extant literature on entrepreneurship

Artisan entrepreneurship: a systematic literature review and research agenda

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to review and critique the extant body of literature on artisan entrepreneurship and to develop a research agenda for future studies based on the identified trends and themes. Design/methodology/approach A systematic literature review (SLR) was undertaken across 96 journals ranked by the Association of Business Schools. The initial search yielded 86 papers. Further scrutiny of these studies led to the development of exclusion criteria, resulting in a refined list of 32 articles which advance understanding of artisan entrepreneurship. Using an open coding approach, this SLR then identified seven core themes and 16 sub-themes which the extant literature examines. Findings This SLR finds that artisan entrepreneurship research contributes to understanding of entrepreneurial behaviour, context, motivation, development, resources, diversity and classification. It provides timely insights into coopetition practices, the reciprocal relationship between place and entrepreneurship and the coexistence of social and economic goals. It also reveals characteristics which facilitate venture development, discovers the mutability of various forms of capital, highlights the necessity of studying diverse experiences and identifies benefits and limits of typologies. Main elements of the resulting research agenda include calls for more quantitative research, further attention to context and more holistic treatment of a wider variety of stories. Originality/value This paper presents the first SLR of craft and artisan entrepreneurship research. It not only identifies, analyses and critiques the main streams in the literature, therefore providing an overview of the state of the field, but also highlights areas where this scholarship contributes to understanding of entrepreneurship and upon which future research can build. Artisan entrepreneurship is thus established as worthy of investigation in its own right and as an appropriate context in which to explore entrepreneurial processes. Furthermore, this SLR presents an agenda for future research to advance understanding of artisan entrepreneurship.

• Related Documents

Defining the big social data paradigm through a systematic literature review approach

Purpose This study aims to investigate the Big Social Data (BSD) paradigm, which still lacks a clear and shared definition, and causes a lack of clarity and understanding about its beneficial opportunities for practitioners. In the knowledge management (KM) domain, a clear characterization of the BSD paradigm can lead to more effective and efficient KM strategies, processes and systems that leverage a huge amount of structured and unstructured data sources. Design/methodology/approach The study adopts a systematic literature review (SLR) methodology based on a mixed analysis approach (unsupervised machine learning and human-based) applied to 199 research articles on BSD topics extracted from Scopus and Web of Science. In particular, machine learning processing has been implemented by using topic extraction and hierarchical clustering techniques. Findings The paper provides a threefold contribution: a conceptualization and a consensual definition of the BSD paradigm through the identification of four key conceptual pillars (i.e. sources, properties, technology and value exploitation); a characterization of the taxonomy of BSD data type that extends previous works on this topic; a research agenda for future research studies on BSD and its applications along with a KM perspective. Research limitations/implications The main limits of the research rely on the list of articles considered for the literature review that could be enlarged by considering further sources (in addition to Scopus and Web of Science) and/or further languages (in addition to English) and/or further years (the review considers papers published until 2018). Research implications concern the development of a research agenda organized along with five thematic issues, which can feed future research to deepen the paradigm of BSD and explore linkages with the KM field. Practical implications Practical implications concern the usage of the proposed definition of BSD to purposefully design applications and services based on BSD in knowledge-intensive domains to generate value for citizens, individuals, companies and territories. Originality/value The original contribution concerns the definition of the big data social paradigm built through an SLR the combines machine learning processing and human-based processing. Moreover, the research agenda deriving from the study contributes to investigate the BSD paradigm in the wider domain of KM.

Country-related future research agenda of Lean Manufacturing–A systematic literature review

PurposeMany future research proposals of Lean Manufacturing (LM) are presented in the literature. The purpose of this paper is to determine these future research proposals of LM which are country-related and classify them.Design/methodology/approachA systematic literature review (SLR) of peer-reviewed journal articles in LM was conducted. A total of 145 articles published in 34 journals during 2010–2020 were collected from four major management science publishers namely, Emerald Online, Elsevier/Science Direct, Springer Link and Taylor and Francis. The country-related future research proposals of LM identified in the literature were classified according to, firstly, the continent of the country of reference, and secondly, some form of natural affinity of these proposals creating meaningful themes. The quality tool “affinity diagram” was applied to classify the country-related future research proposals of LM.FindingsThe country-related future research proposals of LM, which are increasing in the literature over time, refer mostly to studies to be conducted in several continents/countries and to multinational studies. Conducting studies specifically in Asia, Europe, South and North America, Africa and Australia–New Zealand is also suggested. The plethora of the country-related future research proposals of LM were classified, based on the affinity of their content, into 18 meaningful themes. These themes were also classified based on their affinity into two broad categories, namely “themes concerning the LM approach itself” and “themes concerning factors outside the LM approach”.Research limitations/implicationsThe restricted number of the databases searched and the subjectivity of classifying the large number of the country-related future research proposals into themes are the main limitations of the present SLR. Based on these limitations, future literature review studies can be carried out.Practical implicationsUseful proposals are provided to researchers of several countries for conducting original and country-specific research studies which can enrich the knowledge of the implementation of LM under the specific circumstances of a country for the benefit of practitioners.Originality/valueThis study goes beyond previous literature review studies on LM by focusing exclusively on the LM future research agenda which is country related. The analytical presentation of the country-related future research proposals as well as the formulation of clusters of these proposals make the present SLR study substantially different from those carried out worldwide so far.

Public appointments as a tool for public governance: a systematic literature review

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to review previous research on public appointments to systematize existing knowledge, identify gaps and discuss implications for future research in this field.Design/methodology/approachThis paper is based on a systematic literature review, carried out using the Scopus database. We selected academic articles published in journals ranked in the 2018 CABS Academic Journal Guide plus public administration articles in journals classified by Google as falling within the areas of public policy and administration. The papers were analysed according to four categories: geographical area, theoretical framework, research method and organizational setting.FindingsResults show the lack of research regarding areas like Latin America or East Asia; from a theoretical viewpoint, given the lack of explicit theoretical approaches, future research should have more formal and clear theoretical frameworks. Moreover, given the dominance of case study and review/reflection studies, alternative research methods, such as surveys or mixed methods are suggested for future works.Research limitations/implicationsWe identify a new research agenda to revive the focus on public appointments as a tool for intra- and inter-organizational governance in the public sector. Specifically, we argue that how the process of public appointments is managed has huge democratic implications, and public managers have a key role to play in that respect by designing effective governance systems and organizational procedures. The selection of papers has been limited to articles published in peer- review journals ranked in the 2018 CABS Guide; no distinctions have been made regarding journals' positioning in the ranking. Moreover, this work takes a managerial and organizational approach, while the research on public appointments is clearly interdisciplinary, with previous contributions coming mainly from political scientists.Originality/valueDespite the relevant body of literature on this topic, this study represents the first manuscript to summarize the state of the art of this theme, providing a research agenda on this very relevant but quite neglected issue in public governance.

The careers of university professional staff: a systematic literature review

Purpose Human capital is a key component of the success of organisations, and career development of staff is a vital component to both increasing and retaining human capital. Universities are no different, their people are key to their mission. There has been limited rigorous study of the careers of professional staff in the academy. The paper aims to discuss these issues. Design/methodology/approach A systematic literature review methodology resulted in a review of 23 articles dedicated to research on careers of professional staff in higher education (HE). Thematic analysis identified a series of enablers and barriers that influence career development and progression. Findings Career enablers and barriers have been found to exist at both the institutional and individual levels. Within the HE context, professional staff have a hybrid career mindset, desiring traditional and more contemporary career factors, leading to a reciprocal relationship between the organisation and the individual. Research limitations/implications There is a need for future research to investigate the hybrid career mindset, and the reciprocal relationship, both to add depth to understanding of careers for professional staff in universities, and to examine this in other settings. Practical implications Universities may need to consider ways to integrate institutional support for high performance work systems (HPWS) with opportunities for professional staff, while individuals may need to consider adopting career self-management behaviours (CSMB) to fit their hybrid mindset. Originality/value This review has highlighted organisations and individuals will benefit if the relationship between HPWS and CSMB is better understood for the hybrid career mindset.

Systematic literature review on innovation capabilities in clusters

Purpose This paper aims to map literature about innovation capabilities (IC) taking into consideration industrial clusters to propose a conceptual framework that synthetizes the main factors and subfactors responsible for ICs; in addition, the paper also proposes a research agenda. Design/methodology/approach A systematic literature review (SLR) was performed; academic papers were analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively. Findings The authors provide a descriptive analysis followed by a thematic synthesis, in which we present 05 enablers and 20 critical factors (CF) of IC in clusters. The proposed framework emphasizes what needs to be done or improved to increase IC in cluster-based companies. Based on this systematic review and the framework proposed, the authors identified opportunities for future research. Research limitations/implications The enablers and CF identified through SLR were not validated empirically. Therefore, future studies on the current topic are required to validate the framework by investigating which factors are more relevant to cluster-based companies that intend to improve their innovative performance. Practical implications The present findings have important implications for the identification of the factors and subfactors that may contribute to the development of IC, which may help managers and decision-makers in recognizing which factors are the most responsible for business innovation. Originality/value The paper identifies enablers related to the development of IC in industrial cluster and presents a research agenda. The framework represents a guideline for companies to achieve better innovation performance.

Two decades of research into SIEs and what do we know? A systematic review of the most influential literature and a proposed research agenda

PurposeThis paper aims: to undertake a systematic literature review on SIEs, examining twenty years of literature published between 2000 and 2020, focusing on the most-cited empirical work in the field; to analyse the topics covered by these studies; and to propose a research agenda.Design/methodology/approachWe conducted a systematic literature review, identifying the 20 most-cited empirical articles through citation analysis during the period and, because citations accrue over time, the six most-cited empirical articles of the last three years. We then used content analysis to examine the main themes they address and identify the research gaps.FindingsThe most common themes addressed in the SIE literature are: analysis of the types and distinctions of SIEs, motivation to undertake self-initiated expatriation, SIEs' adjustment to the new country, and SIEs' careers and outcomes.Originality/valueThis paper provides a first opportunity to look back at 20 years of research into a relatively new topic, highlighting the main research themes and knowledge gaps, and setting directions for future research. The paper expands knowledge on SIEs, assisting SIE scholars and IHRM practitioners to develop a global, critical understanding of SIEs' issues, and hopefully energising future research in this field.

Unpacking dialogic accounting: a systematic literature review and research agenda

PurposeThis article aims to contribute to the critical accounting literature by reviewing how previous studies have addressed the topic of dialogic accounting (DA), examining the main themes investigated and discussing potential further developments of the DA research agenda.Design/methodology/approachThe present study builds on a systematic literature review of 186 research products indexed on Scopus, Web of Science and Google Scholar that were published between 2004 and 2019 in 55 accounting or non-accounting scientific journals and 14 books.FindingsFirst, a content analysis of each contribution informs a classification in terms of research design, methodology, geographical setting and sector of analysis. Second, a bibliometric analysis provides several visual representations of the network of research products included in our review using bibliographic coupling, cooccurrence and coauthorship analyses. Third, and most importantly, the main narrative review discusses the development of the research strand on DA from the seminal works that introduced the topic, through the core of critical contributions inspired by the struggle between democracy and agonism, to the most recent contributions, in which new topics emerge and innovative methodologies are applied to the study of DA.Originality/valueThe main contribution of this manuscript is twofold. In addition to providing a systematic, bibliometric and narrative review of the evolution of nearly two decades of literature on DA, the present study is intended to collect ideas for further research and to discuss how the advent of new technologies and the peculiarities of various institutional contexts can shape the future research agenda on this critical form of accounting.

