016). Organizational Models of Communication. IUP Journal of Soft Skills , 10 (2), 56-65.

• Sender: The original information source of the message.
• Encoding: The translation of an idea into a message that can be understood by the receiver.
• Decoding: The translation of the message into meaning by the receiver.
• Channel: The means by which the message is conveyed.
• Receiver: The intended target audience of the message.
• Noise: Interference that impedes the transmission of a message.
• Source: The origin of the message.
• Element: An additional aspect that accompanies the transmission of the message (i.e., a gesture or sign).
• Treatment: The manner in which the message is sent.
• Structure: The framework of the message and how the message is constructed.
• Code: The text or language the message is conveyed in.

Multimedia 1: Barnlund’s Transactional Model of Communication

Watch this animated video about Barnlunds Transactional Model. How does it compare and contrast with the other models of communication?

Watch it here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VrFXNRzfJKU

Multimedia 2: Communication as Culture, a conversation with James Carey

Watch this conversation with renowned scholar, James Carey, as he discuss the ritual model of communciation. What are some concepts that he mentions that add to what was mentioned in this chapter?

You can view it here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Mozx7z6ues

Module 1: Introduction to Public Speaking

Models of communication.

It should be clear by now that public speaking happens all around us in many segments of our lives. However, to truly understand what is happening within these presentations, we need to take a step back and look at some of the key components of the communication process.

Linear Model of Communication

The first theoretical model of communication was proposed in 1949 by Shannon and Weaver for Bell Laboratories. [1] This three-part model was intended to capture the radio and television transmission process. However it was later adapted to human communication and is now known as the linear model of communication. The first part of the model is the sender, and this is the person who is speaking. The second part of the model is the channel, which is the apparatus for carrying the message (i.e., the phone or TV). The third part of the model is the receiver, and this is the person who picks up the message. In this model, communication is seen as a one-way process of transmitting a message from one person to another person. This model can be found in Figure 1.1. If you think about situations when you communicate with another person face-to-face or when you give a speech, you probably realize that this model is inadequate—communication is much more complicated than firing off a message to others.

“Figure 1.1” by Public Speaking Project. CC-BY-NC-ND .

Transactional Model of Communication

Models of communication have evolved significantly since Shannon and Weaver first proposed their well- known conceptual model over sixty years ago. One of the most useful models for understanding public speaking is Barnlund’s transactional model of communication. [2] In the transactional model, communication is seen as an ongoing, circular process. We are constantly affecting and are affected by those we communicate with. The transactional model has a number of interdependent processes and components, including the encoding and decoding processes, the communicator, the message, the channel and noise. Although not directly addressed in Barnlund’s (2008) original transactional model, participants’ worldviews and the context also play an important role in the communication process. See Figure 1.2 for an illustration.

“Figure 1.2” by Public Speaking Project. CC-BY-NC-ND .

He who would learn to fly one day must first learn to stand and walk and run and climb and dance; one cannot fly into flying. ~ Friedrich Nietzsche

• Shannon, C. E., & Weaver, W. (1949). The mathematical theory of communication . Urbana: University of Illinois Press. ↵
• Barnlund, D. C. (2008). A transactional model of communication . In. C. D. Mortensen (Eds.), Communication theory (2nd Ed), pp. 47 – 57. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction. ↵
• Chapter 1 Models of Communication. Authored by : Lisa Schreiber, Ph.D. and Morgan Hartranft. Provided by : Millersville University, Millersville, PA. Located at : http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html . Project : Public Speaking Project. License : CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives

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11 Fundamental Models of Communication

Explore this blog to understand the fundamental of Models of Communication and their significance in the workplace. Dive into Aristotle's Model, Lasswell's Model, Shannon-Weaver Model, and Berlo's S-M-C-R Model to gain a comprehensive grasp of communication theories and learn their key concepts. Read ahead to learn more!

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According to a report by Gallup , employees with bitter-sweet relationships with their team or manager quit 3.8 times faster. However, using the different Models of Communication effectively can help prevent this by boosting employee engagement and productivity, leading to improved Communication techniques.

So, if you want employee satisfaction at your workplace, it’s time to take action. Read this blog to learn about the Eight key Models of Communication and understand the Communication process with detailed representation. 

Table of Contents  

1) What is a Model of Communication? 

2) Linear Model 

3) Interactive Model

4) Transactional Model

5)  Conclusion 

What is a Model of Communication?  

By studying the various Models of Communication, individuals can clearly understand how effective Communication takes place and how they can improve their Communication skills.  

Each model offers its own perspective and helps people analyse their communication techniques from various angles. This enables them to communicate more effectively in different situations. The key benefits of Models of Communication include the following: 

a) Enhanced understanding 

b) Improved clarity 

c) Effective message design 

d) Strategy development 

Linear Model 

The Linear Model, also known as the Transmission Model, defines Communication as a one-way procedure in which a sender knowingly conveys a message to a receiver. This Model mainly focuses on the sender and the message within a Communication process. Although the receiver is enclosed in the Model, this role is considered as more of a target or end point instead of part of a continuous process.   

The scholars who invented this Model were influenced by the spread of contemporary Communication technologies, like radio and telegraphy, and you can see these technical influences within the Shannon & Weaver Model. For example, a radio message is sent via a person in a studio to you listening in your car. 

Similarly, the sender is considered a radio announcer who encrypts a verbal message that is sent by a radio tower via electromagnetic waves and ultimately reaches your ears through an antenna and speakers to be translated. The radio announcer is not aware of whether you get their message or not, but if the equipment is working and there is a clear signal in a channel, then there is a high chance that the message was received successfully.

