what is the english literature language

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Introduction
Alliterative verse
The major manuscripts
Problems of dating
Religious verse
Elegiac and heroic verse
Early translations into English
Late 10th- and 11th-century prose
Influence of French poetry
Didactic poetry
Verse romance
The revival of alliterative poetry
Courtly poetry
Chaucer and Gower
Popular and secular verse
Political verse
Religious prose
Secular prose
Middle English drama
The transition from medieval to Renaissance
Social conditions
Intellectual and religious revolution
The race for cultural development
Development of the English language
Sidney and Spenser
Elizabethan lyric
The sonnet sequence
Other poetic styles
Prose styles, 1550–1600
Theatres in London and the provinces
Professional playwrights
The early histories
The early comedies
The tragedies
Shakespeare’s later works
Other Jacobean dramatists
The last Renaissance dramatists
Donne’s influence
Jonson and the Cavalier poets
Continued influence of Spenser
Effect of religion and science on early Stuart prose
Prose styles
The defeated republicans
Writings of the Nonconformists
Writings of the royalists
Chroniclers
The court wits
Drama by Dryden and others
Thomson, Prior, and Gay
Shaftesbury and others
Other novelists
Johnson’s poetry and prose
The nature of Romanticism
Blake, Wordsworth, and Coleridge
Other poets of the early Romantic period
The later Romantics: Shelley, Keats, and Byron
Other poets of the later period
The novel: from the Gothic novel to Austen and Scott
Discursive prose
Thackeray, Gaskell, and others
The Brontës
Robert Browning and Elizabeth Barrett Browning
Arnold and Clough
Early Victorian nonfiction prose
The Victorian theater
Victorian literary comedy
The Edwardians
Anglo-American Modernism: Pound, Lewis, Lawrence, and Eliot
Celtic Modernism: Yeats, Joyce, Jones, and MacDiarmid
The literature of World War I and the interwar period
The literature of World War II (1939–45)
The 21st century

English literature

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Table Of Contents

English literature , the body of written works produced in the English language by inhabitants of the British Isles (including Ireland) from the 7th century to the present day. The major literatures written in English outside the British Isles are treated separately under American literature , Australian literature , Canadian literature , and New Zealand literature .

English literature has sometimes been stigmatized as insular . It can be argued that no single English novel attains the universality of the Russian writer Leo Tolstoy’s War and Peace or the French writer Gustave Flaubert’s Madame Bovary . Yet in the Middle Ages the Old English literature of the subjugated Saxons was leavened by the Latin and Anglo-Norman writings , eminently foreign in origin, in which the churchmen and the Norman conquerors expressed themselves. From this combination emerged a flexible and subtle linguistic instrument exploited by Geoffrey Chaucer and brought to supreme application by William Shakespeare . During the Renaissance the renewed interest in Classical learning and values had an important effect on English literature, as on all the arts; and ideas of Augustan literary propriety in the 18th century and reverence in the 19th century for a less specific, though still selectively viewed, Classical antiquity continued to shape the literature. All three of these impulses derived from a foreign source, namely the Mediterranean basin. The Decadents of the late 19th century and the Modernists of the early 20th looked to continental European individuals and movements for inspiration. Nor was attraction toward European intellectualism dead in the late 20th century, for by the mid-1980s the approach known as structuralism, a phenomenon predominantly French and German in origin, infused the very study of English literature itself in a host of published critical studies and university departments. Additional influence was exercised by deconstructionist analysis, based largely on the work of French philosopher Jacques Derrida .

Further, Britain’s past imperial activities around the globe continued to inspire literature—in some cases wistful , in other cases hostile. Finally, English literature has enjoyed a certain diffusion abroad, not only in predominantly English-speaking countries but also in all those others where English is the first choice of study as a second language.

English literature is therefore not so much insular as detached from the continental European tradition across the Channel. It is strong in all the conventional categories of the bookseller’s list: in Shakespeare it has a dramatist of world renown; in poetry , a genre notoriously resistant to adequate translation and therefore difficult to compare with the poetry of other literatures, it is so peculiarly rich as to merit inclusion in the front rank; English literature’s humor has been found as hard to convey to foreigners as poetry, if not more so—a fact at any rate permitting bestowal of the label “idiosyncratic”; English literature’s remarkable body of travel writings constitutes another counterthrust to the charge of insularity; in autobiography, biography , and historical writing, English literature compares with the best of any culture; and children’s literature , fantasy , essays , and journals , which tend to be considered minor genres , are all fields of exceptional achievement as regards English literature. Even in philosophical writings, popularly thought of as hard to combine with literary value, thinkers such as Thomas Hobbes , John Locke , David Hume , John Stuart Mill , and Bertrand Russell stand comparison for lucidity and grace with the best of the French philosophers and the masters of Classical antiquity.

George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron. Lord Byron English poet (1788-1824) was a leading figure in the Romantic movement.

Some of English literature’s most distinguished practitioners in the 20th century—from Joseph Conrad at its beginning to V.S. Naipaul and Tom Stoppard at its end—were born outside the British Isles. What is more, none of the aforementioned had as much in common with his adoptive country as did, for instance, Doris Lessing and Peter Porter (two other distinguished writer-immigrants to Britain), both having been born into a British family and having been brought up on British Commonwealth soil.

On the other hand, during the same period in the 20th century, many notable practitioners of English literature left the British Isles to live abroad: James Joyce , D.H. Lawrence , Aldous Huxley , Christopher Isherwood , Robert Graves , Graham Greene , Muriel Spark , and Anthony Burgess . In one case, that of Samuel Beckett , this process was carried to the extent of writing works first in French and then translating them into English.

Even English literature considered purely as a product of the British Isles is extraordinarily heterogeneous , however. Literature actually written in those Celtic tongues once prevalent in Cornwall, Ireland , Scotland , and Wales—called the “Celtic Fringe”—is treated separately ( see Celtic literature ). Yet Irish, Scots, and Welsh writers have contributed enormously to English literature even when they have written in dialect , as the 18th-century poet Robert Burns and the 20th-century Scots writer Alasdair Gray have done. In the latter half of the 20th century, interest began also to focus on writings in English or English dialect by recent settlers in Britain, such as Afro-Caribbeans and people from Africa proper, the Indian subcontinent , and East Asia .

Even within England , culturally and historically the dominant partner in the union of territories comprising Britain, literature has been as enriched by strongly provincial writers as by metropolitan ones. Another contrast more fruitful than not for English letters has been that between social milieus , however much observers of Britain in their own writings may have deplored the survival of class distinctions. As far back as medieval times, a courtly tradition in literature cross-fertilized with an earthier demotic one. Shakespeare’s frequent juxtaposition of royalty in one scene with plebeians in the next reflects a very British way of looking at society. This awareness of differences between high life and low, a state of affairs fertile in creative tensions, is observable throughout the history of English literature.