Entrepreneurship research in Latin America: a literature review

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to focus on the state of entrepreneurship research in the Latin American context, with special emphasis on international entrepreneurship research developed in this region. Therefore, the aim and contribution are to identify the main themes in the literature about entrepreneurship and show the evolution of entrepreneurship research in Latin America to stimulate the research and provide future research lines. Design/methodology/approach The methodology is based in a systematic literature review, using 128 articles published between 2002 and 2018, in scientific journals in the region according to SCImago Journal & Country Rank. Findings The results show the evolution through the journals, authors, topics and methodologies used by the researchers. It is emphasized that there is a very low level of research in international entrepreneurship in Latin America. This result is coherent with higher levels of entrepreneurship in Latin American countries but very few oriented to international markets. This is one of the challenges considering the importance of this field. Originality/value Entrepreneurship is a field of study that has grown throughout history. Even so, in the Latin American context, research published in high impact journals is limited. This paper is the first systematic literature review and thematic analysis of research on the field of entrepreneurship in the Latin American context. In this way, it serves as encouragement for future research, providing possibilities and challenges within the field of study.

Entrepreneurial ecosystems: a systematic literature review and research agenda

PurposeThe emerging concept of entrepreneurial ecosystems has captured the attention of scholars, practitioners and policymakers. Although studies on entrepreneurial ecosystems continue to grow, their contributions are still disintegrated. Thus, the purpose of this paper is to present a systematic review of extant literature on entrepreneurial ecosystems and to develop a research agenda.Design/methodology/approachThe study deployed a systematic literature review of 51 articles obtained from three comprehensive databases of Web of Science, Google Scholar and Scopus. The analysis includes two phases. First, a descriptive account of research on entrepreneurial ecosystems and second, a content analysis based on a thematic categorization of entrepreneurial ecosystems research.FindingsThe findings show that the concept of entrepreneurial ecosystems is both under-theorized and it has been recently dominated by conceptual studies. The focus of empirical research is on technology-based industries in Western economies using cases studies as methodological approach.Research limitations/implicationsThis review contributes to the body of knowledge on entrepreneurial ecosystems research by providing a systematic review following a thematic grouping of extant research into antecedents, outputs and outcomes of entrepreneurial ecosystems.Originality/valueIt reveals existing theoretical and empirical gaps in research as well as offering avenues of future research on entrepreneurial ecosystems.

A Systematic Literature Review of the EFQM Excellence Model from 1991 to 2019

A systematic literature review (SLR) from 1991 to 2019 is carried out about EFQM (European Foundation for Quality Management) excellence model in this paper. The aim of the paper is to present state of the art in quantitative research on the EFQM excellence model that will guide future research lines in this field. The articles were searched with the help of six strings and these six strings were executed in three popular databases i.e. Scopus, Web of Science, and Science Direct. Around 584 peer-reviewed articles examined, which are directly linked with the subject of quantitative research on the EFQM excellence model. About 108 papers were chosen finally, then the purpose, data collection, conclusion, contributions, and type of quantitative of the selected papers are discussed and analyzed briefly in this study. Thus, this study identifies the focus areas of the researchers and knowledge gaps in empirical quantitative literature on the EFQM excellence model. This article also presents the lines of future research.

Export Citation Format

Share document.

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

Microfinance and Women Entrepreneurship: An Extant Literature Review

The paper aims to explore the connection between microfinance and women entrepreneurship. This paper is based on existing empirical as well as theoretical literature across different contexts. Existing literature supports, microfinance enables disadvantaged section of women to start own micro-enterprises as well as expand already established micro-enterprises. Further, women have been able to generate employment in their micro-enterprises mainly in their localities. However, initial loans are generally diverted towards non-productive uses. These initial loans are seldom used for productive purposes, in some context, due to certain challenges such as small size of loans, frequency in loan repayment, lack of training and knowledge, marketing problems faced by women beneficiaries. It was found that women beneficiaries, however, are able to utilize their subsequent loans for productive purposes i.e. start or grow their microenterprises. The challenges which women confront in starting their own business ventures must be identified and addressed promptly. Further, there is a void in the empirical literature regarding impact estimation of microfinance on women entrepreneurship to be filled.

Related Papers

Journal of Innovation and Entrepreneurship

Abraham Abebe , meketaw kegne

This study investigates the role of microfinance services on women's entrepreneurship development in Assosa town. The study employed both descriptive and explanatory designs and a quantitative research approach. The study targeted 352 women clients of Assosa Woreda Microfinance Institution, and 165 samples were selected using a simple random sampling technique. The data were collected through a questionnaire and analyzed through the statistical package for social science (SPSS) 26 software. The findings from the descriptive mean analysis indicate that the microfinance institution financial and non-financial services offered were found unable to significantly empower disadvantaged and poor women by improving their livelihood and development of their business. The correlation result also indicated a positive and significant association between saving practice, access to credit, skill development training, and the development of women entrepreneurs. Finally, the regression result s...

Women play a crucial role in their families and in the economic development of communities but certain obstacles such as poverty, family restrictions, unemployment, societal discriminations and low income have hindered in their effective performance of that role. This research makes an attempt to evaluate the effectiveness of microfinance on empowerment of women. A cross sectional research on women's in the State of Telangana in selected cities, through a structured questionnaire will be conducted. Population of study is women who are associated with Self Help Groups (SHG's). The objective of this study is, to evaluate the effectiveness of microfinance on empowerment of women in the rural areas, to examine the effect of credit, savings, training and social capital on women entrepreneurs' performance in rural areas of Telangana state. A cross sectional research on women's in the State of Telangana in rural areas, through a structured questionnaire and an in-depth interview to solicit responses from women entrepreneurs, and secondary data from microfinance institutions. Population of study is women who are associated with Self Help Groups (SHG's). These women are married and have at least one child. The Exploratory research analysis is used to study the indicators of women empowerment. The findings of this study reveal that what is the major effectiveness of microfinance as a powerful tool in enhancing women empowerment towards entrepreneurs for its indicators like mobility, economic security, household economic decision making, legal awareness, and family decision making.

Greener Journal of Social Sciences

Patrick Ojera

Henry Embeywa

Asian Journal of Managerial Science

Adegbie Folajimi

Entrepreneurship has continually been a tenacious tool in responding to global poverty. The last few decades recorded tremedous activities of women entrepreneurs. Funding is a critical challenge to present and prospective women entrepreneurs. Microfinancing contitutes a principal source of easy access to funds. Microfinancing comprises financial and non-financial services which could possibly be a driving force to women entreprenuship and empowerment. However, the presence of microfinancing is though visible but there is lack of necessary investigation revealing the impact of microfinancing on entrepreneurial activities among women. Also, repayment problems pose threats of continuity to both microcredit institutions and entrepreneurs. A number of repayment strategies are in existence but there is lack of necessary investigation showing the influence of these repayment strategies on entrepreneurship growth among women. The focus of this study was to evaluate how Microfinancing has in...

Selasi Ayittey

In Ghana, micro finance institutions have been on the rise with micro credits, micro savings among other facilities having been portrayed as a way to reach poor people in the development process, and as a new innovative strategy for alleviating poverty. The failure of many women to exploit fully the products and services offered to them by the Micro finance institutions may influence the growth of women owned enterprises. Thus, this study aimed to analyze the role of microfinance institutions on growth of women owned enterprises in La Dade-Kotopon Municipality, Accra. The study was guided by the following objectives: to assess the extent to which access to credit facilities influence the growth of women owned enterprises; to examine the influence of micro savings on growth of women owned enterprises; and to find out the influence of training and advisory services on growth of women owned enterprises. The study used a sample size of 150 women entrepreneurs who have benefited from microfinance services from Adipa Microfinance and La Community Bank offices in La, Accra by questionnaire. The data gathered from the field were analysed and presented by means of inferential statistics and descriptive statistics such as mean, standard deviation, frequency tables, and percentages using SPSS version 24 software. The findings from the study showed that there was a positive effect of access to credit facilities from microfinance institutions to growth of women business enterprises. The access to loan facilities has the highest association with the growth of women business enterprises compare to other variables. There was a positive association between trainings and investment advisory service and microfinance institutions influence growth of women enterprises. The recommendations of the study are that the financial institutions should increase the amount of loans to the women enterprises as the data in this study had shown that the loans allocated were not sufficient.

Dr. Ademola Sajuyigbe

This study examined the role of microfinance institutions on the performance of women entrepreneurs in south western Nigeria. The specific objectives were to examine the pattern of financial products made available by microfinance institutions and rendered to women entrepreneurs, to investigate the degree of accessibility of microfinance institutions products by women entrepreneurs, to identify the problems encountered by microfinance institution operators in financing women entrepreneurs and to determine strategies to improve access to microfinance products/ services by women entrepreneurs. The research work was carried out among the licensed microfinance institutions and registered women entrepreneurs in the SouthWestern Nigeria. Purposive and simple random sampling techniques were employed to select a total number of one hundred and twenty five (125) microfinance institutions and six hundred and eight (680) women entrepreneurs as sample size for the study. Data analyses were performed with the aid of descriptive statistics. The result confirmed that only overdraft; savings account and current account, business loans, fixed deposit, financial advisory, daily contributions, fund transfer and execution of standing order were the most available financial products/services to customers but women entrepreneurs in Nigeria did not have access to majority of these products/services due to conditions attached to them. Result also revealed that delay in repayment of loans, lack of business plan, diversion of the loan granted and lack of banking culture are the most challenges confronting microfinance institutions in women entrepreneurship financing in Nigeria. The study concluded that women entrepreneurship financing can only be improved through reduction of interest rate, relaxing the conditions attached to loans, bring MFIs closer to the people, sensitize more women about MFIs, give priority to rural women, assisting women entrepreneurs in preparing business plans, and increase payback period.

Economics and Sociology,

Jehona Shkodra

Microfinance institutions (MFIs) are the only door of assistance to low-income people and businesses with poor financial performance. Women also fall into this category, as most of them have low incomes and the only way to ensure their own and their families' well-being is to start a business. Given the many criteria of commercial banks, for women entrepreneurs MFIs are often the only option of financial lending. The extent to which MFIs have influenced the development of women businesses in Kosovo will be understood from the research conducted with 200 women entrepreneurs in Kosovo. Interviews were carried out face to face with the PAPI (pencil and paper interview) survey methodology used during April-June, 2019. The data obtained from the survey has been then processed in statistical software SPSS 21.0 The research applies three econometric models to identify the effects of MFI loans on the success of women businesses. The success of women enterprises is assessed using three performance measurements: fixed assets, income and household expenditures. The results of this study explain that loans from MFIs effect performance of women's businesses in positive way using fixed assets, income and household expenses.

IAEME PUBLICATION

IAEME Publication

In 1990's microfinance is began to develop as an industry and in the 2000s is main objective is to satisfy the unmet demands on a much larger scale and to play a role in reducing poverty. Rural women in India is quite aware of the fact that they could either earn income or save household expenditure in one way or other. Rural women is quite interested to contribute to the household economy by sharing some of the household expenditures, to give better education to their children, for better health facilities, better living standards etc., The present study is aimed to study the demographic characteristics of rural women and to study the problems and challenges that rural women are facing. Data was collected from a sample of 450 by using structured questionnaire and data was analysed by using Garette ranking method. After analyzing the data, it was found that the problem of lack of awareness on government schemes is with a highest mean value of 4.2978 and the problem balancing of business and personal life is with the lowest value of 3.6044. It is suggested to conduct awareness and training programmes to rural women to realize dreams of becoming economically independent.