Communication can manifest in various forms. Understanding the different Models of Communication is essential for navigating and improving interactions with others. Let’s explore the eight key Models of Communication: 

Aristotle's Model  

Aristotle's Model of Communication, proposed by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, focuses on persuasive Communication.The sender aims to influence the receiver's beliefs or actions by presenting convincing arguments. Here's a breakdown of Aristotle's model in simple terms: 

a) Ethos (Credibility): The sender establishes their credibility and expertise on a topic to gain the receiver’s trust. For example, a doctor discussing the benefits of a particular medication uses their medical credentials to enhance their credibility. 

b) Pathos (Emotions): The sender appeals to the receiver's emotions to create a connection and influence their decision-making. For instance, an advertisement for a charity organisation may evoke emotions of empathy and compassion to encourage donations. 

c) Logos (Logic): The sender presents logical arguments and evidence to support their message. They use facts, statistics, and reasoning to convince the receiver. For instance, a speaker presenting a scientific research paper provides logical evidence to support their claims. 

Example: In a class presentation about recycling, a student establishes credibility by sharing their research and evokes emotions by highlighting the positive impact on endangered animals. Lastly, they present logical reasons for recycling. They conclude by urging classmates to take action and actively participate in recycling efforts. 

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Lasswell's Model  

b) Says what (Message): This question pertains to the content or message being communicated. It examines the specific information, ideas, or opinions being shared. In a political speech, the "says what" could be the candidate's policy proposals or campaign promises. 

c) Through which channel: It explores the medium or channel through which the message is being transmitted. This could include face-to-face Communication, television, radio, social media, or print publications. For instance, a music artist may release a new song through various streaming platforms. 

d) To whom (Receiver): This question focuses on the intended audience or receivers of the message. It considers the demographics, interests, and characteristics of the target audience. For example, a children’s toy advertisement would be directed towards parents or caregivers. 

e) With what effect: It examines the impact or effect of the Communication on the audience. This includes evaluating whether the message was understood, influenced opinions, or prompted desired actions. For instance, a public service announcement about the importance of wearing seatbelts aims to increase awareness and encourage safer driving habits. 

Shannon - Weaver Model  

The Shannon - Weaver Model of Communication is a widely recognised model that addresses the impact of "noise" on Communication. In simple terms, it refers to any factors that can disrupt the message. 

The model developed by Shannon and Weaver during World War II aimed to identify the most effective communication channels. It consists of the following five components: 

a) Sender: The person or entity who initiates and sends the message. 

b) Encoder: The process of converting the message into a suitable form for transmission, such as words, sound, or visuals. 

c) Channel: The medium or pathway through which the message is transmitted, like a phone line, email, or radio waves. 

d) Decoder: The process of interpreting and making sense of the received message. 

Shannon and Weaver recognised that various issues like background noise in a phone call, typos in an email, or other disturbances that can significantly affect Communication quality. A more recent version of this Model includes "feedback" as the sixth component, making it more interactive and collaborative rather than strictly linear. 

Berlo's S-M-C-R Model  

a) Source: The source is the person or entity that initiates the Communication. They create and send the message to be conveyed. 

b) Message: The message is the information, ideas, or thoughts that the source wants to communicate. It can be in spoken words, written text, gestures, or any other mode of expression. 

c) Channel: The channel refers to the means or medium through which the message is transmitted from the source to the receiver. It can be face-to-face conversations, phone calls, emails, or social media platforms. 

d) Receiver: The receiver is the person or group for whom the message is intended. They receive and interpret the message sent by the source. 

Berlo's Model emphasises the importance of understanding the receiver's characteristics, including their knowledge, attitudes, and communication skills. This understanding helps the source to design the message effectively. It also helps ensure better comprehension and reception by the receiver. 

Interactive Model

The Interactive Model of Communication describes that when people Communicate, they take turns being the ones who talk and listen. They create meaning by sending messages and getting responses in different situations.

According to the Interactive Model, there's a back-and-forth conversation, and people's responses are called feedback. It's like having a conversation where you respond to what the other person says. The Interactive Model doesn't focus much on messages but mainly focuses on interaction.

While the Linear Model focuses on how a message is sent and whether it was received or not, this Model is more focused on the Communication procedure itself. In fact, this Model recognises that there are a lot of messages being sent at one time, and some of them may not even be received.

The Interactive Model includes physical and psychological context. The physical context contains the environmental factors in a Communication encounter, such as the size, temperature, layout, and lighting of a space that may affect in-person Communication. On the other hand, the psychological context contains the emotional and mental factors, such as anxiety, stress, and emotions, that can affect Communication.

Osgood - Schramm Model  

The Osgood-Schramm Model of Communication focuses on how individuals interpret and understand messages. It emphasises the role of perception in Communication and considers three key elements: 

a) Source: The person or entity who sends the message.  

b) Message: The information or ideas being communicated.  

c) Receiver: The person who receives and understands the message.  

One interesting aspect of this Model is that everyone brings their unique background to the Communication process. This affects how they understand and respond to messages. It reminds people consider their differences and cultural backgrounds when Communicating. It is because it's not just about what they say, but also how others perceive and interpret messages.  

Example: Imagine two colleagues discussing a project. Each colleague's interpretation of the information shared may differ based on their unique backgrounds and perspectives. This illustrates how the Osgood - Schramm Model recognises individual perception in Communication.  