What is English Literature, Origin, Definition, History, Periods, and Authors

Table of Contents

Definition Of English Literature

English literature is the study and analysis of written works produced in the English language. It encompasses a wide range of texts, including poetry, novels, plays, and non-fiction, spanning from the Anglo-Saxon period to the present day.

Literature simply refers to any piece of writing that is valued as a work of art. In a general sense, it is the expression of human thoughts, feelings, and experiences. Literature can display both good and bad aspects of society. Hence, literature can be regarded as a mirror of society whatever changes the society undergoes they will be reflected in contemporary literature in one way or the other. Literature then is a successful medium to express human emotions: sadness, happiness, pleasure, pain, love, hate, fear, disgust, and anger such human emotions in literature are expressed artistically through language. It means literature needs to be beautiful and trustworthy.

Origin Of Literature

The word “literature” originated from the Latin word “literatura” which means “learning, writing, grammar.” This word was formed from “litera” which means “letter” or “character.” It was used in the context of education and learning, specifically the study of written texts. In the Middle Ages, the term “literature” was used to refer to the works of scholars and poets, and it was not until the 18th century that the term began to be used more broadly to refer to all written works.

One of the most iconic works of English literature is William Shakespeare’s plays. His plays are still performed and studied all over the world. Other notable works include the epic poem Beowulf, the novel Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen, and the novel Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte. Geoffrey Chaucer (1340s – 1400) has been called the “father of English literature “, or, alternatively, the “ father of English poetry “.

Study Of English Literature

The study of English literature can encompass many different elements, including literary history, literary theory, literary criticism, and literary analysis. It can also encompass the study of literary movements and genres, such as the Romantic period, the Gothic novel, and the sonnet.

In addition to studying the literary texts themselves, the study of English literature also often involves the examination of the historical, cultural, and social contexts in which the texts were produced. This can include studying the life and times of the author, as well as the cultural and political climate of the period in which the text was written.

The study of English literature can also encompass the analysis of literary form and technique, such as the use of symbolism, imagery, and metaphor. It can also encompass the study of literary genres, such as novels, poetry, and drama.

Overall, the study of English literature is a diverse and multifaceted field that offers a wide range of opportunities for exploration and analysis. Whether you are interested in the literary texts themselves, the historical and cultural contexts in which they were produced, or the technical elements of literary form and technique, there is something for everyone in the field of English literature.

History Of English Literature

English literature and history are closely intertwined, as the literature of a particular time period is often a reflection of the historical and cultural context in which it was produced.

Old English Period (Anglo-Saxon Period) 449 to 1066

The history of English literature dates back to the Anglo-Saxon period , which lasted from the 5th to the 11th century. During this time, literature was primarily oral and was passed down from generation to generation through storytelling and song. Some of the most notable works from this period include the epic poem Beowulf, which tells the story of a heroic warrior and his battles with monsters, and the poem The Seafarer, which reflects on the themes of exile and the sea.

Middle English Period (1066-1500)

The Middle Ages, which lasted from the 12th to the 15th century, saw the emergence of written literature in the form of Chaucerian poetry, as well as the emergence of the first plays and dramas. Some of the most notable works from this period include The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer and the plays of William Shakespeare.

Renaissance Period (1500-1600)

The Renaissance Period, which lasted from the 16th to the 17th century, saw a renewed interest in the classical literature of ancient Greece and Rome, as well as the emergence of the novel as a literary genre. Some of the most notable works from this period include the plays of Shakespeare, the poetry of John Milton, and the novels of Daniel Defoe.

Neoclassical Period (1600-1785)

The 18th century, also known as the Age of Enlightenment, saw the emergence of the novel as a dominant literary form and the rise of the novel of sensibility, which focused on the emotional experiences of characters. Some of the most notable works from this period include the novels of Jane Austen, the poetry of William Wordsworth, and the plays of Oliver Goldsmith.

Romantic Period (1785-1832)

The 19th century, also known as the Romantic period, saw a renewed interest in nature and emotion, as well as the emergence of the Gothic novel. Some of the most notable works from this period include the novels of Jane Austen, the poetry of Lord Byron, and the plays of Oscar Wilde.

Modern History Period

The 20th century saw a continuation of the trends established in the 19th century, with the emergence of the modernist movement and the rise of the novel as a dominant literary form. Some of the most notable works from this period include the novels of James Joyce, the poetry of T.S. Eliot, and the plays of Samuel Beckett.

The history of English literature is also closely tied to the history of England. Many of the literary works from different time periods reflect the political and social changes that were taking place in the country at the time. For example, the literature of the 18th century reflects the rise of the middle class and the emergence of new economic and political systems, while the literature of the 19th century reflects the industrial revolution and the rise of the working class.

It’s important to note that English literature and history are not limited to England alone, it also encompasses the literature and history of the British Isles and its colonies. This includes literary works produced in Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, as well as literature produced by writers of the British Empire, such as Rudyard Kipling, Chinua Achebe, and Joseph Conrad.

English Literature As A Subject

English literature refers to written works produced in the English language. It encompasses a wide range of texts, including poetry, novels, plays, and non-fiction, from the Anglo-Saxon period to the present day. The study of English literature includes literary history, literary theory, literary criticism, and literary analysis of the texts themselves, as well as the examination of the historical, cultural, and social contexts in which the texts were produced.

Literature also encompasses the analysis of literary form and technique, such as the use of symbolism, imagery, and metaphor, as well as the study of literary genres, such as the novel, poetry, and drama. Additionally, the study of English literature also encompasses the analysis of contemporary literature and popular culture, including the study of film, television, and digital media.

Thus, literature is a vital record of what men have seen in life, what they experienced of it, and what they have thought and felt about those aspects of it that have the most immediate and enduring interest for all of us. It was thus fundamentally an expression of life through the medium of language. Literature could be said to be a sort of disciplined technique for arousing certain emotions.

It begins with the creative possibilities of human language and the desire of human beings to use their language creatively. Literature enriches our lives because it increases our capacities for understanding and communication. It helps us to find meaning in our world to express it and share it with others. And this is the most humane activity of our existence.

Overall, the study of English literature and history offers a rich and diverse field of exploration, providing insight into the cultural, political, and social contexts of different time periods and the literary works that were produced during those times. Whether you are interested in the literature itself or the historical and cultural contexts in which it was produced, there is something for everyone in the field of English literature and history.