PROZIMA (Productivity, Optimization and Manufacturing System Engineering)

tedjo sukmono

PT. Z is a company engaged in the plastic bag industry. The company produces plastic bags, one of which is a type of ATP 12 x 24 that is often used as plastic wrapping meatballs, sugar and others. A company is certainly required to provide the best quality on its products. To meet the needs and expectations of consumers for the quality of products, the company must improve the quality of existing products. Six sigma is a quality tool that can be used to analyze and process data to maintain or improve the quality of a product based on the process. One of the shorts used in the six sigma method is Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve and Control ( DMAIC). This research focuses on the results of product defects produced for 5 months in 2019. Because of the process analyzed there is data of proportions that are out of control in july and november. So that the data is omitted so that the data can be controlled. The sigma production level of ATP 12 x 24 is currently at the level of 4 sigma s...

RELATED PAPERS

Fauziah Ulmi

SONYA HELENE KOLMAN

Florian Hilpert

Frontiers in Forests and Global Change

Maulana Ishaq

Teknos revista científica

rodrigo ospina

2017 IFIP/IEEE Symposium on Integrated Network and Service Management (IM)

EJNMMI Research

Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry

Harvey Long

Journal of Communication and Information Systems

Joao Weyl A Costa

International Journal of Engineering Research and

Mahalinga mandi

麦克马斯特大学毕业证书 加拿大学历MMU文凭学位证书成绩单

Mamuju Mapaccing

Journal of Clinical Oncology

Ralf Ketter

Jan Kovařovic

Re-Presentaciones

Hector Vera

Neonatology

AHMET GÖDEKMERDAN

Pediatric Surgery International

hagith nagar

OMAR CAMARGO

RELATED TOPICS

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

To read this content please select one of the options below:

Please note you do not have access to teaching notes, entrepreneurial orientation and ambidexterity: literature review, challenges, and agenda for future research.

The Challenges of Corporate Entrepreneurship in the Disruptive Age

ISBN : 978-1-78754-444-4 , eISBN : 978-1-78754-443-7

Publication date: 22 November 2018

In this chapter, the authors examine the main effect of entrepreneurial orientation (EO) – a firm’s strategic entrepreneurial posture – on balancing exploration and exploitation in the form of organizational ambidexterity. Resource-constrained firms face an imperative to conduct innovative activities, survive hostile environments, and compete with larger and more resource-rich firms. The authors contend that firms can address these potential impediments through achieving ambidexterity via dynamic capabilities, firm-specific resources, and institutional factors. Specifically, The authors review the EO and ambidexterity literatures and summarize extant arguments related to the relationship between EO, exploration, and exploitation. The authors also discuss the most prominent scales and measures of EO, exploration, and exploitation. Moreover, the authors discuss operationalizational challenges that should be considered when conducting EO–ambidexterity research and suggest future research directions by specifying an agenda outlining useful theoretical perspectives and various contingencies that may influence the EO–ambidexterity relationship.

• Entrepreneurial orientation
• Ambidexterity
• Exploration
• Exploitation
• Corporate entrepreneurship
• Measurement
• Operationalization

Lee, Y. and Kreiser, P.M. (2018), "Entrepreneurial Orientation and Ambidexterity: Literature Review, Challenges, and Agenda for Future Research", Kuratko, D.F. and Hoskinson, S. (Ed.) The Challenges of Corporate Entrepreneurship in the Disruptive Age ( Advances in the Study of Entrepreneurship, Innovation and Economic Growth, Vol. 28 ), Emerald Publishing Limited, Leeds, pp. 37-62. https://doi.org/10.1108/S1048-473620180000028002

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2019 Emerald Publishing Limited

We’re listening — tell us what you think

Something didn’t work….

Report bugs here

All feedback is valuable

Please share your general feedback

Join us on our journey

Platform update page.

Visit emeraldpublishing.com/platformupdate to discover the latest news and updates

Questions & More Information

Answers to the most commonly asked questions here

The resilient self-employability of women and senior people after sudden economic shocks

• Empirical articles
• Open access
• Published: 28 May 2024

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

• David B. Audretsch 1 , 5 ,
• Seham Ghalwash   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8415-5525 2 , 3 &
• Iñaki Peña-Legazkue   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5398-4168 4  

In recent times, various crises have negatively affected the financial stability, job security, and health of countless individuals. According to research, different factors that operate at both the individual and contextual levels can play a prominent role in influencing people's self-employment during periods of economic downturn. This study investigates the changes in the likelihood of self-employment by gender and age across various contexts following sudden shocks. By analyzing the intersection of occupational choice and business cycle theories, this research offers insights into how crises affect people's ability to work for themselves. Using a sample of over 250,000 individuals from sixteen countries and applying a multilevel binary logistic regression analysis, the results confirm that women and older individuals are less inclined to be self-employed in general. However, unexpected economic recessions may lead to a slight increase in their likelihood of self-employment. Furthermore, when women and seniors live in a higher GDP per capita context, this context positively moderates the relationship between gender, age, and the propensity for entrepreneurship. These findings offer valuable insights for policymakers seeking to promote resilient self-employment among vulnerable individuals for post-crisis recovery.

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

In times of crisis, many people face significant challenges, such as losing their jobs, income, and overall well-being. Sudden layoffs or reduced work hours can be quite overwhelming for those experiencing them. The global financial crisis, the COVID-19 pandemic, and the War in Ukraine have all resulted in disproportionate worldwide impacts on the lives of many people. Several scholars argue that there is a recurring gender and age-based asymmetrical response to crises in the labor force (Vorobeva & Dana, 2021 ). Moreover, the effects of economic downturns are also devastating for most aspiring entrepreneurs (Bailey et al., 2020 ; Zahra, 2021 ). These disruptive shocks are expected to have long-lasting adverse economic effects, particularly on those who are most vulnerable and disadvantaged (Naudé, 2020 ). However, crises can sometimes present new opportunities for self-employment and personal change.

The unexpected shocks affect markets, institutions, and people, although not everyone experiences the same level of suffering or recovery (Doern et al., 2019 ). Indeed, the distribution of resources for entrepreneurship is unequal, particularly during periods of scarcity. This shortage results in the under-representation of certain groups, such as women and senior citizens, often called the "missing entrepreneurs" (OECD, 2021 ). Self-employment becomes the only viable way for many women and people over 50 to recover economically from crises during market contractions (Pines et al., 2010 ; Young et al., 2017 ). Despite its relevance, very few studies have investigated how sudden shocks affect the occupational decision to pursue self-employment (Davidsson & Gordon, 2016 ). While previous research has shown that the relationship between macroeconomic cycles and entrepreneurship is complex, there is little information on changes in the propensity of women and senior people to self-employ after a major disruptive event (Fairlie & Fossen, 2019 ; Parker, 2011 ). Understanding the significance of a sudden variation in these segments of society is crucial because the magnitude of such a deviation may determine the level of effort required for a more inclusive and fairer self-employment activity during a subsequent recovery period (Shepherd et al., 2020 ).

To address this glaring gap in the literature, we undertake an under-explored view of disruption in the external context and investigate how crises affect the intention and realization of self-employment of vulnerable people across different places. To truly understand why some people are more resilient than others, we must consider the unique circumstances of each crisis, as well as the personal characteristics of those considering self-employment. It is important to recognize that the likelihood of someone pursuing self-employment can vary greatly based on specific moments, locations, and demographic groups. Failing to account for these factors can lead to a limited understanding of the motivations and challenges faced by potential self-employees (Quintillán & Peña-Legazkue, 2020 ). Abrupt shake-outs influence differently distinct segments of (aspiring) entrepreneurs, and to the best of our knowledge, research to date has not investigated enough this “persona causa” behind these processes (Hessels et al., 2011 ). Thereby, this investigation undertakes a more nuanced approach to investigate resilient entrepreneurial behavior by considering the effect of recent shocks (i.e., the global financial crisis, hereafter GFC, and the coronavirus crisis, COVID-19 hereafter) on people who live in dissimilar socioeconomic environments and face different sorts of vulnerability (i.e., gender-related and age-related vulnerability).

The purpose of this study is to examine how the gender-related and age-related likelihood of self-employment varies after economic crises. To achieve this, we look at the probability of self-occupation by gender and age in response to two recent shocks, drawing upon the economic cycle and occupational choice literature. In so doing, we expect to contribute to the extant research on self-occupation during economic recessions in several ways. First, we take a dynamic view, analyzing the variation of the gender and age propensity of self-employment for specific periods preceding and succeeding two different crises. This approach complements previous studies focusing mainly on static cross-section research to examine the influence of factors linked to the institutional (spatial) context (Estrin & Mickiewicz, 2009 ; Klyver et al., 2013 ; Welter, 2011 ). Moreover, our study compares two critical points of the entrepreneurship process (i.e., the intention and realization of self-employment), distinguishing it from previous studies. Secondly, this investigation challenges the notion that economic shocks are homogeneous (Congregado et al., 2012 ; Koellinger & Thurik, 2012 ), recognizing that every shock is not identical in terms of duration, scope, and degree of intensity. Since different shocks elicit different responses from people, we compare the effects of an endogenous shock and an exogenous shock to observe the extent to which the likelihood of having an intention and the realization of self-employment varies by focusing on women and seniors. Thirdly, this study extends previous work on opportunity and necessity-driven entrepreneurship by examining how dissimilar contexts moderate the vulnerability for self-employment of women and senior people in the aftermath of crises (Hechavarria & Reynolds, 2009 ). The results suggest that the national wealth level moderates the effect of disruptive shocks since not all places provide the same advantageous conditions to recover and (re)engage in self-employment for the most fragile segments of the population.

The following section presents a theoretical framework that analyzes the impact of economic shocks on gender and age disparities in self-employment in various contexts. This is followed by a description of the data and methodology used in the empirical tests. The main results and discussion of findings are then summarized, and the study ends with the main conclusions, limitations, and implications.

Theory background

The relationship between crises and self-employment.

It is widely accepted that the choice (or need) for self-employment is influenced by the personal features of individuals and by the context surrounding them (De Clercq & Dakhli, 2009 ). A comparative study by examining different global shocks and the interface between the micro-level (i.e., personal characteristics) and the macro-level of self-occupation (i.e., different cycles and contexts) can enhance our understanding of how some people respond and self-employ resiliently at times and places of adversity (Klyver et al., 2013 ; Langowitz & Minniti, 2007 ). The entrepreneurial process usually starts with an idea, whether intentional or accidental. This idea can either be acted upon and turned into a new business or simply discarded. Several personal or contextual challenges may arise during this challenging process, preventing the idea from becoming a feasible business. For this reason, we differentiate the intention from the realization of self-employment.

The theory of planned behavior suggests that multiple individual and contextual factors influence the intention of individuals to become entrepreneurs and that intention is a reasonable precursor to action (Cardella et al., 2024 ). In this study, intention refers to a voluntary and purposeful desire to engage in self-employment, driven by personal motives. On the other hand, realization means the complete engagement in self-employment. Simply intending to start a business does not guarantee that people will engage in self-employment. Entrepreneurs often encounter obstacles that hinder their entry into the market, while at the same time, unexpected opportunities or needs may trigger individuals to become self-employed. This mismatch creates a disconnect between their intention and the realization of self-employment. These scenarios highlight the significance of studying the intentions and realization of self-employment separately. We contend that sudden shocks can have varying effects both on self-employment intentions and realization , particularly among the most vulnerable individuals.