Westley and Maclean Model  

The Westley and Maclean is one of the crucial Models of Communication, emphasising the role of feedback and the impact of the social environment on the communication process. It recognises that the interaction between the sender, the receiver, and the larger social context influences Communication.  

This Model explains that the sender initiates a message based on their understanding of the receiver and the social situation. The receiver, in turn, interprets and responds to the message, providing feedback. This feedback loop helps refine future Communication interactions.  

One unique aspect of the Westley and Maclean Model is the inclusion of the social environment. It acknowledges that Communication is not isolated but influenced by cultural norms, social structures, and media. These external factors shape how messages are constructed and understood.  

Example: Imagine two colleagues discussing a project. After sharing their ideas, one colleague asks for feedback from the other. The feedback received helps the first colleague refine their approach and make improvements. This interactive exchange exemplifies the feedback loop in the Westley and Maclean Model.

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Transactional Model 

The Transactional Model of Communication deals with messengers or communicators, creating social realities within rational, social and cultural contexts. This Model comes under Barnlund's Transactional Model.

The idea is that people don’t just convey their messages; they communicate to build relationships, form self-concepts and intercultural alliances and get in contact with others to create communities. Hence, this Model considers Communication as a powerful tool that creates the realities.

In the Transactional Model, the roles of the sender and receiver vary significantly from the other Models. Rather than labelling participants as senders and receivers, the people engaged in Communication are considered communicators.

It indicates that an individual can be a sender and a receiver simultaneously. This is an essential complement to the Model as it enables people to understand how they can change their Communication styles.

Barnlund's Transactional Model  

Barnlund's Transactional is one of the crucial Models of Communication, recognising the interactive and dynamic nature of Interpersonal Communication . It emphasises that Communication is not a one-way process but rather a simultaneous exchange of messages between the sender and receiver. 

In this Model, both verbal and nonverbal cues, such as body language and context, play significant roles in conveying meaning. It highlights the importance of shared meaning, where both parties actively participate in interpreting and understanding the messages being exchanged. 

Barnlund's Model promotes active listening, empathy, and open-mindedness, fostering effective Communication and building stronger relationships. It allows individuals to enhance their communication skills, deepen understanding, and establish meaningful connections with others. 

Example: Imagine two colleagues engaged in a discussion during a team meeting. As one colleague presents a new idea, the other listens attentively, nodding and providing verbal feedback. They exchange nonverbal cues like facial expressions and gestures, actively participating in the conversation. 

This interactive exchange reflects Barnlund's Transactional Model, where both colleagues contribute to the understanding. They also respond to each other's messages in an engaging manner. 

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Dance's Helical Model  

Dance's Helical Model views Communication as a dynamic spiral. This spiral evolves over time, incorporating feedback for deep understanding and creating shared meaning. It emphasises the iterative nature of Communication and encourages ongoing learning for effective and meaningful interactions. The spiral shape symbolises how Communication continually evolves and builds upon previous interactions. It looks something like the following image:

As Communication progresses, it becomes more complex, incorporating new understandings and insights. Further, this Model recognises that both past experiences and the present context influence Communication. It highlights the importance of feedback and how it shapes future interactions. This leads to a deeper understanding and improved Communication over time. 

Example: Imagine a student and a teacher discussing a complex topic. As the conversation progresses, the student’s understanding deepens. This leads to new questions and insights. With each interaction, the Communication spiral of Dance’s Helical Model unfolds. As a result, it allows for continuous growth and a richer knowledge exchange between the student and teacher. 

Conclusion  

We hope that after reading this blog, you have gained an in depth understanding of the various Models of Communication and how to Communicate effectively. By using this knowledge, you can enhance your Communication skills, foster better relationships, and connect meaningfully with others. 

Unlock the secrets to impactful and successful communication with our Effective Communication Skills Course .

Frequently Asked Questions

Understanding Communication Models contribute to career success by enhancing interpersonal skills, facilitating effective message delivery and interpretation, improving negotiation and conflict resolution abilities, and fostering better team collaboration.

The Communication Model helps in shaping organisational culture by fostering transparency, trust, and collaboration, while enhancing employee engagement through clear expectations, feedback, and recognition, thereby nurturing a positive and inclusive work environment.

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Basic Communication Models

(linear, interactive, and transactional)

Related Papers

We teach the same models of communication today that we taught forty years ago. This can and should be regarded as a mark of the enduring value of these models in highlighting key elements of that process for students who are taking the process apart for the first time. It remains, however, that the field of communication has evolved considerably since the 1960's, and it may be appropriate to update our models to account for that evolution. This paper presents the classic communication models that are taught in introducing students to interpersonal communication and mass communication, including Shannon's information theory model (the active model), a cybernetic model that includes feedback (the interactive model, an intermediary model (sometimes referred to as a gatekeeper model of the two-step flow), and the transactive model. It then introduces a new ecological model of communication that, it is hoped, more closely maps to the the range of materials we teach and research in the field of communication today. This model attempts to capture the fundamental interaction of language, medium, and message that enables communication, the socially constructed aspects of each element, and the relationship of creators and consumers of messages both to these elements and each other.

De'Ron Roseboro

Aakriti Taneja

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suyansah swanto

Communication plays a vital role in our everyday lives. Communication that is effective can aid in the resolution of numerous issues and problems. Therefore, effective communication skills are required. To be able to interact with others, it is necessary to develop communication skills and the ability to express one's thoughts and connect with others. This paper aims to look into communication theories and models in order to gain a deeper understanding of communication's origins. The purpose of this paper is to present the origins of communication and how this may influence students' willingness to communicate in the classroom, outside of the classroom, and on digital platforms.