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Home › History of English Literature › A Brief History of English Literature

A Brief History of English Literature

By NASRULLAH MAMBROL on July 18, 2018 • ( 14 )

OLD ENGLISH LITERATURE

The Old English language or Anglo-Saxon is the earliest form of English. The period is a long one and it is generally considered that Old English was spoken from about A.D. 600 to about 1100. Many of the poems of the period are pagan, in particular Widsith and Beowulf.

The greatest English poem, Beowulf is the first English epic. The author of Beowulf is anonymous. It is a story of a brave young man Beowulf in 3182 lines. In this epic poem, Beowulf sails to Denmark with a band of warriors to save the King of Denmark, Hrothgar. Beowulf saves Danish King Hrothgar from a terrible monster called Grendel. The mother of Grendel who sought vengeance for the death of her son was also killed by Beowulf. Beowulf was rewarded and became King. After a prosperous reign of some forty years, Beowulf slays a dragon but in the fight he himself receives a mortal wound and dies. The poem concludes with the funeral ceremonies in honour of the dead hero. Though the poem Beowulf is little interesting to contemporary readers, it is a very important poem in the Old English period because it gives an interesting picture of the life and practices of old days.

The difficulty encountered in reading Old English Literature lies in the fact that the language is very different from that of today. There was no rhyme in Old English poems. Instead they used alliteration.

Besides Beowulf , there are many other Old English poems. Widsith, Genesis A, Genesis B, Exodus, The Wanderer, The Seafarer, Wife’s Lament, Husband’s Message, Christ and Satan, Daniel, Andreas, Guthlac, The Dream of the Rood, The Battle of Maldon etc. are some of the examples.

Two important figures in Old English poetry are Cynewulf and Caedmon. Cynewulf wrote religious poems and the four poems, Juliana, The Fates of the Apostles, Christ and Elene are always credited with him. Caedmon is famous for his Hymn.

Alfred enriched Old English prose with his translations especially Bede’s Ecclesiastical History. Aelfric is another important prose writer during Old English period. He is famous for his Grammar, Homilies and Lives of the Saints. Aelfric’s prose is natural and easy and is very often alliterative.

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Middle English Literature

Geoffrey Chaucer Poet Geoffrey Chaucer was born circa 1340 in London, England. In 1357 he became a public servant to Countess Elizabeth of Ulster and continued in that capacity with the British court throughout his lifetime. The Canterbury Tales became his best known and most acclaimed work. He died in 1400 and was the first to be buried in Westminster Abbey’s Poet’s Corner.

Chaucer’s first major work was ‘The Book of the Duchess’, an elegy for the first wife of his patron John of Gaunt. Other works include ‘Parlement of Foules’, ‘The Legend of Good Women’ and ‘Troilus and Criseyde’. In 1387, he began his most famous work, ‘The Canterbury Tales’, in which a diverse group of people recount stories to pass the time on a pilgrimage to Canterbury.

William Langland , (born c. 1330—died c. 1400), presumed author of one of the greatest examples of Middle English alliterative poetry, generally known as Piers Plowman, an allegorical work with a complex variety of religious themes. One of the major achievements of Piers Plowman is that it translates the language and conceptions of the cloister into symbols and images that could be understood by the layman. In general, the language of the poem is simple and colloquial, but some of the author’s imagery is powerful and direct.

PERIODS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE DRAMA

In Europe, as in Greece, the drama had a distinctly religious origin. The first characters were drawn from the New Testament, and the object of the first plays was to make the church service more impressive, or to emphasize moral lessons by showing the reward of the good and the punishment of the evil doer. In the latter days of the Roman Empire the Church found the stage possessed by frightful plays, which debased the morals of a people already fallen too low. Reform seemed impossible; the corrupt drama was driven from the stage, and plays of every kind were forbidden. But mankind loves a spectacle, and soon the Church itself provided a substitute for the forbidden plays in the famous Mysteries and Miracles.

MIRACLE AND MYSTERY PLAYS

In France the name miracle was given to any play representing the lives of the saints, while the mystère represented scenes from the life of Christ or stories from the Old Testament associated with the coming of Messiah. In England this distinction was almost unknown; the name Miracle was used indiscriminately for all plays having their origin in the Bible or in the lives of the saints; and the name Mystery, to distinguish a certain class of plays, was not used until long after the religious drama had passed away.

The earliest Miracle of which we have any record in England is the Ludus de Sancta Katharina, which was performed in Dunstable about the year 1110. It is not known who wrote the original play of St. Catherine, but our first version was prepared by Geoffrey of St. Albans, a French schoolteacher of Dunstable. Whether or not the play was given in English is not known, but it was customary in the earliest plays for the chief actors to speak in Latin or French, to show their importance, while minor and comic parts of the same play were given in English.

For four centuries after this first recorded play the Miracles increased steadily in number and popularity in England. They were given first very simply and impressively in the churches; then, as the actors increased in number and the plays in liveliness, they overflowed to the churchyards; but when fun and hilarity began to predominate even in the most sacred representations, the scandalized priests forbade plays altogether on church grounds. By the year 1300 the Miracles were out of ecclesiastical hands and adopted eagerly by the town guilds; and in the following two centuries we find the Church preaching against the abuse of the religious drama which it had itself introduced, and which at first had served a purely religious purpose. But by this time the Miracles had taken strong hold upon the English people, and they continued to be immensely popular until, in the sixteenth century, they were replaced by the Elizabethan drama.

The early Miracle plays of England were divided into two classes: the first, given at Christmas, included all plays connected with the birth of Christ; the second, at Easter, included the plays relating to his death and triumph. By the beginning of the fourteenth century all these plays were, in various localities, united in single cycles beginning with the Creation and ending with the Final Judgment. The complete cycle was presented every spring, beginning on Corpus Christi day; and as the presentation of so many plays meant a continuous outdoor festival of a week or more, this day was looked forward to as the happiest of the whole year.

Probably every important town in England had its own cycle of plays for its own guilds to perform, but nearly all have been lost. At the present day only four cycles exist (except in the most fragmentary condition), and these, though they furnish an interesting commentary on the times, add very little to our literature. The four cycles are the Chester and York plays, so called from the towns in which they were given; the Towneley or Wakefield plays, named for the Towneley family, which for a long time owned the manuscript; and the Coventry plays, which on doubtful evidence have been associated with the Grey Friars (Franciscans) of Coventry. The Chester cycle has 25 plays, the Wakefield 30, the Coventry 42, and the York 48. It is impossible to fix either the date or the authorship of any of these plays; we only know certainly that they were in great favor from the twelfth to the sixteenth century. The York plays are generally considered to be the best; but those of Wakefield show more humor and variety, and better workmanship. The former cycle especially shows a certain unity resulting from its aim to represent the whole of man’s life from birth to death. The same thing is noticeable in Cursor Mundi , which, with the York and Wakefield cycles, belongs to the fourteenth century.