While some studies on the linkage between economic cycles and entrepreneurship claim that recession times are pro-cyclical, and therefore, detrimental to entrepreneurship (Bartz & Winkler, 2016 ; González Pernía et al., 2018 ), other authors hold that new firms are more likely to survive and to remain in business during crisis times due to the upraised opportunity cost for abandoning their activity (Simón-Moya et al., 2016 ). Indeed, not all economic recessions are identical and produce the same effects on self-employment (Yu et al., 2024 ). For instance, the global financial and coronavirus crises are two recent shocks with very different features. A key difference between both crises is that the GFC results from an endogenous shock while the coronavirus crisis emerges as an exogenous shock. The economic and institutional system caused the GFC. Financial markets froze and liquidity dried up, resulting in a deep economic recession and a long recovery process. In contrast, the COVID-19 pandemic appeared from a virus outside the economic and institutional system. The sudden onset of a global health crisis caused a rapid decline in worldwide markets and institutions, resulting in lockdowns and mandatory business shutdowns. The recovery process has been uneven, with a “V-shape” recuperation advancing more quickly once the health problem has been brought under control. Therefore, it is important to analyze how different types of shocks impact the self-employability of vulnerable groups.

The propensity of self-employment of women after economic shocks

Although men and women entrepreneurs are both critical for generating wealth, men still outnumber women in self-employment in most countries, and this gender gap has persisted for decades (Alkhaled & Berglund, 2018 ; Reynolds, 1997 ). Historical evidence suggests that the size of the gender gap has varied over time, and one reason for this variation could be that institutions' efforts to reduce gender disparities weaken or disappear during unexpected crises. This recurring phenomenon in history partially explains why women's entrepreneurial activity rates rarely surpass those of men.

According to the theory of business cycles, when the economy is doing well, it creates favorable conditions for entrepreneurs to start new businesses. However, when the economy struggles, the appeal of starting a business decreases, especially for women facing limited financing access during tough times. Social norms and stereotypes can also discourage women from pursuing self-employment, especially when economic instability and risk are high (Lanchimba et al., 2024 ). All these pro-cyclical factors combined make it even more challenging for women to consider the desire for self-employment during periods of adversity.

H1a: The probability of self-employment  intention  of women compared to that of men decreases in response to adverse economic shocks.

The connection between economic cycles and entrepreneurship is complex and influenced by various factors at both macro and micro levels. Indeed, this relationship can be unclear, particularly when considering the motivations behind self-employment. Vulnerable individuals with necessity-driven motivations may be impacted differently than those with opportunity-driven motivations (Fairlie & Fossen, 2019 ), especially after unexpected shocks. A more nuanced study is necessary to better understand how the realization of self-employment behaves during times of crisis.

Studies have shown that unexpected crises like the GFC or the COVID-19 pandemic have made women more susceptible to challenges in the job market compared to men (Gezici & Ozay, 2020 ; Verick, 2009 ). This is because women are overrepresented in industries hit hardest by economic downturns, such as retail, hospitality, and services (Belitski et al., 2022 ; Manolova et al., 2020 ). Women who have lost their jobs, as well as other women, may choose to pursue self-employment as a means of achieving greater autonomy and flexibility in their careers. The theory of occupational choice examines the factors that affect the career path of individuals (i.e., such as their income potential, skills, preferences, and own needs). In this vein, women may adjust their career aspirations or occupational preferences based on the prevailing labor market and their personal conditions (Minniti & Nardone, 2007 ).

Despite the obstacles women face in the job market, such as gender discrimination, unfair pay, and limited career advancement opportunities (known as the glass ceiling), a shift towards self-employment can provide them with an alternative path to achieve their professional aspirations, financial independence, and personal goals. Especially during times of crisis, self-employment can offer women better work-life balance, job schedule flexibility, and manageable responsibilities, making it a viable option (or need) for those with caregiving obligations or other commitments (Litsardopoulos et al., 2023 ; Murgia & Pulignano, 2021 ). While it may seem counterintuitive, crises can sometimes present new opportunities for women to become self-employed and maintain their resilience in the face of challenging circumstances in the job market. This is especially true for women who have been excluded from the labor market and rely (unintendedly) on self-employment as their primary source of income. Thus, we hypothesize that while a gender gap in self-employment still exists overall (with women having lower chances of being self-employed compared to men, regardless of economic cycles), unforeseen shocks can trigger an increase in women's self-employment relative to men´s and reduce this gap.

H1b: The probability of women's  realization  of self-employment compared to men increases after economic shocks (i.e., although the coefficient remains negative, reflecting a gender gap).

The propensity of self-employment of senior people after economic shocks

This research also investigates how unexpected crises affect senior citizens' self-employment decisions. The population's age structure is rapidly changing, which has significant implications for labor force participation, health service provision, and other societal issues. Discrimination based on age, unequal treatment of senior employees in the labor market, and the self-employability of older workers have become important topics recently for scholars and policymakers (Stypińska & Nikander, 2018 ).

Senior individuals may be less inclined to take on the financial risks associated with starting their own business, particularly if they have high costs such as mortgages, healthcare expenses, and dependents to support. The theory of occupational choice suggests that older individuals have a shorter time frame to achieve their career and financial goals than younger individuals. Due to this time pressure, seniors´ desire to self-employ could be perceived as more daunting (Kautonen et al., 2014 ). In fact, transitioning to self-employment may require acquiring new skills or adapting existing ones, which makes the intention to launch a new business more arduous and risky for senior people during an economic downturn. Hence, it is reasonable for seniors to prioritize stability and security in their career choices during difficult times.

H2a: The probability of self-employment  intention  of senior people compared to their younger counterparts decreases in response to adverse economic shocks.

Evidence shows that crises tend to reduce employment opportunities for workers over 50, and senior women are particularly affected (Goda et al., 2021 ). The economic cycle significantly impacts occupational decisions, as vulnerable population groups may turn to self-employment during economic uncertainty. Therefore, self-employment can also be a feasible alternative for older adults during economic downturns. There is a widespread belief in society that people over 50 years old become less valuable for social and economic reasons, regardless of their skills and health status (Choi et al., 2018 ). Employers often have a biased view of age and prefer younger candidates, leaving older ones disadvantaged during the hiring process (Backman et al., 2021 ). Even if they are employed, senior employees often receive lower pay than their younger colleagues, and they may also be overlooked for promotions, training opportunities, and other important changes within the company. Economic push factors such as layoffs, downsizing, or age-related discrimination in the labor market may induce seniors towards self-employment to earn a living (Halvorsen, 2021 ). These burdens tend to be more pronounced during economic downturns, and can negatively affect the self-esteem and financial security of older workers. As advocated by occupational choice theory, senior individuals may self-employ to maintain control over their professional careers and generate their own income after being unexpectedly displaced from the labor market.

Resilient senior self-employed individuals become relevant not only because they can manage themselves economically during times of crisis but also because they can serve as inspiring role models for others (Soto-Simeone & Kautonen, 2021 ). Human capital theory holds people can leverage their skills, experience, and resilience to navigate economic uncertainty. While some human capital assets may become obsolete in the labor market, other assets amassed by seniors can be helpful for self-employment. As individuals age, they accumulate valuable knowledge, networks, and sometimes savings throughout their careers (Mair & Marti, 2009 ). Additionally, older adults who have experienced previous economic downturns may be more adaptable and resilient when faced with new economic shocks. Self-employment can be an appealing option for seniors transitioning into retirement or seeking a better work-health balance after a crisis (Halvorsen, 2021 ).

Although the literature recognizes an age gap, in general, when it comes to self-employment (Kautonen et al., 2017 ) (i.e., with senior individuals being less likely than younger ones to pursue entrepreneurship), a sudden shock might encourage the realization of self-employment of senior people, particularly of those who are driven by necessity after being displaced from the labor market.

H2b: The probability of the  realization  of self-employment of senior people compared to their younger counterparts increases after economic shocks (i.e., although the coefficient remains negative, reflecting an age gap).

The after-shock self-employability of women and seniors across countries with different levels of prosperity

The context matters in shaping entrepreneurial behavior, as spatial and social contexts create essential conditions at the macro and meso levels for occupational decisions (Avnimelech & Zelekha, 2023 ; Brush et al., 2009 ; Estrin & Mickiewicz, 2011 ). Recent research suggests that women face more challenges when initiating and expanding their businesses in areas where resources are scarce (Aparicio et al., 2022 ). In contrast, the conditions for entrepreneurship may be favorable for women in more prosperous locations (Elam et al., 2021 ; Zhao & Yang, 2021 ). In other words, the level of economic prosperity in an area could influence women's decision to pursue self-employment after facing unexpected shocks. However, how the context (i.e., the family, temporal, spatial, or sectoral contexts) moderates the relationship between economic crisis and the choice of self-employment by vulnerable segments raises an interesting research issue widely ignored in the entrepreneurship literature (Brutton et al., 2021 ).

This study emphasizes the moderating role of GDP per capita, a widely used indicator of a place's prosperity, in the relationship between different crises and self-employment variation (Wennekers et al., 2005 ). Several factors can influence the relationship between GDP per capita and the level of self-employment among women following economic shocks. In countries with higher GDP per capita, the population tends to have higher education and skill development levels. Women in these countries may possess the necessary knowledge, skills, and entrepreneurial capabilities to pursue self-employment opportunities, even in the face of economic shocks. Countries with higher GDP per capita also have greater technological advancements and digital infrastructure, creating new opportunities for women to start and operate businesses, particularly in online markets (Irmatova, & Akbarova, 2023 ). These sectors may be more resilient to economic shocks in wealthier economies, which typically recover faster from crises. Moreover, some countries with higher GDP per capita may have more progressive attitudes towards women's economic empowerment (Naveed et al., 2023 ). In such countries, women may have greater access to support programs, funding opportunities, business networks, and mentorship programs, which can facilitate their entry into self-employment following economic shocks. Therefore, living in areas with higher GDP per capita positively influences women´s self-employment intention and realization during crises.

H3a: Living in countries with higher GDP per capita moderates positively the relationship between being a woman and the probability of having the  intention  to self-employ after a sudden shock.

H3b: Living in countries with higher GDP per capita moderates positively the relationship between being a woman and the probability of the  realization  of self-employment after a sudden shock.

The opportunities for self-employment for senior people also vary across different countries. Those who live in wealthier countries often have pension plans to fund their retirement, so they do not have to depend entirely on their families or the government. Advanced economies with higher GDP per capita usually have more diverse and dynamic markets, providing economic opportunities for individuals of all ages. Seniors in countries with higher GDP per capita may have greater well-being, financial independence, and stability, which enables them to pursue self-employment. Higher savings, retirement funds, and access to financial resources may provide seniors with the necessary capital to start and sustain businesses (Kautonen et al., 2017 ). Moreover, countries with higher GDP per capita often have more robust social safety nets and welfare systems in place, providing seniors with a safety net in case their self-employment ventures do not succeed. This safety net can mitigate some of the risks associated with entrepreneurship and provide seniors with the confidence to pursue self-employment opportunities.