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The paper put together in one setting multiple communication theories. all credit goes to respective authors found in paper References

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This paper focuses on the coding and decoding of the message and how both affect feedback and message re-distribution.

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Term Paper On “Interaction between the elements of communication”

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All 8 Models of Communication, Explained!

Since 300BC, theorists have developed communication models in attempts to explain and understand how to improve communication and rhetoric. As time has passed, we have developed increasingly more complex models to explain how we communicate.

Today, the main models of communication are can be split into three categories:

• Linear models – only looks at one-way communication.
• Interactive models – looks at two-way communication.
• Transactional models – looks at two-way communication where the message gets more complex as the communication event (e.g. conversation) progresses.

This article will outline all 8 major models of communication currently studied in communications courses at college. Here’s a quick summary to get started:

Related: A to Z List of Mass Communication Theories

The Linear Models

Quick Summary: Linear models explain one directional communication processes.

1. Aristotle’s Model

One Sentence Overview: A framework for thinking about how to improve your communication abilities, by looking at key aspects underpinning a situation.

Aristotle’s model of communication is the oldest communication model, dating back to 300BC. The model was designed to examine how to become a better and more convincing communicator.

Aristotle argues we should look at five elements of a communication event to analyze how best to communicate: speaker, speech, occasion, target audience and effect. He also identified three elements that will improve communication: ethos (credibility), pathos (credibility) and logos (logical argument). Aristotle’s model does not pay attention to the role of feedback in communication.

2. Lasswell’s Model

One Sentence Overview: A basic framework for analyzing one-way communication by asking five questions: Who, said what, through which channel, to whom, with what effects?

Lasswell’s model of communication tries to understand a communication event by asking five important questions. It looks at who created the message (and what their bias may be), what they said, the channel they said it through (e.g. TV, radio, blog), who they said it two, and what effect it had on the receiver. This model is effective as it provides a very simple and practical way of critiquing a message and exploring five important elements that can help explain the event under analysis in more detail.

3. Shannon-Weaver Model

One Sentence Overview: The Shannon-Weaver model is the first to highlight the role of ‘noise’ in communication, which can disrupt or alter a message between sender and receiver.

The Shannon-Weaver model sees communication occurring in five key parts: sender, encoder, channel, decoder, receiver. It emphasizes the importance of encoding and decoding messages for them to be sent (e.g. turning them into written words, morse code, etc.). During the process of encoding , sending and decoding, ‘noise’ occurs that can disrupt or cloud a message. In the most traditional sense, this may be static on a radio broadcast, or even extend to mishearing a conversation or misspelling an email. This model was the first to introduce the role of noise in the communication process.

The idea of feedback was retroactively introduced to this model.

4. Berlo’s S-M-C-R Model

One Sentence Overview: Berlo’s S-M-C-R model explains communication in four steps: S ource,  M essage,  C hannel, and  R eceiver.

Berlo’s model of communication explains it in four steps:  S ource,  M essage,  C hannel, and  R eceiver. The unique aspect of Berlo’s model is that it gives a detailed account of the key elements in each step that will affect how well the message is communicated:

• Source: Elements of the source include communication skills of the sender, their attitude and their culture.
• Message: Elements of the message include its content, structure and code.
• Channel: Elements of the channel include the senses of hearing, seeing, touching, smelling, etc.
• Receiver:  Elements of the receiver include their attitude, knowledge and culture.

See a summary of all elements in the image below:

The Interactive Models

Quick Summary: Interactive models are best for explaining impersonal two-way communication processes.

5. Osgood-Schramm Model

One Sentence Overview: The Osgood-Schramm model looks at reciprocal communication, showing how we have to encode, decode, and interpret information in real-time during a conversation.

The Osgood-Schramm model explores communication that is equal and reciprocal .

It does not differentiate between the sender and receiver, but sees each as being in an equal position as message encoders and decoders.

This model is best for explaining and examining personal synchronous communication where feedback is immediate (such as face-to-face discussions). As feedback is immediate, noise can be reduced through ongoing clarification of messages during the conversation.

6. The Westley and Maclean Model

One Sentence Overview: The Westley and Maclean model shows that our communication is influenced by environmental, cultural and personal factors.

The Westley and Maclean model embraces the importance of feedback in communication. However, it also emphasizes the important role of environmental and cultural factors in influencing communication. It shows that the things we say and communicate are influenced by who we are, what our background is, and what perspective we are approaching issues from. The model takes into account the object of orientation (background, culture and beliefs) of the sender and receiver of messages. It also considers the message to have been received and sent within a broader social context that needs to be considered to know and understand the message.

The Transactional Models

Quick Summary: Transactional models explain direct personal communication processes where two-way feedback is immediate.

7. Barnlund’s Transactional Model

One Sentence Overview: Barnlund’s Transactional Model of Communication highlights the role of private and public cues that impact our messages.

Barnlund’s Transactional Model of Communication is a model that explores interpersonal, immediate-feedback communication. Central to this approach is the idea that feedback for the sender is the reply for the receiver.

This model also highlights the role of ‘cues’ in impacting our messages. Barnlund highlights the role of p ublic cues ​ which are environmental cues, and private cues which are a person’s personal thoughts and background. With this emphasis on cues, Barnlund’s model highlights the factors that influence what we think and say.

8. Dance’s Helical Model

One Sentence Overview: Dance’s Helical Model sees communication as a circular process that gets more and more complex as communication occurs, which can be represented by a helical spiral.