After these plays were written according to the general outline of the Bible stories, no change was tolerated, the audience insisting, like children at “Punch and Judy,” upon seeing the same things year after year. No originality in plot or treatment was possible, therefore; the only variety was in new songs and jokes, and in the pranks of the devil. Childish as such plays seem to us, they are part of the religious development of all uneducated people. Even now the Persian play of the “Martyrdom of Ali” is celebrated yearly, and the famous “Passion Play,” a true Miracle, is given every ten years at Oberammergau.

THE MORAL PERIOD OF THE DRAMA

The second or moral period of the drama is shown by the increasing prevalence of the Morality plays. In these the characters were allegorical personages,–Life, Death, Repentance, Goodness, Love, Greed, and other virtues and vices. The Moralities may be regarded, therefore, as the dramatic counterpart of the once popular allegorical poetry exemplified by the Romance of the Rose . It did not occur to our first, unknown dramatists to portray men and women as they are until they had first made characters of abstract human qualities. Nevertheless, the Morality marks a distinct advance over the Miracle in that it gave free scope to the imagination for new plots and incidents. In Spain and Portugal these plays, under the name auto , were wonderfully developed by the genius of Calderon and Gil Vicente; but in England the Morality was a dreary kind of performance, like the allegorical poetry which preceded it.

To enliven the audience the devil of the Miracle plays was introduced; and another lively personage called the Vice was the predecessor of our modern clown and jester. His business was to torment the “virtues” by mischievous pranks, and especially to make the devil’s life a burden by beating him with a bladder or a wooden sword at every opportunity. The Morality generally ended in the triumph of virtue, the devil leaping into hell-mouth with Vice on his back.

The best known of the Moralities is “Everyman,” which has recently been revived in England and America. The subject of the play is the summoning of every man by Death; and the moral is that nothing can take away the terror of the inevitable summons but an honest life and the comforts of religion. In its dramatic unity it suggests the pure Greek drama; there is no change of time or scene, and the stage is never empty from the beginning to the end of the performance. Other well-known Moralities are the “Pride of Life,” “Hyckescorner,” and “Castell of Perseverance.” In the latter, man is represented as shut up in a castle garrisoned by the virtues and besieged by the vices.

Like the Miracle plays, most of the old Moralities are of unknown date and origin. Of the known authors of Moralities, two of the best are John Skelton, who wrote “Magnificence,” and probably also “The Necromancer”; and Sir David Lindsay (1490-1555), “the poet of the Scotch Reformation,” whose religious business it was to make rulers uncomfortable by telling them unpleasant truths in the form of poetry. With these men a new element enters into the Moralities. They satirize or denounce abuses of Church and State, and introduce living personages thinly disguised as allegories; so that the stage first becomes a power in shaping events and correcting abuses.

THE INTERLUDES

It is impossible to draw any accurate line of distinction between the Moralities and Interludes. In general we may think of the latter as dramatic scenes, sometimes given by themselves (usually with music and singing) at banquets and entertainments where a little fun was wanted; and again slipped into a Miracle play to enliven the audience after a solemn scene. Thus on the margin of a page of one of the old Chester plays we read, “The boye and pigge when the kinges are gone.” Certainly this was no part of the original scene between Herod and the three kings. So also the quarrel between Noah and his wife is probably a late addition to an old play. The Interludes originated, undoubtedly, in a sense of humor; and to John Heywood (1497?-1580?), a favorite retainer and jester at the court of Mary, is due the credit for raising the Interlude to the distinct dramatic form known as comedy.

Heywood’s Interludes were written between 1520 and 1540. His most famous is “The Four P’s,” a contest of wit between a “Pardoner, a Palmer, a Pedlar and a Poticary.” The characters here strongly suggest those of Chaucer. Another interesting Interlude is called “The Play of the Weather.” In this Jupiter and the gods assemble to listen to complaints about the weather and to reform abuses. Naturally everybody wants his own kind of weather. The climax is reached by a boy who announces that a boy’s pleasure consists in two things, catching birds and throwing snowballs, and begs for the weather to be such that he can always do both. Jupiter decides that he will do just as he pleases about the weather, and everybody goes home satisfied.

All these early plays were written, for the most part, in a mingling of prose and wretched doggerel, and add nothing to our literature. Their great work was to train actors, to keep alive the dramatic spirit, and to prepare the way for the true drama.

ELIZABEHAN POETRY AND PROSE

After the death of Geoffrey Chaucer in 1400, a century has gone without great literary outputs. This period is known as Barren Age of literature.

Even though there are many differences in their work, Sir Thomas Wyatt and the Earl of Surrey are often mentioned together. Sir Thomas Wyatt introduced the Sonnet in England whereas Surrey wrote the first blank verse in English.

Thomas Wyatt followed the Italian poet Petrarch to compose sonnets. In this form, the 14 lines rhyme abbaabba (8) + 2 or 3 rhymes in the last six lines.

The Earl of Surrey’s blank verse is remarkable. Christopher Marlow, Shakespeare, Milton and many other writers made use of it.

Tottel’s Songs and Sonnets (1557) is the first printed anthology of English poetry. It contained 40 poems by Surrey and 96 by Wyatt. There were 135 by other authors. Some of these poems were fine, some childish.

In 1609, a collection of Shakespeare’s 154 sonnets was printed. These sonnets were addressed to one “Mr. W.H.”. The most probable explanation of the identity of “W.H.” is that he was William Herbert, Earl of Pembroke.

Other people mentioned in the sonnets are a girl, a rival poet, and a dark-eyed beauty. Shakespeare’s two long poems, Venus and Adonis, The Rape of Lucrece are notable.

One of the most important poets of Elizabethan period is Edmund Spenser (1552-1599). He has been addressed “the poets’ poet”. His pastoral poem, The Shepeard’s Calendar (1579) is in 12 books, one for each month of the year. Spenser’s Amoretti, 88 Petrarchan sonnets clebrates his progress of love. The joy of his marriage with Elizabeth Boyle is expressed in his ode Epithalamion. His Prothalamion is written in honour of the double marriage of the daughters of the Earl of Worester. Spenser’s allegorical poem, The Faerie Queene is his greatest achievement. Spenser invented a special metre for The Faerie Queene . The verse has nine lines and the rhyme plan is ababbcbcc. This verse is known as the ‘Spenserian Stanza’.