High-income countries (i.e., such as Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands) offer flexible labor markets for seniors, accommodating alternative work arrangements, including partial self-employment (OECD/European Commission, 2021 ). For instance, these countries may have a greater demand for specialized expertise in sectors such as consulting, coaching, or mentoring, which can create opportunities for self-employment among seniors. In contrast, less prosperous countries have been slower in addressing aging as a public policy concern and older people may find it difficult to choose self-employment as an occupation (Lloyd-Sherlock, 2000 ). Moreover, elderly individuals living in resource-constrained settings face severe challenges in self-employment due to limited financial support and low literacy rates (Henriquez-Camacho et al., 2014 ). Hence, we hypothesize that seniors' intention and realization of self-employment during an economic downturn are positively affected by residing in areas with a higher GDP per capita.

H4a: Living in countries with higher GDP per capita moderates positively the relationship between being a senior and the probability of having the intention to self-employ after a sudden shock.

H4b: Living in countries with higher GDP per capita moderates positively the relationship between being a senior and the probability of the  realization  of self-employment after a sudden shock.

As pointed out by Welter ( 2011 , p.165), “the rules of entrepreneurship do change dramatically from one time and place to another.” We sumnarize that despite the permanent gender and age disparities, women and senior individuals who are resilient and wish to start their own businesses following unanticipated crises are more likely to succeed in locations that are more favorable for entrepreneurship. Our conceptual framework is illustrated in Fig.  1 .

The moderating role of the context on the self-employability of women and senior people

Methodology

The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) provides valuable data for examining occupational preferences worldwide. The annual data collection offers insights into the current state of self-employment in various contexts. While there may be some limitations (i.e., inadequate data infrastructure in some countries resulting in incomplete or inaccurate information, and small sample sizes in certain countries), the GEM data has multiple benefits for investigating our topic. The GEM consortium gathers data from numerous countries, enabling comparisons of self-employment rates across borders (Ouazzani et al., 2021 ). Additionally, the consortium has been collecting information over several years, allowing for tracking trends in self-employability (Simmons et al., 2019 ). In particular, data for the pre-shock and post-shock periods for the endogenous crisis (GFC) and the exogenous crisis (COVID-19) have been used to test our hypotheses.

This study emphasizes the need to examine two different early stages of the process of entrepreneurship: the intention and the realization of self-employment. Therefore, it is crucial to have representative and diverse samples that account for different crises, national contexts, and individuals with distinct profiles. The representativeness of the data depends not only on the quantity of the sample size but also on the quality and appropriateness of the sampling method used. GEM employs reasonable sample sizes in each country to increase the accuracy of the data collected (i.e., the GEM consortium selects a minimum of 2000 adults aged 18 to 64 years old each year from every participating country). The selection process follows a stratified sampling technique to ensure that the survey respondents are representative of the population. In this study, over 250,000 individuals from sixteen countries Footnote 1 were interviewed to provide empirical evidence on the gender and age disparity in self-employment for the GFC (2008–2010) and the COVID-19 pandemic (2019–2021).

Dependent and independent variables

Two dependent variables are used to describe the two stages of the process of self-employment. On the one hand, we measure the intention of people for self-employment (i.e., ex-ante stage of self-occupation); on the other hand, we account for the factual realization of self-employment (i.e., ex-post stage of self-occupation). The variable intention describes the intent to self-employ in the next 3 years at the moment of the interview. If the answer is “yes”, the variable intention takes the value of one (1), and zero (0) otherwise. The variable realization describes whether a respondent owns a new business and has recently earned a wage from self-employment for up to three months after paying business expenditures. If the answer is “yes”, the variable realization takes the value of one (1), and zero (0) otherwise. The effects on the dependent variables for the period right before and after each shock are compared (i.e., results for the Pre-shock and Post-shock models). The literature has used these dependent variables to analyze the subject of nascent entrepreneurs (Wennekers et al., 2005 ).

The explanatory variables are classified into two levels. Level-1 variables reflect the personal characteristics of individuals, while Level-2 variables account for the variation by country. Among the Level-1 variables, two main variables are highlighted to test for gender and age disparity: Female and Age . Female is a dichotomous variable taking a value of one (1) if the respondent is a woman and zero (0) otherwise. Age is also a dichotomous variable taking a value of one (1) if the respondent is over 50 years old and zero (0) otherwise. These variables have been previously used in studies related to the literature on women and senior entrepreneurship l (Estrin & Mickiewicz, 2011 ; Kautonen et al., 2014 ; Simmons et al., 2019 ).

Two more Level-1 control variables have been added to measure human capital -  College and Experience- and the perception of fear of business failure. College is a binary variable that takes the value of one (1) if the respondent has a college degree and zero (0) if not. The variable Experience determines whether individuals have prior entrepreneurial or self-employment experience, regardless of the outcome, since learning occurs from both positive and negative entrepreneurial experiences (DeTienne et al., 2015 ; Guerrero & Peña-Legazkue, 2019 ). If the respondent has shut down a business within the last twelve months, the variable Experience takes the value one (1) and zero (0) otherwise. Previous studies have included similar variables to examine the relationship between individual attributes and entrepreneurship (Dimov, 2010 ; Ouazzani et al., 2021 ).

The Level-2 variable is based on country data and represents GDP per capita data for sixteen countries provided by the World Bank. This variable has been used in other studies to represent the context for entrepreneurship and its level of prosperity (Bosma et al., 2018 ; Wennekers et al., 2005 ). The variable GDP has been converted to US dollars and adjusted for inflation across the pre-shock and post-shock periods to equate the purchasing power of people in both periods. This moderating variable representing the wealth level of each context interacts with our main explanatory variables to test the variation after different crises of the likelihood of self-employment of women and seniors, as exhibited in Fig.  1 . Table 1 summarizes all the variables used in this study, including the additional variables used for robustness tests.

A multilevel binary logistic regression analysis is applied to test our hypotheses. Multilevel regression is a powerful tool for understanding complex data structures and relationships. The hierarchical linear method is commonly used when data has a nested structure and there is a natural grouping of observations. In our sample, we have level-1 individual data and level-2 country data. We use a two-level model to account for the differences in contexts and to measure the effect of both within-country and between-countries variations. Our tests are conducted in two stages. Firstly, we examine an unconditional null model to identify the effect of country variation and compute the intra-class correlation index. Secondly, we test a full model with the main and moderating variables. This approach has been previously used in studies by Guerrero and Walsh ( 2023 ) and Chen et al. ( 2022 ).

Table 2 displays the descriptive statistics and correlation matrix of the entire sample. Of all respondents, 16% intend to become self-employed within three years and 5% have already become self-employed in the past three months. Approximately 53% of the whole sample are women, and nearly 30% are above 50 years old. Roughly 42% of the participants hold a college degree, and about 3% have previous self-occupation experience. The mean GDP per capita across all countries is approximately 28,000 US dollars. We computed the variance inflation factor (VIF) scores for all the variables, and none of the VIF scores crossed the threshold of 5.0, indicating no risk for multicollinearity among the explanatory variables.

Table 3 shows the results of the multilevel binary logistic regression tests for the intention of self-employment. Table 4 , on the other hand, displays the results for the subsequent stage of the realization of self-employment. In both cases, we first analyze the null models to check how the grouping by countries is related to the dependent variables, intention and realization of self-employment. Standarized coefficients have been used for comparability. In general, the intraclass correlation (ICC) coefficients of the null models are acceptable, falling within the range of 5% to 25%. As a next step, the fixed and random effects are estimated by incorporating both the level-1 and level-2 explanatory variables into the full models.

Results on the likelihood of women to self-employ after sudden shocks

The negative and significant coefficients for the variable Female consistently show that women are less likely than men to self-employ, which aligns with existing literature. In Table  4 , our analysis further reveals that the probability of women's realization of self-employment compared to men increases slightly after both the GFC shock and the COVID-19 pandemic (though the coefficient is still negative as predicted). In particular, the increase is from β = -0.042 to β = -0.019 after the GFC shock and from β = -0.029 to β = -0.020 after the COVID-19 pandemic. In contrast, the results in Table  3 show that the probability of women intending to become entrepreneurs decreases slightly after both economic shocks. Specifically, the decrease is from β = -0.095 to β = -0.101 after the GFC shock, and from β = -0.060 to β = -0.072 after the COVID-19 pandemic. Overall, these results support H1a and H1b and consistently show a gender disparity in the intention and realization of self-employment in the pre-shock and post-shock periods for each crisis (i.e., GFC and COVID-19). Interestingly, the gender gap in entrepreneurial intention widens for women after each shock (i.e., H1a), but their resilience leads to a less severe impact on self-employment realization (i.e., H1b).

Results on the likelihood of senior people to self-employ after sudden shocks

The results also reveal that older people are generally less likely to become self-employed than their younger counterparts. As expected, the negative coefficients of the variable age in all the models suggest an age disparity exists when pursuing and materializing self-employment. However, two outcomes are noteworthy. On the one hand, the likelihood of older people intending to become self-employed compared to younger people increases a little from β = -0.149 to β = -0.146 during the GFC crisis, and a bit more from β = -0.145 to β = -0.127 during the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, these findings do not support H2a, which holds that older people's intention to become self-employed would be worsened after sudden shocks. On the other hand, the probability of the realization of self-employment increases for older people from β = -0.024 to β = -0.017 during the GFC shock, but it decreases from β = -0.045 to β = -0.049 during the COVID-19 pandemic, possibly due to the weaker health condition of many seniors during the pandemic. Hence, H2b is partially supported. In brief, senior individuals exhibit distinct entrepreneurial behavior compared to women. While the age gap in entrepreneurial intention narrows for seniors after each shock, they become less resilient when realizing self-employment during the pandemic crisis.

Results on the moderating effect of the prosperity level of the context

The development and wealth conditions of a particular context can either encourage or restrict individuals from seeking self-employment opportunities (Brutton et al., 2021 ). The results of the null models and the coefficients for the moderating variables of the full models demonstrate that context plays a significant role. The tests reveal that the interaction terms have significant coefficients, all with positive values ranging from β = 0.001 to β = 0.007. These values suggest that in contexts with higher GDP per capita, the self-employment probability of women and senior individuals further increases after different crises. As the coefficients are consistently positive and statistically significant for both the intention and the realization of self-employment in the GFC and COVID-19 crises, we find support for our hypotheses (i.e., H3a, H3b, H4a, and H4b).

In sum, the results suggest that women and seniors are less likely than men and younger people to pursue and materialize self-employment. However, women and seniors tend to respond more resiliently after crises (i.e., with a slight increase in their probability of self-employment), and in particular, those living in prosperous countries with higher GDP per capita are more inclined towards self-employment. On the contrary, women and senior people from poorer regions become less entrepreneurial and more vulnerable. Therefore, the impact of crises varies depending not only on the characteristics of individuals and the type of crisis, but also on the context in which people live. This additional burden of self-occupation is what we call augmented vulnerability .

Results for the robustness tests

Robustness tests were conducted to check the existence of gender and age disparity by changing certain conditions at both level-1 and level-2 in our models. Specifically, we expanded the full models with three perceptual variables at level-1 that complement the human capital profile and perceptions of the individuals. The dichotomic variable opportunity represents respondents' perception of good business opportunities in the coming six months, while the variable fear failure describes whether or not the fear of business failure would prevent the respondent from pursuing self-employment. Fear of failure is measured by a 5-likert scale centered around the value of zero. Additionally, we nested the countries into several regions at level-2, including northern-Europe, southern-Europe, Middle East-North Africa, and Latin America. The results consistently support our hypotheses and previous outcomes, as shown in Table  5 . In general, both the gender and age disparity persist for both the intention and realization of self-employment after sudden shocks, and this effect is even more pronounced in regions with lower averages of GDP per capita (i.e., augmented vulnerability ).