Dance’s Helical Model builds on circular models by explaining how we improve our messages over time by using feedback. When we communicate with others, their feedback will influence our next statement.

We become more knowledgeable with each cycle of communication, enabling up to ‘expand our circle’, as represented by the increasingly wider and wider circles. The movement up the spiral indicates that each communication practice is new and different from the previous, as communication does not ever perfectly repeat itself.

Final Thoughts

There are many mass communication theories (see for example: media richness theory , relational dialectics theory , muted group theory , communication accommodation theory , and agenda setting theory ).

However, the 8 communication models listed in this article are central models of communication that highlight how communication occurs. They are theories that are necessary to know for communication studies students as they help you understand the key components that make up communication in the 21st Century .

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ Social-Emotional Learning (Definition, Examples, Pros & Cons)
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Models of Communication

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8 Communication Model Types and How They Differentiate

Communication plays a vital role in our everyday lives, shaping how we connect, comprehend, and interact with others.

In this article, we will go on an exploration of eight diverse communication models, each offering valuable insights into the intricate processes that govern communication and collaboration in the workplace.

From classic theories to modern frameworks, we will take you through the fundamental principles that underpin successful communication.

Uncover the dynamics of verbal and nonverbal cues , get into the significance of active listening, and gain a deeper understanding of how individuals and groups exchange information .

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Whether you’re a seasoned communicator or someone seeking to enhance their communication skills, this comprehensive guide will provide you with a diverse and enriching journey through communication models.

By grasping the subtleties of these models of communication, you can develop a profound awareness of how communication operates and apply effective strategies in various situations.

By the end of this guide, you’ll have a greater appreciation for the art and science of professional communication , empowering you to communicate with clarity, influence, and self-assurance. 

What is a communication model?

wikipedia.org

A communication model serves as a visual depiction of the communication process, conveying ideas, thoughts, or concepts through diagrams and other means. These systematic representations aid in comprehending how communication takes place.

These models of communication facilitate the identification of potential barriers to effective communication, elucidate the roles played by various elements involved, and underscore the significance of feedback in achieving successful communication.

Through the application of communication models, both individuals and organizations can refine their communication skills and elevate the overall quality of their interactions.

By utilizing these models, they can enhance their ability to convey messages effectively and foster more productive and meaningful exchanges.

8 types of communication models

All types of communication, especially oral communication are essential for how we interact with others, and there are different ways to understand how it works. 

In this section, we will explore eight types of communication models. These models help us see how communication happens and what factors influence it. 

From simple to more complex models, we’ll learn how communication works in different situations.

1. Aristotle communication model

voiceofaction.org

The Aristotle model of communication is a persuasive approach to communication, attributed to the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. In this model, the focus lies on the speaker’s ability to influence the audience and elicit a specific response to their message.

To understand this communication model in a professional context, let’s consider a marketing executive giving a presentation about a new product to potential clients. The executive’s goal is to convince the clients to buy the product and become loyal customers.

In this scenario, the marketing executive takes on the role of the “sender” in the communication process. They actively lead the communication and craft the presentation’s content, sharing information about the product’s features and benefits.

The potential clients represent the “receivers” in the communication process. They are passive participants who are the target of the message, and the desired outcome for the marketing executive is their positive response, namely, making a purchase.

To achieve an impactful presentation, the marketing executive must carefully choose their words, understand the clients’ needs, and tailor the content to address their specific concerns. Maintaining eye contact, using an engaging tone, and delivering the information confidently are vital to creating a favorable impression on the clients.

By employing persuasive techniques and appealing to the clients’ interests, the marketing executive aims to influence them to respond favorably and make the desired purchase decision.

The Aristotelian model underscores the speaker’s role in persuading the audience to respond as intended. This communication model finds application in various professional scenarios, such as sales, marketing, negotiations, and public speaking, where effective communication is key to achieving specific objectives.

2. Berlo’s communication model

The Aristotelian model of communication places the speaker at its core, emphasizing their role as the primary driver of communication. 

In contrast, Berlo’s model considers the emotional dimension of the message. Operating on the SMCR model, Berlo’s approach takes into account the Source, Message, Channel, and Receiver to comprehend communication dynamics more comprehensively.

Berlo’s communication model underscores the elements that influence effective communication and identifies the different components involved in the process.

In a professional context, consider a scenario where a project manager communicates with their team members to discuss the objectives and scope of a new project.

• Source: The project manager acts as the source or sender of the message, aiming to convey specific information to their team.
• Encoding: The project manager encodes the information by converting their thoughts and ideas into a message, which can take the form of oral communication , written documents, or visual presentations.
• Message: The message itself contains all the relevant details, goals, and instructions related to the project.
• Channel: The project manager selects the appropriate communication channel to transmit the message, such as face-to-face meetings, emails, or organizational tools .
• Decoding: The team members receive the message and decode it by interpreting the information conveyed by the project manager.
• Receiver: The team members are the receivers of the message, tasked with understanding the project’s requirements, timelines, and deliverables.
• Feedback: After receiving the message, the team members provide feedback to the project manager, seeking clarification, expressing concerns, or confirming their comprehension of the project’s scope.
• Noise: Noise refers to any obstacles or interference that may impede effective communication, such as distractions during meetings, language barriers, or technical glitches during virtual communication.

Berlo’s model puts emphasis on the importance of clear encoding and decoding to ensure accurate message transmission. It highlights the significance of feedback, allowing the project manager to assess whether the team members have grasped the project’s objectives and address any potential misunderstandings. By considering the communication channel and minimizing noise, the project manager can enhance communication effectiveness and foster a collaborative work environment .