Sir Philip Sidney is remembered for his prose romance, Arcadia . His critical essay Apology for Poetry, sonnet collection Astrophel and Stella are elegant.

Michael Drayton and Sir Walter Raleigh are other important poets of Elizabethan England. Famous Elizabethan dramatist Ben Jonson produced fine poems also.

The University Wits John Lyly, Thomas Kyd, George Peele, Thomas Lodge, Robert Green, Christopher Marlow, and Thomas Nash also wrote good number of poems. John Lyly is most widely known as the author of prose romance entitled Euphues. The style Lyly used in his Euphues is known as Euphuism. The sentences are long and complicated. It is filled with tricks and alliteration. Large number of similes are brought in.

John Donne’s works add the beauty of Elizabethan literature. He was the chief figure of Metaphysical Poetry. Donne’s poems are noted for its originality and striking images and conceits. Satires, Songs and Sonnets, Elegies, The Flea, A Valediction: forbidding mourning, A Valediction: of weeping etc. are his famous works.

Sir Francis Bacon is a versatile genius of Elizabethan England. He is considered as the father of English essays. His Essays first appeared in 1597, the second edition in 1612 and the third edition in 1625. Besides essays, he wrote The Advancement of Learning, New Atlantis and History of Henry VII.

Bacon’s popular essays are Of Truth, Of Friendship, Of Love, Of Travel, Of Parents and Children, Of Marriage and Single Life, Of Anger, Of Revenge, Of Death, etc.

Ben Jonson’s essays are compiled in The Timber or Discoveries. His essays are aphoristic like those of Bacon. Jonson is considered as the father of English literary criticism.

Many attempts were carried out to translate Bible into English. After the death of John Wycliff, William Tyndale tried on this project. Coverdale carried on the work of Tyndale. The Authorized Version of Bible was published in 1611.

ELIZABETHAN DRAMA

The English dramas have gone through great transformation in Elizabethan period. The chief literary glory of the Elizabethan age was its drama. The first regular English comedy was Ralph Roister Doister written by Nicholas Udall. Another comedy Gammar Gurton’s Needle is about the loss and the finding of a needle with which the old woman Gammar Gurton mends clothes.

The first English tragedy was Gorboduc , in blank verse. The first three acts of Gorboduc writtern by Thomas Norton and the other two by Thomas Sackville.

The University Wits contributed hugely for the growth of Elizabethan drama. The University Wits were young men associated with Oxford and Cambridge. They were fond of heroic themes. The most notable figures are Christopher Marlow, Thomas Kyd, Thomas Nash, Thomas Lodge, Robert Greene, and George Peele.

Christopher Marlow was the greatest of pre-Shakespearean dramatist. Marlow wrote only tragedies. His most famous works are Edward II, Tamburlaine the Great, The Jew of Malta, The Massacre at Paris, and Doctor Faustus. Marlow popularized the blank verse. Ben Jonson called it “the mighty line of Marlow”.

Thomas Kyd’s The Spanish Tragedy is a Senecan play. It resembles Shakespeare’s Hamlet. Its horrific plot gave the play a great and lasting popularity.

The greatest literary figure of English, William Shakespeare was born at Stratford-on-Avon on April 26, 1564. He did odd jobs and left to London for a career. In London, he wrote plays for Lord Chamberlain’s company. Shakespeare’s plays can be classified as the following

1.The Early Comedies: in these immature plays the plots are not original. The characters are less finished and the style lacks the genius of Shakespeare. They are full of wit and word play. Of this type are The Comedy of Errors, Love’s Labour’s Lost, and The Two Gentlemen of Verona.

2.The English Histories: These plays show a rapid maturing of Shakespeare’s technique. His characterization has improved. The plays in this group are Richard II, Henry IV and Henry V.

3. The Mature Comedies: The jovial good humour of Sir Toby Belch in Twelfth Night, the urban worldywise comedy of Touchstone in As You Like It, and the comic scenes in The Merchant of Venice, Much Ado About Nothing etc. are full of vitality. They contain many comic situations.

4.The Sombre Plays: In this group are All’s Well that Ends Well, Measure for Measure, and Trolius and Cressida . These plays show a cynical attitude to life and are realistic in plot.

5. The Great Tragedies : Hamlet, Othello, Macbeth , and King Lear are the climax of Shakespeare’s art. These plays stand supreme in intensity of emotion, depth of psychological insight, and power of style.

6. The Roman Plays: Julius Caesar, Antony and Cleopatra, Coriolanus etc. follow the great tragic period. Unlike Marlow, Shakespeare is relaxed in the intensity of tragedy.

7. The Last Plays: The notable last plays of Shakespeare are Cymbeline, The Winter’s Tale, and The Tempest.

The immense power and variety of Shakespeare’s work have led to the idea that one man cannot have written it all; yet it must be true that one man did. Thus Shakespeare remains as the greatest English dramatist even after four centuries of his death.

Other dramatist who flourished during the Elizabethan period is Ben Jonson. He introduced the “comedy of humours’’, which portrays the individual as dominated by one marked characteristic. He is best known for his Every Man in his Humour. Other important plays of Jonson are Every Man out of his Humour, Volpone or the Fox, and The Alchemist,

John Webster’s The White Devil and The Duchess of Malfi are important Elizabethan dramas. Thomas Dekker, Thomas Middleton, Thomas Heywood, Beaumont and Fletcher etc. are other noted Elizabethan playwrights.

John Milton and His Time

John Milton (1608- 1674) was born in London and educated at Christ’s College, Cambridge. After leaving university, he studied at home. Milton was a great poet, polemic, pamphleteer, theologian, and parliamentarian. In 1643, Milton married a woman much younger than himself. She left Milton and did not return for two years. This unfortunate incident led Milton to write two strong pamphlets on divorce. The greatest of all his political writings is Areopagitica, a notable and impassioned plea for the liberty of the press.

Milton’s early poems include On Shakespeare, and On Arriving at the Age of Twenty-three. L’Allegro( the happy man and Il Penseroso (the sad man) two long narrative poems. Comus is a masque written by Milton when he was at Cambridge.

His pastoral elegy Lycidas is on his friend, Edward King who drowned to death on a voyage to Ireland. Milton’s one of the sonnets deals with the theme of his blindness.

Milton is remembered for his greatest epic poem Paradise Lost. Paradise Lost contained twelve books and published in 1677. Milton composed it in blank verse. Paradise Lost covers the rebellion of Satan(Lucifer) in heaven and his expulsion. Paradise Lost contains hundreds of remarkable lines. Milton coined many words in this poem.

Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes are other two major poems of Milton.