Scholars widely agree that studying the self-employment of individuals during recessions is essential, given that inclusive entrepreneurship can promote a fair and rapid economic recovery (Liñán & Jaén, 2020 ; Shepherd et al., 2020 ). Some people become self-employed by necessity, while others see it as an opportunity to start a profitable venture during crises (van Stel et al., 2023 ). Only recently have researchers started exploring how the most vulnerable people cope with disruptive events and natural disasters and how such crises affect women and older individuals' pursuit of self-employment (Bullough et al., 2014 ; Li et al., 2019 ; Marshall et al., 2015 ). However, little is known about the reasons why some individuals succeed while others do not and whether marginalized groups have equal access to resources and opportunities for self-employment in successive periods of adversity (Bird & Brush, 2002 ; Minniti & Nardone, 2007 ). In response to the claim in the scholarly literature that further research is needed on this relevant issue, this study investigates the factors contributing to gender and age differences in self-employment during various crises (Davidsson & Gordon, 2016 ; Marlow & Swail, 2014 ).

Unlike in other studies, we explore the extent to which crises differently impact individuals during two early stages of the process of self-employment, namely intention and realization . This research contributes new evidence to the existing literature on the asymmetric effects of disabling shocks on different genders and age groups in various phases of the process of entrepreneurship (Guerrero & Peña-Legazkue, 2019 ; Simmons et al., 2019 ). More precisely, we investigate both the intention and realization early stages of self-employment, providing a more comprehensive understanding compared to studies that investigate only one stage of the entrepreneurship process. Our findings reveal that the effects of any crisis (i.e., either endogenous or exogenous shocks) point consistently in the same direction (i.e., against women and senior people) in both phases (i.e., intention and realization of self-employment).

Our novel approach - blending personal, temporal, and spatial dimensions - helps us better identify individuals who exhibit resilience towards entrepreneurship during distinct periods and contexts of adversity. Indeed, our results confirm differences in gender and age disparity across contexts, as suggested by previous studies that take a static cross-sectional perspective (Brush et al., 2019 ; Shinnar et al., 2012 ). However, in our analysis, we go beyond a static view and take a dynamic approach by considering the potential changes in the likelihood of self-employment over time, particularly in response to various unexpected events. By incorporating a temporal perspective, we observe that the rate of self-employment can also vary due to resilient responses by vulnerable segments such as women and senior entrepreneurs to sudden shocks. Through a comprehensive investigation of how self-employment varies among people from diverse backgrounds, we reveal the untapped potential of women and seniors for entrepreneurship.

Our findings complement previous findings of the theory of occupational choice (Kautonen et al., 2014 ) in that from a temporal perspective, the intention is distinguished from the realization of self-employment. Unlike in previous studies on occupational choice, differences in both stages of the process of entrepreneurship are identified. Findings in the literature suggest that crises affect people's self-employability, and most of the time, this impact is to the detriment of most vulnerable people (Lim, 2000 ; Rubery & Rafferty, 2013 ; Xie & Lv, 2016 ). Our findings suggest that although the gender gap in self-employment intentions may worsen after economic shocks, it tends to narrow when realizing self-employment. Additionally, senior entrepreneurs tend to have a higher intention to self-employ during crises. However, their likelihood of doing so decreased only during the recent COVID-19 pandemic (i.e., probably due to more severe health problems experienced by older people). Our findings emphasize the strong entrepreneurial spirit of women and seniors in the face of unforeseen external challenges. The insights gained from their intention and resilient realization of self-employment can provide valuable guidance to policymakers in designing effective support programs for vulnerable segments during times of hardship.

Business cycle theory analyzes the causes and effects of economic expansions and contractions. Complementing previous findings (Parker et al., 2012 ), we argue that crises' effects on people's self-employability are not uniform. Crises differ in origin, nature, duration, and intensity; therefore, the impact of each crisis on self-employment varies across distinct segments of the population. Our research on the effects of the two most recent global crises, namely the GFC and the COVID-19 pandemic, shows that there is still a continuous disparity in self-employment rates based on gender and age, regardless of the type of crisis (whether it is an endogenous or exogenous shock). We extend the work by Brush et al. ( 2019 ) and Elam et al. ( 2021 ), and claim that the intention and realization of self-employment vary for each group depending on the specific characteristics of the crisis.

It is well known that the context is important for understanding when , how, where, and why entrepreneurship happens and who becomes involved (Giménez & Calabró, 2018 ; Welter, 2011 ). The level of wealth in different locations largely explains the variation in desirability and feasibility of self-employment, as context shapes entrepreneurial intentions and attitudes (Zhu et al., 2021 ). Recent studies on inequality and entrepreneurial thresholds suggest that a country's uneven wealth distribution affects the availability of resources and opportunities, which can influence the success of aspiring entrepreneurs (Constantinidis et al., 2019 ; Sarkar et al., 2018 ). Our findings show that the after-shock resilient behavior of women and seniors is enhanced in more prosperous places. It is well known that differences in markets, institutions, and wealth levels in countries have significant implications for economic inequality (Brutton et al., 2021 ) and also for gender and age disparity in self-employment. We contribute to the literature on economic development and entrepreneurship by arguing that the recovery from any crisis is typically unequal, with economically disadvantaged groups and emerging economies needing much more time and support to recover from each shock (i.e., what we call augmented vulnerability ). The most recent historical evidence indicates that self-employment gender and age gaps tend to converge towards parity through cycles, with sudden drops occurring at shocks and gradual improvements taking place over longer periods. A new disruptive event has the potential to undo the institutional efforts made to promote gender and age parity. That is, abrupt shocks can cause a “sawtooth effect”, leading to a severe reduction or complete elimination of the positive impacts of policies on parity implemented over many years, especially in less favored regions (See Fig.  2 ).

The global gender-gap ratio of self-employment intention (Women/Men, %)

This research confirms the existence of a continuous disparity by gender and age in the pursuit and achievement of self-employment during crises, and the difficulty for resilient entrepreneurship is more pronounced for women and seniors who live in less prosperous environments. Although these vulnerable segments are more exposed to crises, they appear more resilient since, according to our results, their likelihood of turning to self-employment increases slightly after sudden shocks. Hence, the findings suggest that to achieve a faster recovery and more inclusive entrepreneurial activity, it is essential to enhance the conditions of the context for entrepreneurship for the most vulnerable yet resilient segments of society.

Implementing universal policies in response to various disruptive crises, to promote equality and accelerate economic recovery may not be effective (Estrin & Mickiewicz, 2009 ). Our research suggests that the impacts of each shock on the likelihood of women and senior citizens becoming self-employed differ, and these effects vary across different regions. Numerous studies consider shocks to be uniform events, but our research recognizes the diverse nature of crises and their varying effects (Parker et al., 2012 ). Investigating how and why different types of crises lead to distinct self-occupation outcomes is an intriguing research area we reserve for future studies. Additionally, the recuperation process after a crisis is not identical, as susceptible individuals and settings require more time and support to recover. Moreover, since the personal profiles of women and older people are very diverse, policymaking is even more complex. Therefore, we emphasize the relevance of considering the unique circumstances of each crisis , place, and individual when formulating policies to promote equality and accelerate economic recovery.

Limitations and avenues for future research

The investigation is not exempt from limitations. First, it is important to note that during times of crisis, the impact is not evenly distributed among all countries and does not occur simultaneously. For this study, we have used a 2-year time frame between the pre-shock and post-shock points for the GFC and COVID-19 crises. However, this time frame may not be accurate for all countries. Adjusting the time frame for each country and each crisis would provide more precise results.

Secondly, despite focusing on two early stages (i.e., self-employment intention and realization ), our study did not consider subsequent stages of the venturing process (e.g., firm survival, growth, internationalization). It would be interesting to investigate gender and age gaps in the later stages of new ventures following disruptive shocks, as in the study by van Stel et al. ( 2023 ). This type of analysis would require panel or longitudinal data, which is not easy to obtain, especially in more disadvantaged regions. Undoubtedly, the new findings on this issue would improve our understanding of the fragility of women and senior self-employment derived from crises across the whole spectrum of the venturing process.

Thirdly we only focused on the crisis without delving into the specifics of each one. Our study fell short in measuring the extent and main features of each crisis. By understanding the characteristics of each type of crisis, we would gain new insights into how individual features of shocks (i.e., such as changes in the unemployment rate, financial market plunges, and inflation rates) impact the inequality of self-occupation.

Lastly, it is worth noting that this study only investigated sixteen contexts by looking at the prosperity level of each country. Despite having similar GDP per capita, there may be significant institutional differences between countries in terms of gender and age barriers. These differences may arise due to variations in norms, religious and social customs, and ethical standards. Furthermore, there may be regional (sub-national) differences within a country that contribute to such variations (González et al., 2010 ). To gain a more in-depth understanding of the levels of vulnerability of individuals for self-employment during crises, it would be crucial to analyze the evolution of the gender and age gaps in a more extensive range of contexts, including information for both formal and informal institutions, at macro and mezzo-environments (Crecente et al., 2022 ; Simmons et al., 2019 ).

Theoretical implications

In order to gain a better understanding of the factors that drive or prevent women and senior individuals from pursuing self-employment, analyzing individual and cross-sectional factors alone may not be sufficient. Firstly, it is necessary to consider the cyclical effects of different shocks on vulnerable segments of society and their access to resources during times of adversity. Secondly, not all crises are the same, and different crises may result in varying levels of resilience and dissimilar entrepreneurial responses from people. Thirdly, the probability of self-employment of women and seniors is not uniform across locations as they tend to be more vulnerable in less wealthy contexts.

Hence, individual, locational, and temporal lenses are needed to further investigate the complex self-employability of people under adversity. Such a broader conceptualization, by bridging together all these perspectives, may prove appropriate for future theorizing and empirical testing on the unfulfilled potential of women and senior entrepreneurs.

Policy implications

The findings of this research offer guidance and several implications for policymakers and other stakeholders of entrepreneurial ecosystems. The first implication for policymaking has to do with the complexity of crises. To avoid a higher level of inequality and to reduce a structural gender and age poverty gap, entrepreneurial empowerment of the most needed ones should be promoted to pursue equal economic opportunities and to enhance social inclusion across industry sectors and different institutional contexts (Konon et al., 2018 ; Korosteleva & Stępień-Baig, 2020 ). Bearing our results in mind, policy decision-makers should tailor their policies considering a mix of several factors such as the nature of each shock, the personal attributes of the most needed people for entrepreneurship, and the singular characteristics of each place and its institutional context (Backman et al., 2021 ; Bird & Brush, 2002 ; Verheul et el., 2006 ). The policies to promote self-employment of the most vulnerable people after crises would not achieve the expected outcomes (i.e., productive entrepreneurship), unless such support programs recognize the specific complexity of self-employment of different people for different shocks and in different environments. Without a more nuanced understanding of the factors that lead to an augmented vulnerability , any policy misfit would weaken entrepreneurial activity and slow economic recovery from crises.