3. Lasswell’s communication model

michellemathiasfsp.blogspot.com

Lasswell’s model of communication, also known as the “action model,” was proposed by Harold D. Lasswell in 1948. This communication model provides a comprehensive framework to analyze and understand the communication process by addressing five fundamental questions:

• Who is the source of the message or the communicator?
• What is the content or message being conveyed?
• Through which channel or medium is the message being transmitted?
• Who is the intended target audience or receivers of the message?
• What effect does the message have on the audience or receivers?

In a professional context, let’s explore how Lasswell’s model can be applied:

• Who: In an organization, the “who” could be a manager, team leader, or spokesperson who initiates the communication. For instance, a marketing manager decides to launch a new advertising campaign for a product.
• Says what: The content of the message is what the communicator wishes to convey to the audience. In our example, the marketing manager’s message would include details about the product’s unique features, benefits, and promotional offers.
• Through which channel: The marketing manager chooses the appropriate communication channel to reach the target audience effectively. In this case, they may decide to use social media, TV commercials, and print media.
• To whom: The target audience is the group of potential customers whom the marketing manager intends to reach with the campaign. It could be existing customers or new leads interested in the product.
• With what effect: The success of the communication is determined by the audience’s response. In our example, the campaign’s effectiveness can be measured by increased product inquiries, website traffic , and ultimately, sales.

Lasswell’s model is valuable for its simplicity and usefulness in analyzing various communication scenarios in the professional world. It helps organizations design targeted and impactful messages, select appropriate communication channels, and evaluate the effectiveness of their communication strategies . By considering all these elements, businesses can improve their overall communication and achieve their desired outcomes more effectively.

4. Shannon and Weaver communication model

The Shannon-Weaver model of communication, developed by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver in 1949, is a mathematical approach focusing on the technical aspects of communication . It comprises five fundamental components:

• Source of information: The initiator or sender begins the communication process by creating a message to convey information. In a professional setting, this might involve a company’s marketing team developing an advertising campaign for a new product.
• Transmitter: The transmitter encodes the message into a signal suitable for transmission through a communication channel. In our example, the advertising campaign’s content and visuals are transformed into digital signals for broadcasting on various media platforms.
• Communication channel: This refers to the medium or pathway used to transmit the encoded message from the sender to the receiver. It could be television, radio, social media, or other advertising platforms where the campaign is disseminated.
• Receiver: The receiver represents the intended audience or target group who receives the transmitted message. In our case, it would be potential customers exposed to the advertising campaign on TV, social media, or other platforms.
• Destination: The destination is where the receiver decodes the message to interpret its meaning. In our example, the audience processes the information from the advertising campaign, comprehends the product’s features and benefits, and forms opinions about the brand.

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In professional contexts, the Shannon-Weaver communication model is commonly utilized in mass communication, such as advertising, marketing, and broadcasting. For instance, a company launches a new product and uses television commercials to reach a broad audience.

The marketing team designs the commercial (information source) with compelling visuals and persuasive messaging , encodes it into a digital signal (transmitter), transmits it through television channels (communication channel), and potential customers receive and interpret the message (receiver and destination).

The Shannon-Weaver model emphasizes the significance of clear encoding, reliable transmission channels, and effective decoding for successful communication.

However, it is a linear model that doesn’t incorporate feedback or consider the dynamic nature of communication. Nonetheless, it remains relevant for understanding the technical aspects of communication in various professional scenarios.

5. The Osgood-Schramm communication model

The Osgood-Schramm model of communication is a dynamic and interactive approach that emphasizes feedback and context in the communication process. In the professional context, it involves a sender (e.g., a manager ) delivering a message (e.g., about a new project) to receivers (e.g., the team).

The communication model highlights the importance of feedback, where the receivers respond with questions or opinions, and the significance of the context, which includes the setting and participants’ backgrounds.

For instance, imagine a marketing manager presenting a new advertising campaign to the sales team. During the presentation, the team provides feedback by asking clarifying questions. The team’s understanding is influenced not only by the manager’s message but also by their experiences with similar projects.

The Osgood-Schramm model underscores that effective communication goes beyond just sending a message; it involves active engagement between all parties, considering feedback, and understanding the context.

This interactive process enhances the quality of communication, leading to more meaningful and successful interactions in the professional world.

6. The Westley and MacLean communication model

helpfulprofessor.com

The Westley and MacLean model of communication, also known as the Conceptual Model of Communication, is a circular approach that highlights the dynamic and evolving nature of communication.

It comprises five components: source (sender), encoder, message, decoder, and receiver. This model views communication as an ongoing process with constant feedback and adaptation.

In a professional scenario, the Westley and MacLean model can be exemplified as follows:

Consider a marketing team collaborating on a product launch. The team leader (source) encodes the product’s key features and benefits into a marketing message. The message is then conveyed to the team members (receivers) through a presentation or written document.

As the team members decode the message, they may provide feedback or suggestions for improvement. The team leader takes this feedback into account and adapts the marketing message accordingly. The updated message is then shared with the team again for further review and discussion.

This iterative process of encoding, decoding, and receiving feedback continues until the team reaches a consensus on the final marketing message. The dynamic nature of this model enables ongoing refinement and enhancement of the communication process, ensuring clarity, effectiveness, and alignment with the team’s SMART goals .

The Westley and MacLean model emphasizes the circular and ongoing nature of communication, where feedback and adaptation play vital roles in ensuring effective communication in the professional context.