Milton occupies a central position in English literature. He was a great Puritan and supported Oliver Cromwell in the Civil War. He wrote many pamphlet in support of parliament.

LYRIC POETS DURING MILTON’S PERIOD (THE CAVALIER POETS)

Milton’s period produced immense lyric poetry. These lyrical poets dealt chiefly with love and war.

Richard Lovelace’s Lucasta contains the best of his shorter pieces. His best known lyrics, such as To Althea, from Prison and To Lucasta, going in the Wars, are simple and sincere.

Sir John Suckling was a famous wit at court. His poems are generous and witty. His famous poem is Ballad upon a Wedding.

Robert Herrick wrote some fresh and passionate lyrics. Among his best known shorter poems are To Althea, To Julia, and Cherry Ripe.

Philip Massinger and John Ford produced some notable in this period.

Many prose writers flourished during Milton’s age. Sir Thomas Browne is the best prose writer of the period. His ReligioMedici is a curious mixture of religious faith and scientific skepticism. Pseudodoxia Epidemica, or Vulgar Errors is another important work.

Thomas Hobbes’s Leviathan, Thomas Fuller’s The History of the Holy War are other important prose works during this period. Izaac Walton’s biography of John Donne is a very famous work of Milton’s period. His Compleat Angler discusses the art of river fishing.

RESTORATION DRAMA AND PROSE

The Restoration of Charles II (1660) brought about a revolution in English literature. With the collapse of the Puritan Government there sprang up activities that had been so long suppressed. The Restoration encouraged levity in rules that often resulted in immoral and indecent plays.

John Dryden (1631-1700)

Dryden is the greatest literary figure of the Restoration. In his works, we have an excellent reflection of both the good and the bad tendencies of the age in which he lived. Before the Restoration, Dryden supported Oliver Cromwell. At the Restoration, Dryden changed his views and became loyal to Charles II. His poem Astrea Redux (1660) celebrated Charles II’s return.

Dryden’s Annus Mirabilis( Miracle Year) describes the terrors of Great Fire in London in 1666. Dryden appeared as the chief literary champion of the monarchy in his famous satirical allegory, Abasalom and Achitophel. John Dryden is now remembered for his greatest mock-heroic poem, Mac Flecknoe. Mac Flecknoe is a personal attack on his rival poet Thomas Shadwell.

Dryden’s other important poems are Religio Laici, and The Hind and the Panther.

John Dryden popularized heroic couplets in his dramas. Aurengaxebe, The Rival Ladies, The Conquest of Granada, Don Sebastian etc. are some of his famous plays.

His dramatic masterpiece is All for Love. Dryden polished the plot of Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra in his All for Love.

As a prose writer, Dryden’s work, An Essay on Dramatic Poesie is worth mentioning.

John Bunyan’s greatest allegory, The Pilgrim’s Progress, The Holy War,

Comedy of Manners

Restoration period produced a brilliant group of dramatists who made this age immortal in the history of English literature. These plays are hard and witty, comic and immoral. It was George Etheredge who introduced Comedy of Manners. His famous plays are She Would if She Could, The Man of Mode and Love in a Tub.

William Congreve is the greatest of Restoration comedy writers. His Love for Love, The Old Bachelor, The Way of the World and The Double Dealer are very popular.

William Wycherley is another important Restoration comedy playwright. His Country Wife, and Love in a Wood are notable plays.

Sir John Vanbrugh’s best three comedies are The Provoked Wife, The Relapse and The Confederacy.

ENGLISH POETS, 1660-1798

ALEXANDER POPE (1688-1744)

Alexander Pope was the undisputed master of both prose and verse. Pope wrote many poems and mock-epics attacking his rival poets and social condition of England. His Dunciad is an attack on dullness. He wrote An Essay on Criticism ( 1711) in heroic couplets. In 1712, Pope pubished The Rape of the Lock, one of the most brilliant poems in English language. It is a mock-heroic poem dealing with the fight of two noble families.

An Essay on Man, Of the Characters of Women, and the translation of Illiad and Odyssey are his other major works.

Oliver Goldsmith wrote two popular poems in heroic couplets. They are The Traveller and The Deserted Village.

James Thompson is remembered for his long series of descriptive passages dealing with natural scenes in his poem The Seasons. He wrote another important poem The Castle of Indolence.

Edward Young produced a large amount of literary work of variable quality. The Last Day, The Love of Fame, and The Force of Religion are some of them.

Robert Blair ’s fame is chiefly dependent on his poem The Grave. It is a long blank verse poem of meditation on man’s morality.

Thomas Gray (1716-1771) is one of the greatest poets of English literature. His first poem was the Ode on a Distant Prospect of Eton College. Then after years of revision, he published his famous Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard. Its popularity had been maintained to the present day. Other important poems of Thomas Gray are Ode on a Favourite Cat, The Bard and The Progress of Poesy.

William Blake (1757-1827) is both a great poet and artist. His two collections of short lyrics are Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience. His finest lyric is The Tiger.

Robert Burns is known as the national poet of Scotland. A Winter Night, O My Love is like a Red Red Rose, The Holy Fair etc. are some of his major poems.

William Cowper, William Collins, and William Shenstone are other notable poets before the Romanticism.

EIGHTEENTH CENTURY PROSE

DANIEL DEFOE (1659-1731)

Daniel Defoe wrote in bulk. His greatest work is the novel Robinson Crusoe. It is based on an actual event which took place during his time. Robinson Crusoe is considered to be one of the most popular novels in English language. He started a journal named The Review. His A Journal of the Plague Year deals with the Plague in London in 1665.

Sir Richard Steele and Joseph Addison worked together for many years. Richard Steele started the periodicals The Tatler, The Spectator, The Guardian, The English Man, and The Reader. Joseph Addison contributed in these periodicals and wrote columns. The imaginary character of Sir Roger de Coverley was very popular during the eighteenth century.

Jonathan Swift (1667-1745) is one of the greatest satirists of English literature. His first noteworthy book was The Battle of the Books . A Tale of a Tub is a religious allegory like Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress. His longest and most famous work is Gulliver’s Travels. Another important work of Jonathan Swift is A Modest Proposal.

Dr. Samuel Johnson (1709-1784) is very much famous for his Dictionary (1755). The Vanity of Human Wishes is a longish poem by him. Johnson started a paper named The Rambler. His The Lives of the Poets introduces fifty-two poets including Donne, Dryden, Pope, Milton, and Gray. Most of the information about Johnson is taken from his friend James Boswell’s biography Life of Samuel Johnson.

Edward Gibbon is famous for the great historical work, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. His Autobiography contains valuable material concerning his life.