A second implication has to do with the support programs designed by policymakers. Since crises do not affect everyone and every sector in the same manner, policies must strive to ameliorate the damaging effects by supporting the most affected vulnerable groups across different industries and ensuring the provision of equal access to (scarce) resources (i.e., specialized training, mentoring, seed finance, etc.). Equitably tailored policies would help minimize the harmful effects of gender-gap and age-gap for self-employment both in the short run and in the long run. Some policies may focus on the short-run by delivering financial resources to the most needed ones (i.e., temporary tax reliefs, elimination of administrative red tape, direct cash grants, etc.). In contrast, other policies could be oriented in the long-run to upgrade the skills and capabilities needed to better explore and exploit new business opportunities in unusual contexts (i.e., through specific education and training programs tailored for women and senior people).

Finally, we further recognize the heterogeneous nature of women and seniors, and thus, contend that they should not be treated as two single homogeneous groups (Stirzaker & Sitko, 2019 ; Poggesi et al., 2016 ). This may be key to understanding why universal entrepreneurship policy programs seeking gender egalitarianism accomplish contradictory results (Cheraghi et al., 2019 ; Shahriar, 2018 ). Thereby, policies to support more inclusive self-employability must be revised and implemented rigorously, especially in periods of higher economic and social instability (i.e., periods of worldwide crises). Indeed, the gender and age gaps for self-employment do not only appear in crises. Instead, these gaps persist invisibly with little attention until the shocks increase the size of such a disparity, making it more difficult to ignore. The crises make the iceberg peak over the water. Our study attempts to explain this phenomenon by providing a perspective distinguishing between crisis and normalcy periods. From a positive angle, it should be noted that the COVID opened new windows of opportunities for self-employment to some segments (i.e., new telematic jobs from home), suggesting that a new normal of self-employability may be underway. But the “others” engaged in “everyday entrepreneurship” should not be ignored, people who are also protagonists of their own lives, families, communities, and contexts (Welter et al., 2017 ).

The countries included in this study are Norway, Netherlands, Latvia, United Kingdom, Germany, Spain, Italy, Croatia, Slovenia, Greece, Egypt, Iran, Israel, Brazil, Chile, and Colombia.

Alkhaled, S., & Berglund, K. (2018). And now I’m free: Women’s empowerment and emancipation through entrepreneurship in Saudi Arabia and Sweden. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 30 (7–8), 877–900. https://doi.org/10.1111/gwao.12626

Article   Google Scholar  

Aparicio, S., Audretsch, D., Noguera, M., & Urbano, D. (2022). Can female entrepreneurs boost social mobility in developing countries? An institutional analysis. Technological Forecasting and Social Change . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2021.121401

Avnimelech, G., & Zelekha, Y. (2023). Religion and the gender gap in entrepreneurship. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal . https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-023-00855-4

Backman, M., Hagen, J., Kekezi, O., Naldi, L., & Wallin, T. (2021). In the eye of the storm: Entrepreneurs and well-being during the COVID-19 crisis. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice . https://doi.org/10.1177/10422587211057028

Bailey, D., Clark, J., Colombelli, A., Corradini, C., De Propris, L., Derudder, B., Fratesi, U., Fritsch, M., Harrison, J., Hatfield, J., Kemeny, T., Kogler, D. F., Lagendijk, A., Lawton, Ph., Ortega-Argilés, R., Iglesias Otero, C., & Usai, S. (2020). Regions in a time of pandemic. Regional Studies, 54 (9), 1163–1174. https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2020.1798611

Bartz, W., & Winkler, A. (2016). Flexible or fragile? The growth performance of small and young businesses during the global financial crisis — evidence from Germany. Journal of Business Venturing, 31 (2), 196–215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2015.10.002

Belitski, M., Guenther, C., Kritikos, A. S., & Thurik, R. (2022). Economic effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on entrepreneurship and small businesses. Small Business Economics, 58 , 593–609. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-021-00544-y

Bird, B., & Brush, C. (2002). A gendered perspective on organizational creation. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 26 (3), 41–46. https://doi.org/10.1177/104225870202600303

Bosma, N., Content, J., Sanders, M., & Stam, E. (2018). Institutions, entrepreneurship, and economic growth in Europe. Small Business Economics, 51 , 483–499. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-0012-x

Brush, C., Edelman, L. F., Manolova, T., & Welter, F. (2019). A gendered look at entrepreneurship ecosystems. Small Business Economics, 53 (2), 393–408. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-9992-9

Brush, C. G., De Bruin, A., & Welter, F. (2009). A gender-aware framework for women’s entrepreneurship. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 1 (1), 8–24. https://doi.org/10.1108/17566260910942318

Brutton, G. D., Sutter, C., & Lenz, A. K. (2021). Economic inequality-Is entrepreneurship the cause or the solution? A review and research agenda for emerging economies. Journal of Business Venturing . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2021.106095

Bullough, A., Renko, M., & Myatt, T. (2014). Danger zone entrepreneurs: The importance of resilience and self-efficacy for entrepreneurial intention. Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice . https://doi.org/10.1111/etap.12006

Cardella, G. M., Barba-Sánchez, V., & Meseguer-Martinez, Á. (2024). Analyzing university students’ entrepreneurial intentions under the influence of the COVID-19 pandemic. The International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal . https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-024-00945-x

Chen, H., Lee, B. H., & Alymkulova, A. (2022). Gender gaps in opportunity-driven entrepreneurship: The impact of human and social capital. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 14 (3), 285–299.

Cheraghi, M., Wickstrøm, K. A., & Klyver, K. (2019). Life-course and entry to entrepreneurship: Embedded in gender and gender-egalitarianism. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 31 (3–4), 242–258. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985626.2018.1551791

Choi, E., Ospina, J., Steger, M. F., & Orsi, R. (2018). Understanding work enjoyment among older workers: The significance of flexible work options and age discrimination in the workplace. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 61 (8), 867–886. https://doi.org/10.1080/01634372.2018.1515140

Congregado, E., Golpe, A. A., & Parker, S. C. (2012). The dynamics of entrepreneurship: Hysteresis, business cycles and government policy. Empirical Economics, 43 (3), 1239–1261. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00181-011-0516-6

Constantinidis, C., Lebègue, T., El Abboubi, M., & Salman, N. (2019). How families shape women’s entrepreneurial success in Morocco: An intersectional study. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 25 (8), 1786–1808. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-12-2017-0501

Crecente, F., Sarabia, M., & del Val, M. T. (2022). The value of entrepreneurship by gender on regional behaviour. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 18 , 435–453. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-021-00777-z

Davidsson, P., & Gordon, S. R. (2016). Much ado about nothing? The surprising persistence of nascent entrepreneurs through macroeconomic crisis. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 40 (4), 915–941. https://doi.org/10.1111/etap.12152

De Clercq, D., & Dakhli, M. (2009). Personal strain and ethical standards of the self-employed. Journal of Business Venturing, 24 (5), 477–490.

DeTienne, D. R., McKelvie, A., & Chandler, G. N. (2015). Making sense of entrepreneurial exit strategies: A typology and test. Journal of Business Venturing, 30 (2), 255–272.

Dimov, D. (2010). Nascent entrepreneurs and venture emergence: Opportunity confidence, human capital and early planning. Journal of Management Studies, 47 , 1123–1153. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6486.2009.00874.x

Doern, R., Williams, N., & Vorley, T. (2019). Special issue on entrepreneurship and crises: Business as usual? An introduction and review of the literature. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 31 (5–6), 400–412. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985626.2018.1541590

Elam, A., Hughes, K., Hill, S., & Nawangpalupi, C., et al. (2021) Women’s entrepreneurship 2020/21: Thriving through crisis. Published by the global entrepreneurship research association. London Business School, Regents Park, London NW1 4SA, UK. https://www.gemconsortium.org/report/gem-202021-womens-entrepreneurship-report-thriving-through-crisis

Estrin, S., & Mickiewicz, T. (2009). Do institutions have a greater effect on female entrepreneurs? IZA discussion paper 4577. Germany: Bonn. http://hdl.handle.net/10419/35840 .

Estrin, S., & Mickiewicz, T. (2011). Institutions and female entrepreneurship. Small Business Economics, 37 (4), 397–415. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-011-9373-0

Fairlie, R. W., & Fossen, F. M. (2019). Opportunity versus necessity entrepreneurship: Two components of business creation. NBER WorkingPaper No. w26377. http://www.nber.org/papers/w26377.pdf

Gezici, A., & Ozay, O. (2020). How race and gender shape COVID-19 Unemployment probability. SSRN.  https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3675022

Giménez, D., & Calabrò, A. (2018). The salient role of institutions in women’s entrepreneurship: A critical review and agenda for future research. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 14 , 857–882. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-017-0480-5

Goda, G. S., Jackson, E., Nocholas, L. H. & Stich S. S. (2021). The impact of covid-19 on older workers' employment and social security spillovers. Working paper 29083. National bureau of economic research. http://www.nber.org/papers/w29083

González, J., Navarro, M., & Peña, I. (2010). Internacionalización de empresas jóvenes innovadoras en España. Revista Europea De Dirección y Economía De La Empresa, 19 (2), 61–82.

Google Scholar  

González-Pernía, J. L., Guerrero, M., Jung, A., & Peña-Legazkue. (2018). Economic recession shake-out and entrepreneurship: Evidence from Spain. BRQ Business Research Quarterly, 21 (3), 153–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brq.2018.06.001

Guerrero, M., & Peña-Legazkue, I. (2019). Renascence after post-mortem: The choice of accelerated repeat entrepreneurship. Small Business Economics, 52 , 47–65.

Guerrero, M., & Walsh, G. S. (2023). How do entrepreneurs build a resilient and persistent identity? Re-examining the financial crisis impact. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal . https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-023-00902-0

Halvorsen, C. J. (2021). How self-employed older adults differ by age: Evidence and implications from the health and retirement study. The Gerontologist, 61 (5), 763–774. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnaa132

Hechavarría, D. M., & Reynolds, P. D. (2009). Cultural norms & business start-ups: The impact of national values on opportunity and necessity entrepreneurs. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 5 (4), 417–437.