7. Barnlund’s transactional communication model

 Barnlund’s transactional model of communication is a comprehensive and interactive approach that emphasizes the reciprocal nature of communication. It portrays communication as a dynamic exchange of messages where both the sender and receiver actively participate in the process.

This model takes into account various factors like context, culture, and individual perceptions that influence communication.

In a professional setting, we can illustrate Barnlund’s transactional model with a business meeting. In this scenario, a project manager (sender) presents a new proposal to team members (receivers). As the project manager conveys the proposal, the team members attentively listen and offer feedback and queries in real-time.

In response to the team members’ input, the project manager may clarify points and adjust the proposal accordingly. The team members, in turn, respond to the revised proposal, engaging in further discussions, seeking additional information, or expressing their opinions.

Throughout the meeting, there is a continuous exchange of messages between the project manager and the team members, where both parties send and receive information simultaneously.

The communication process is influenced by the meeting’s context, the team members’ cultural backgrounds, and their individual perspectives on the proposal.

As the meeting progresses, the project manager and team members collaboratively shape the proposal’s outcome through active participation and mutual exchange of ideas.

The Barnlund’s transactional model recognizes that effective communication is not one-sided; it involves dynamic and interactive exchanges. It underscores the significance of active listening, feedback, and shared understanding in the professional world, leading to improved decision-making, teamwork, and successful outcomes.

8. Dance’s Helical communication model

Dance’s Helical model of communication represents communication as a spiraling and dynamic process, acknowledging the continuous evolution of interactions over time. In a professional scenario, this model can be illustrated by team meetings throughout a long-term project.

Initially, team members gather to discuss project objectives, tasks, and timelines (Phase 1). As they progress, each subsequent meeting builds upon prior discussions, deepening their understanding and refining strategies (Phase 2).

During Phase 3, the team implements strategies and carries out project tasks based on the insights from earlier meetings. Challenges and new perspectives emerge, prompting them to revisit communication and adapt their approach (Phase 4).

In Phase 5, the team reflects on progress and outcomes, drawing from past interactions to evaluate success and identify areas for improvement. This reflection informs adjustments in communication strategies, influencing future meetings, and enhancing collaboration .

Over time, the communication process forms a helix-like cycle where each meeting informs the next, resulting in continuous learning and shared knowledge among team members.

The Helical model highlights communication’s non-linear nature and emphasizes continuous learning, adaptation, and building on shared knowledge for effective teamwork and successful project outcomes in professional settings.

Are you ready to leverage these models of communication?

Exploring the various communication models provides valuable insights into the complexities of human interaction and information exchange. From Aristotle’s sender-centric approach to Dance’s Helical model, each perspective sheds light on different aspects of communication dynamics in professional settings.

Understanding these models of communication can empower individuals and organizations to enhance their communication skills, avoid potential pitfalls, and foster more meaningful and effective interactions. Never forget about the use of a transactional model of communication in teams.

By recognizing the importance of clear objectives, context, and feedback, professionals can navigate the intricacies of communication with greater clarity and purpose.

It is essential to appreciate that communication is not merely about transmitting information but is a dynamic process that involves active listening, understanding diverse perspectives, and adapting to evolving situations.

The use of a communication plan can not be overvalued here. Whether it’s building trust among team members, delivering compelling presentations, or establishing strong client relationships, the knowledge gained from these communication models can be harnessed to achieve success in the professional world.

As we continue to explore and apply these models of communication, let us embrace the power of effective communication as a catalyst for collaboration, innovation, and positive change within our workplaces and for better workload management .

By valuing open dialogue, respecting different viewpoints, and striving for clear and meaningful connections, we can create an environment where communication thrives, relationships flourish, and collective achievements soar.

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Models of Communication

Jan 01, 2020

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Models of Communication. Models of Communication. Linear Communication Model. Lasswell’s Model Aristotle’s Model Berlo’s SMCR Model. Transactional Model. Barlund’s Model Shannon & Weaver Model. Interactive Model. Schramm’s Model White’s Model. Components of Linear Communication.

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Models of Communication • Linear Communication Model • Lasswell’s Model • Aristotle’s Model • Berlo’s SMCR Model • Transactional Model • Barlund’s Model • Shannon & Weaver Model • Interactive Model • Schramm’s Model • White’s Model

Components of Linear Communication Linear model has defined set of components required for a communication to be established where • Sender is the person who sends a message after encoding. • Encoding is the process of converting the message into codes compatible with the channel and understandable for the receiver.  • Decoding is the process of changing the encoded message into understandable language by the receiver.

Components of Linear Communication • Message is the information sent by the sender to the receiver. • Channel is the medium through which the message is sent. • Receiver is the person who gets the message  after decoding. • Noise is the disruptions that are caused in the communication process in channel or in understandability of the message.

Lasswell's communication model was developed by communication theorist Harold D. Lasswell (1902-1978) in 1948. Lasswell’s model of communication (also known as action model or linear model or one way model of communication) is regarded as one the most influential communication models.

The first and earliest linear model is that of Aristotle, who was a teacher of Rhetoric and even put up an academy to produce good speakers. (Message) SPEECH (Listener) AUDIENCE SPEAKER EFECT Occasion Aristotle’s Model of Communication

Criticisms of Aristotle’s Model There are few criticisms around this model. Some of them are: • There is no concept of feedback, it is one way from speaker to audience. • There is no concept of communication failure like noise and barriers. • This model can only be used in public speaking.