Edmund Burke is one of the masters of English prose. He was a great orator also. His speech On American Taxation is very famous. Revolution in France and A Letter to a Noble Lord are his notable pamphlets.

The letters of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, Earl of Chesterfield, Thomas Gray and Cowper are good prose works in Eighteenth century literature.

The Birth of English Novel

The English novel proper was born about the middle of the eighteenth century. Samuel Richardson (1689-1761) is considered as the father of English novel. He published his first novel Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded in 1740. This novel is written in the form of letters. Thus Pamela is an ‘epistolary novel’. The character Pamela is a poor and virtuous woman who marries a wicked man and afterwards reforms her husband. Richardson’s next novel Clarissa Harlowe was also constructed in the form of letters. Many critics consider Clarissa as Richardson’s masterpiece. Clarissa is the beautiful daughter of a severe father who wants her to marry against her will. Clarissa is a very long novel.

Henry Fielding (1707-1754) is another important novelist. He published Joseph Andrews in 1742. Joseph Andrews laughs at Samuel Richardson’s Pamela. His greatest novel is Tom Jones . Henry Fielding’s last novel is Amelia.

Tobias Smollett wrote a ‘picaresque novel’ titled The Adventures of Roderick Random. His other novels are The Adventures of Ferdinand and Humphry Clinker.

Laurence Sterne is now remembered for his masterpiece Tristram Shandy which was published in 1760. Another important work of Laurence Sterne is A Sentimental journey through France and Italy. These novels are unique in English literature. Sterne blends humour and pathos in his works.

Horace Walpole is famous both as a letter writer and novelist. His one and only novel The Castle of Otranto deals with the horrific and supernatural theme.

Other ‘terror novelists’ include William Beckford and Mrs Ann Radcliffe.

EARLY NINTEENTH CENTURY POETS (THE ROMANTICS)

The main stream of poetry in the eighteenth century had been orderly and polished, without much feeling for nature. The publication of the first edition of the Lyrical Ballads in 1798 came as a shock. The publication of Lyrical Ballads by William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge was the beginning of the romantic age. They together with Southey are known as the Lake Poets, because they liked the Lake district in England and lived in it.

William Wordsworth ((1770-1850) was the poet of nature. In the preface to the second edition of the Lyrical Ballads, Wordsworth set out his theory of poetry. He defined poetry as “the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings and emotions”. His views on poetical style are the most revolutionary.

In his early career as a poet, Wordsworth wrote poems like An Evening Walk and Descriptive Sketches. The Prelude is the record of his development as a poet. It is a philosophical poem. He wrote some of the best lyric poems in the English language like The Solitary Reaper, I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud, Ode on the Itimations of Immorality, Resolution and Independence etc. Tintern Abbey is one of the greatest poems of Wordsworth.

Samuel Tylor Coleridge (1772-1814) wrote four poems for The Lyrical Ballads. The Rime of the Ancient Mariner is the most noteworthy. Kubla Khan, Christabel, Dejection an Ode, Frost at Midnight etc. are other important poems. Biographia Literaria is his most valuable prose work. Coleridge’s lectures on Shakespeare are equally important.

Lord Byron’s Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage was based on his travels. Don Juan ranks as one of the greatest of satirical poems. The Vision of Judgment is a fine political satire in English.

PB Shelley (1792-1822) was a revolutionary figure of Romantic period. When Shelley was studying at Oxford, he wrote the pamphlet The Necessity of Atheism which caused his expulsion from the university. Queen Mab, The Revolt of Islam and Alastor are his early poems. Prometheus Unbound is a combination of the lyric and the drama. Shelley wrote some of the sweetest English lyrics like To a Skylark, The Cloud, To Night etc. Of his many odes, the most remarkable is Ode to the West Wind. Adonais is an elegy on the death of John Keats.

John Keats (1795-1821) is another great Romantic poet who wrote some excellent poems in his short period of life. His Isabella deals with the murder of a lady’s lover by her two wicked brothers. The unfinished epic poem Hyperion is modelled on Milton’s Paradise Lost. The Eve of St Agnes is regarded as his finest narrative poem. The story of Lamia is taken from Burton’s Anatomy of Melancholy. Endymion, Ode to a Nightingale, Ode on a Grecian Urn, Ode to Psyche, Ode on Melancholy and Ode to Autumn are very famous . His Letters give give a clear insight into his mind and artistic development.

Robert Southey is a minor Romantic poet. His poems, which are of great bulk, include Joan of Arc, Thalaba, and The Holly-tree. 4

LATER NINETEENTH CENTURY POETS (Victorian Poets)

Alfred Lord Tennyson (1809-92) is a chief figure of later nineteenth century poetry. His volume of Poems contain notable poems like The Lady of Shalott, The Lotos-Eaters, Ulysses, Morte d’ Arthur. The story of Morte d’ Arthur is based on Thomas Malory’s poem Morte d’ Arthur. In Memoriam(1850) caused a great stir when it first appeared. It is a very long series of meditations upon the death of Arthur Henry Hallam, Tennyson’s college friend, who died at Vienna in 1833. In Memoriam is the most deeply emotional, and probably the greatest poetry he ever produced. Maud and Other Poems was received with amazement by the public. Idylls of the King, Enoch Arden, Harold etc. are his other works.

Robert Browning (1812-89) is an English poet and playwright whose mastery of dramatic monologues made him one of the foremost Victorian poets. He popularized ‘dramatic monologue’. The Ring and the Book is an epic-length poem in which he justifies the ways of God to humanity Browning is popularly known by his shorter poems, such as Porphyria’s Lover , Rabbi Ben Ezra , How They Brought the Good News from Ghent to Aix , and The Pied Piper of Hamelin . He married Elizabeth Barrett, another famous poet during the Victorian period. Fra Lippo Lippi Andrea Del Sarto and My Last Duchess are famous dramatic monologues.

Matthew Arnold (1822-1888) was an English poet and cultural critic who worked as an inspector of schools. He was the son of Thomas Arnold, the famed headmaster of Rugby School. Arnold is sometimes called the third great Victorian poet, along with Alfred Lord Tennyson and Robert Browning. Arnold valued natural scenery for its peace and permanence in contrast with the ceaseless change of human things. His descriptions are often picturesque, and marked by striking similes. Thyrsis, Dover Beach and The Scholar Gipsy are his notable poems.

Dante Gabriel Rossetti was an English poet, illustrator, painter and translator in the late nineteenth century England. Rossotti’s poems were criticized as belonging to the ‘Fleshy School’ of poetry. Rossetti wrote about nature with his eyes on it.