Henriquez-Camacho, C., Losa, J., Miranda, J. J., & Cheyne, N. E. (2014). Addressing healthy aging populations in developing countries: Unlocking the opportunity of eHealth and mHealth. Emerging Themes in Epidemiology, 11 , 136. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12982-014-0021-4

Hessels, J., Grilo, I., Thurik, R., & van der Zwan, P. (2011). Entrepreneurial exit and entrepreneurial engagement. Journal of Evolutionary Economics, 21 (3), 447–471. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00191-010-0190-4

Irmatova, A. B., & Akbarova, M. I. (2023). Impact of digital technologies on women’s employment. In Y. Koucheryavy & A. Aziz (Eds.), Internet of things, smart spaces, and next generation networks and systems. NEW2AN 2022. (Vol. 13772). Springer, Cham: Lecture notes in computer science. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-30258-9_24

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Kautonen, T., Down, S., & Minniti, M. (2014). Ageing and entrepreneurial preferences. Small Business Economics, 42 (3), 579–594. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43552946

Kautonen, T., Kibler, E., & Minniti, M. (2017). Late-career entrepreneurship, income and quality of life. Journal of Business Venturing, 32 , 318–333. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0883902617301222

Klyver, K., Nielsen, S. L., & Evald, M. R. (2013). Women’s self-employment: An act of institutional (dis) integration? A multilevel, cross-country study. Journal of Business Venturing, 28 (4), 474–488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2012.07.002

Koellinger, P. D., & Thurik, R. A. (2012). Entrepreneurship and the business cycle. Review of Economics and Statistics, 94 (4), 1143–1156. https://doi.org/10.1162/REST_a_00224

Konon, A., Fritsch, M., & Kritikos, A. (2018). Business cycles and start-ups across industries: An empirical analysis of German regions, IZA discussion papers, no. 11501, Institute of Labor Economics (IZA), Bonn. http://hdl.handle.net/10419/180519

Korosteleva, J., & Stępień-Baig, P. (2020). Climbing the poverty ladder: The role of entrepreneurship and gender in alleviating poverty in transition economies. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 3 (1–2), 197–220. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985626.2019.1640482

Lanchimba, C., Welsh, D. H., & Kaswengi, J. (2024). Unveiling the interplay of psychological capital, family business, and gender on firm performance during COVID-19. The International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal . https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-024-00963-9

Langowitz, N., & Minniti, M. (2007). The entrepreneurial propensity of women. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 31 (3), 341–364. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2007.00177.x

Li, F., Wang, L., Jin, Z., Huang, L., & Xia, B. (2019). Key factors affecting sustained business operations after an earthquake: a case study from New Beichuan, China, 2013–2017. Natural Hazards . https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-019-03597-1

Lim, J. Y. (2000). The effects of the east asian crisis on the employment of women and Men: The Philippine case. World Development, 28 (7), 1285–1306. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(00)00023-1

Liñán, F., & Jaén, I. (2020). The Covid-19 pandemic and entrepreneurship: some reflections. International Journal of Emerging Markets . https://doi.org/10.1108/IJOEM-05-2020-0491

Litsardopoulos, N., Saridakis, G., Georgellis, Y., & Hand, C. (2023). Self-employment experience effects on well-being: A longitudinal study. Economic and Industrial Democracy, 44 (2), 454–480. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143831X221086017

Lloyd-Sherlock, P. (2000). Old age and poverty in developing countries: New policy challenges. World Development, 28 (12), 2157–2168.

Mair, J., & Marti, I. (2009). Entrepreneurship in and around institutional voids: A case study from Bangladesh. Journal of Business Venturing, 24 (5), 419–435.

Manolova, T. S., Brush, C. G., Edelman, L. F., & Elam, A. (2020). Covid19, pivoting to stay the course: How women entrepreneurs take advantage of opportunities created by the COVID-19 pandemic. International Small Business Journal, 38 (6), 481–491. https://doi.org/10.1177/0266242620949136

Marlow, S., & Swail, J. (2014). Gender, risk and finance: Why can’t a woman be more like a man? Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 26 (1–2), 80–96. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985626.2013.860484

Marshall, M. I., Niehm, L. S., Sydnor, S. B., & Schrank, H. L. (2015). Predicting small business demise after a natural disaster: An analysis of pre-existing conditions. Natural Hazards, 79 (1), 331–354. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-015-1845-0

Minniti, M., & Nardone, C. (2007). Being in someone else’s shoes: The role of gender in nascent entrepreneurship. Small Business Economics, 28 (2), 223–238. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-006-9017-y

Murgia, A., & Pulignano, V. (2021). Neither precarious nor entrepreneur: The subjective experience of hybrid self-employed workers. Economic and Industrial Democracy, 42 (4), 1351–1377.

Naudé, W. (2020). Entrepreneurial recovery from COVID-19: decentralization, democratization, demand, distribution, and demography. IZA discussion paper no. 13436. Bonn: IZA institute of labor economics. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3643200

Naveed, A., Ahmad, N., Naz, A., & Zupharova, A. (2023). Economic development through women’s economic rights: A panel data analysis. International Economics and Economic Policy, 20 , 257–278. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10368-

OCED. (2021). The Missing Entrepreneurs 2021: Policies for inclusive entrepreneurship and self-employment . Paris: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/71b7a9bb-en

Book   Google Scholar  

OECD/European Commission. (2021). Seniors self-employment and entrepreneurship activities. In The Missing Entrepreneurs 2021: Policies for Inclusive Entrepreneurship and Self-Employment. Paris: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/43446d1c-en

Ouazzani, K. E., González-Pernía, J. L., Jung, A., & Peña-Legazkue, I. (2021). Gender, family and cultural perspectives on venture growth aspirations. European Journal of International Management, 16 (2), 332–357.

Parker, S. C. (2011). Intrapreneurship or entrepreneurship? Journal of Business Venturing, 26 , 19–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2009.07.003

Parker, S. C., Congregado, E., & Golpe, A. A. (2012). Is entrepreneurship a leading or lagging indicator of the business cycle? Evidence from UK self-employment data. International Small Business Journal, 30 (7), 736–753. https://doi.org/10.1177/0266242612437560

Pines, A. M., Lerner, M., & Schwartz, D. (2010). Gender differences in entrepreneurship: Equality, diversity and inclusion in times of global crisis. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal, 29 (2), 186–198. https://doi.org/10.1108/02610151011024493

Poggesi, S., Mari, M., & De Vita, L. (2016). What’s new in female entrepreneurship research? Answers from the literature. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 12 (3), 735–764.

Quintillán, I., & Peña-Legazkue, I. (2020). Emotional intelligence and venture internationalization during economic recession. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 26 (2), 246–265. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-08-2018-0521

Reynolds, P. D. (1997). Who starts new firms? Preliminary explorations of firms in-gestation. Small Business Economics, 9 , 449–462. https://doi.org/10.1023//A:1007935726528

Rubery, J., & Rafferty, A. (2013). Women and recession revisited. Work, Employment and Society, 27 (3), 414–432.

Sarkar, S., Rufín, C., & Haughton, J. (2018). Inequality and entrepreneurial thresholds. Journal of Business Venturing, 33 (3), 278–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2017.12.009

Shahriar, A. Z. M. (2018). Gender differences in entrepreneurial propensity: Evidence from matrilineal and patriarchal societies. Journal of Business Venturing, 33 (6), 762–779. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2018.04.005

Shepherd, D. A., Saade, F. P., & Wincent, J. (2020). How to circumvent adversity? Refugee-entrepreneurs’ resilience in the face of substantial and persistent adversity. Journal of Business Venturing, 35 (4), 105940. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2019.06.001

Shinnar, R. S., Giacomin, O., & Janssen, F. (2012). Entrepreneurial perceptions and intentions: The role of gender and culture. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 36 (3), 465–494. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2012.00509.x

Simmons, S. A., Wiklund, J., Levie, J., Bradley, S. W., & Sunny, S. A. (2019). Gender gaps and reentry into entrepreneurial ecosystems after business failure. Small Business Economics, 53 (2), 517–531. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-9998-3

Simón-Moya, V., Revuelto-Taboada, L., & Ribeiro-Soriano, D. (2016). Influence of economic crisis on new SME survival: Reality or fiction? Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 28 (1–2), 157–176. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985626.2015.1118560

Soto-Simeone, A., & Kautonen, T. (2021). Senior entrepreneurship following unemployment: A social identity theory perspective. Review of Managerial Science, 15 (6), 1683–1706.

Stirzaker, R., & Sitko, R. (2019). The older entrepreneurial self: Intersecting identities of older women entrepreneurs. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 25 (8), 1748–1765. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-12-2017-0497

Stypińska, J., & Nikander, P. (2018). Ageism and age discrimination in the labour market: A macrostructural perspective. In L. Ayalon, & C. Tesch-Römer (Eds.), Contemporary Perspectives on Ageism. International Perspectives on Aging (Vol. 19). Springer, Cham.  https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73820-8_6

van Stel, A., Barrientos-Marín, J., Caçador-Rodrigues, L., Millán, A., & Millán, J. M. (2023). Measuring performance differentials across entrepreneurship types. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal . https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-021-00755-5

Verheul, I., Van Stel, A., & Thurik, R. (2006). Explaining female and male entrepreneurship at the country level. Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, 18 (2), 151–183. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985620500532053

Verick, S. (2009). Who is hit hardest during a financial crisis? In I. Islam & S. Verick (Eds.), The vulnerability of young men and women to unemployment in an economic downturn. Issues, evidence and policy options, Basingstoke, Hampshire, UK; ILO/Palgrave Macmillan, 2010: from the great recession to labour market recovery.

Vorobeva, E., & Dana, L. P. (2021). The COVID-19 Pandemic and migrant entrepreneurship: Responses to the market shock. Migration Letters, 18 (4), 477–485. https://doi.org/10.33182/ml.v18i4.1400

Welter, F. (2011). Contextualizing entrepreneurship—conceptual challenges and ways forward. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 35 (1), 165–184. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2010.00427.x

Welter, F., Baker, T., Audretsch, D. B., & Gartner, W. B. (2017). Everyday entrepreneurship—a call for entrepreneurship research to embrace entrepreneurial diversity. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 41 (3), 311–321. https://doi.org/10.1111/etap.12258

Wennekers, S., Van Wennekers, A., Thurik, R., & Reynolds, P. (2005). Nascent entrepreneurship and the level of economic development. Small Business Economics, 24 (3), 293–309.

Xie, X., & Lv, J. (2016). Social networks of female tech-entrepreneurs and new venture performance: The moderating effects of entrepreneurial alertness and gender discrimination. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 12 (4), 963–983.

Young, K. A., Greenbaum, R. T., & Dormady, N. C. (2017). Sex, gender, and disasters: Experimental evidence on the decision to invest in resilience. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 24 , 439–450. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2017.06.003

Yu, W., Fei, J., Peng, G., & Bort, J. (2024). When a crisis hits: An examination of the impact of the global financial crisis and the COVID-19 pandemic on financing for women entrepreneurs. Journal of Business Venturing . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2024.106379

Zahra, S. A. (2021). International entrepreneurship in the post Covid world. Journal of World Business, 56 (1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2020.101143

Zhao, E. Y., & Yang, L. (2021). Women hold up half the sky? Informal institutions, entrepreneurial decisions, and gender gap in venture performance. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 45 (6), 1431–1462. https://doi.org/10.1177/1042258720980705

Zhu, Y., Collins, A., Xu, Z., Sardana, D., & Cavusgil, S. T. (2021). Achieving aging well through senior entrepreneurship: A three-country empirical study. Small Business Economics . https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-021-00564-8

Download references

Open Access funding provided thanks to the CRUE-CSIC agreement with Springer Nature. This work was supported by a research grant IT-1497–22 from the Department of Education of the Basque Government and the research grant PID2020-114658RB-I00 from the Ministry of Science and Innovation of Spain.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

O´Neill School of Public and Environmental Affairs, Institute for Development Strategies, Indiana University, Bloomington, USA

David B. Audretsch

Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark

Seham Ghalwash

The American University in El Cairo, New Cairo, Egypt

Deusto Business School, Donostia, Spain

Iñaki Peña-Legazkue

Department of Entrepreneurship and Innovation Management, University of Klagenfurt, Klagenfurt, Austria

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Iñaki Peña-Legazkue .

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest.

The authors have no further competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Audretsch, D.B., Ghalwash, S. & Peña-Legazkue, I. The resilient self-employability of women and senior people after sudden economic shocks. Int Entrep Manag J (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-024-00982-6

Download citation

Accepted : 22 April 2024

Published : 28 May 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-024-00982-6

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Self-employment
• Economic cycle
• Women entrepreneurs
• Senior entrepreneurs
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research