In 1960, David Berlo postulated Berlo's Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver (SMCR) Model of Communication from Shannon Weaver's Model of Communication (1949). He described factors affecting the individual components in the communication making the communication more efficient. This model also focuses on encoding and decoding which happens before sender sends the message and before receiver receives the message respectively.

Criticisms of Berlo’s SMCR Model • There is no concept of feedback, so the effect is not considered. • There is no concept of noise or any kind of barriers in communication. • It is a linear model of communication, there is no two way communication. • Both of the people must be similar according to all the factors mentioned above.

Transactional model of communication is the exchange of messages between sender and receiver where each take turns to send or receive messages. Here, both "sender" and "receiver" are known as "communicators" and their role reverses each time in the communication process as both processes of sending and receiving occurs at the same time.

Transactional Model

Criticisms of Transactional Model • Without verbal response, the sender can not be sure that the receiver got the message as intended. Feedback is an important component in the communication process, especially in interpersonal communication as it gives a space to clarify misunderstandings. • The transactional model gives the opportunity for a lot of noise because the communication is simultaneous. For example, when many people are talking at the same time in a meeting, the objective of the meeting will not be fulfilled.

Differences Between Transactional  and Other Communication Models

The second model is that of Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver (1948) which gave us the concept of “NOISE”. This is often called Telephone Model because it is based on the experience of having the message interfered with by “noise” from the telephone switchboard back in 1940s.

Shannon-Weaver’s Model of Communication

Example of Shannon-Weaver model communication process A businessman sends a message via phone text to his worker about a meeting happening about their brand promotion. The worker does not receive the full message because of noise. It goes like this: Businessman: We have a meeting at the office ("at 8 am" goes missing due to phone network disruption or noise) Worker (feedback) : At what time?

Sender : Businessman Encoder : Telephone network company Channel : Mobile network Noise : Distraction in voice (workplace noises) Decoder: Mobile phone Receiver : Worker

Advantages of Shannon-Weaver Model • Concept of noise helps in making the communication effective by removing the noise or problem causing noise. • This model takes communication as a two way process. It makes the model applicable in general communication. • Communication is taken as quantifiable in Shannon Weaver model.

Criticisms of Shannon-Weaver Model • It can be applied more for interpersonal communication than group communication and mass communication. • Receiver plays the passive part in the communication process as sender plays the primary role that sends messages. • Feedback is taken as less important in comparison to the messages sent by the sender.  • The model is taken by some critics as a "misleading misrepresentation of the nature of human communication" as human communication is not mathematical in nature.

Dean Barnlund proposed a transactional model of communication in 1970 for basic interpersonal communication which articulates that sending and receiving of messages happenssimultaneously between people which is popularly known as Barlund's Transactional Model of Communication. The model has been further adapted and reformed by other theorists as General Transactional Model. The model shifted from the trend of linear model to dynamic and two way communication model.

Components of Barlund's model

Advantages of Barlund’s Transactional Model • The model shows shared field experience of the sender and receiver. • Transactional model talks about simultaneous message sending, noise and feedback. • Barnlund’s model is taken by critics as the most systematic model of communication.

Disadvantages of Barlund’s Model • Barnlund’s model is very complex. • Both the sender and receiver must understand the codes sent by the other. So they must each possess a similar "code book". (The concept of code book is not mentioned in the model but understood.)

Interactive Model Interactive model (also known as convergence model) deals with exchange of ideas and messages taking place both ways from sender to receiver and vice-versa. The communication process take place between humans or machines in both verbal or non-verbal way. This is a relatively new model of communication for new technologies like web. 

Concepts of Interactive Model In Interactive model, whenever a source sends a message to a receiver (source), he/she encodes the message first. The encoded message is then received by the receiver where it is decoded to get the original information. Again, the receiver acts as a source, encodes another message (also knows as a feedback) and sends it back to the sender.

Interactive Model and Other Models Differences

An example of Interactive model is that of Wilbur Schramm, who is considered the Father of Mass Communication. He came up with five models, but the Schramm Model in (1995) we are concerned with is the concept that explains why communication breakdown occurs. Schramm asserts that communication can take place if and only if there is an overlap between the Field of Experience of the Speaker and the Field of Experience of the Listener.

Schramm’s Model of Communication

What is Field of Experience? Field of Experience are the things that influences the understanding and interpretation of message like culture, social background, beliefs, experiences, values and rules. • Examples: • a person who always eats with spoon is informed that that he has to eat with hands in that place, the person will get offended because he will think it is impolite to eat that way. • the teacher must deliver his/her lecture in either English or Filipino because that is the language that students know and use.

Advantages of Schramm’s Model • Circular communication gives opportunity to both parties to give their opinion.  • As it is dynamic and ever changing model, it is helpful in general practice. • Sender and receiver interchanges and both are equally active. • Semantic noise included as a concept helps in understanding problems that can occur during interpretation of message.

Advantages of Schramm’s Model • Feedback makes it easier to know if the message is interpreted by the receiver as intended or not. • Concept of interpretation makes the communication effective. • Field of experience (psychological effect) helps to understand the communication process in many other ways than the traditional ones.. • Concept of context makes the environmental factor be included in interpretation of message and brings change in the message value.

Disadvantages of Schramm’s Model • This model can not deal with multiple levels of communication and complex communication processes. • There can only be two sources communicating, many sources complicates the process and the model can not be implemented. • Message sent and received might be interpreted differently than intended.

Eugene White’s Model https://prezi.com/rfcgo_zdlscc/eugene-whites/

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