Elizabeth Barrett Browning, wife of Robert Browning wrote some excellent poems in her volume of Sonnets from the Portuguese.

AC Swinburne followed the style of Dante Gabriel Rossetti. Swinburne’s famous poems works are Poems and Ballads and tristram of Lyonesse.

Edward Fitzgerald translated the Rubaiyat of the Persian poet Omar Khayyam. Fitzgerald’s translation is loose and did not stick too closely to the original.

Rudyard Kipling and Francis Thompson also wrote some good poems during the later nineteenth century.

Nineteenth Century Novelists (Victorian Novelists)

Jane Austen 1775-1817 is one of the greatest novelists of nineteenth century English literature. Her first novel Pride and Prejudice (1813) deals with the life of middle class people. The style is smooth and charming. Her second novel Sense and Sensibility followed the same general lines of Pride and Prejudice. Northanger Abbey, Emma, Mansfield Park, and Persuasion are some of the other famous works. Jane Austen’s plots are skillfully constructed. Her characters are developed with minuteness and accuracy.

Charles Dickens (1812-1870) is considered as one of the greatest English novelists. Dickens has contributed some evergreen characters to English literature. He was a busy successful novelist during his lifetime. The Pickwick Papers and Sketches by Boz are two early novels. Oliver Twist, Nicholas Nickleby , David Copperfield, Hard Times, A Tale of Two Cities and Great Expectations are some of the most famous novels of Charles Dickens. No English novelists excel Dickens in the multiplicity of his characters and situations. He creates a whole world people for the readers. He sketched both lower and middle class people in London.

William Makepeace Thackeray was born in Calcutta and sent to England for education. William Thackeray is now chiefly remembered for his novel The Vanity Fair. While Dickens was in full tide of his success, Thackeray was struggling through neglect and contempt to recognition. Thackeray’s genius blossomed slowly. Thackeray’s characters are fearless and rough. He protested against the feeble characters of his time. The Rose and the Ring, Rebecca and Rowena, and The Four Georges are some of his works.

The Bront ë s Charlotte, Emily, and Anne were the daughters of an Irish clergy man Patrick Bront ë, who held a living in Yorkshire. Charlotte Bront ë ’ s first novel, The Professor failed to find a publisher and only appeared after her death. Jane Eyre is her greatest novel. the plot is weak and melodramatic. This was followed by Shirley and Villette. Her plots are overcharged and she is largely restricted to her own experiments.

Emily Brontë wrote less than Charlottë. Her one and only novel Wuthering Heights (1847) is unique in English literature. It is the passionate love story of Heathcliff and Catherine.

Anne Bronte ’s two novels, Agnes Grey and The Tenant of Wildfell Hall are much inferior to those of her sisters, for she lacks nearly all their power and intensity.

George Eliot (1819-1880) is the pen-name of Mary Ann Evans. Adam Bede was her first novel. Her next novel, The Mill on the Floss is partly autobiographical. Silas Marner is a shorter novel which gives excellent pictures of village life. Romola, Middle March and Daniel Deronda are other works of George Eliot.

Thomas Hardy (1840-1928) published his first work Desperate Remedies anonymously. Under the Greenwood Tree, one of the lightest and most appealing of his novels established him as a writer. It was set in the rural area he was soon to make famous as Wessex. Far From the Madding Crowd is a tragi-comedy set in Wessex. The rural background of the story is an integral part of the novel, which reveals the emotional depths which underlie rustic life. The novel, The Return of the Native is a study of man’s helplessness before the mighty Fate. The Mayor of Casterbridge also deals with the theme of Man versus Destiny. Tess of the D’Urbervilles and Jude the Obscure aroused the hostility of conventional readers due to their frank handling of sex and religion. At the beginning Tess of the D’Urbervilles was rejected by the publishers. The outcry with the publication of Jude the Obscure led Hardy in disgust to abandon novel writing. Thomas Hardy’s characters are mostly men and women living close to the soil.

Mary Shelley , the wife of Romantic poet PB Shelley is now remembered as a writer of her famous novel of terror, Frankestein. Frankestein can be regarded as the first attempt at science fiction. The Last Man is Mary Shelley’s another work.

Edgar Allan Poe was a master of Mystery stories. Poe’s powerful description of astonishing and unusual events has the attraction of terrible things. Some of his major works are The Mystery of Marie Roget, The Murders in the Rue Morgue, The Fall of the House of Usher and The Mystery of Red Death.

Besides poetry collections like The Lady of the Last Ministrel, Marmion, The Lady of the Lake, and The Lord of the Isles, Sir Walter Scott produced enormous number of novels. Waverly, Old Mortality, The Black Dwarf, The Pirate, and Kenilworth are some of them. He was too haste in writing novels and this led to the careless, imperfect stories. He has a great place in the field of historical novels.

Frederick Marryat ’s sea novels were popular in the nineteenth century. His earliest novel was The Naval Officer. All his best books deal with the sea. Marryat has a considerable gift for plain narrative and his humour is entertaining. Peter Simple, Jacob Faithful and Japhet in Search of His Father are some of his famous works.

R.L. Stevenson ’s The Tr easure Island, George Meredith ’s The Egoist, Edward Lytton ’s The Last Days of Pompeii, Charles Reade ’s Mask and Faces, Anthony Trollope ’s The Warden, Wilkie Collins ’s The Moonstone, Joseph Conard ’s Lord Jim, Nathaniel Hawthrone ’s The Scarlet Letter etc. are some of other famous works of nineteenth century English literature.

Other Nineteenth Century Prose

Charles Lamb is one of the greatest essayists of nineteenth century. Lamb started his career as a poet but is now remembered for his well-known Essays of Elia. His essays are unequal in English. He is so sensitive and so strong. Besides Essays of Elia, other famous essays are Dream Children and Tales from Shakespeare. His sister, Mary Lamb also wrote some significant essays.

William Hazlitt ’s reputation chiefly rests on his lectures and essays on literary and general subjects. His lectures, Characters of Shakespeare’s Plays, The English Poets and The English Comic Writers are important.

Thomas De Quincey ’s famous work is Confessions of an English Opium Eater. It is written in the manner of dreams. His Reminiscences of the English Lake Poets contain some good chapters on Wordsworth and Coleridge.

Thomas Carlyle is another prose writer of nineteenth century. His works consisted of translations, essays, and biographies. Of these the best are his translation of Goethe’s Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship, his The Life of Schiller, and his essays on Robert Burns and Walter Scott.

Thomas Macaulay (Lord Macaulay) wrote extensively. He contributed for The Encyclopedia of Britannica and The Edinburgh Review. His History of England is filled with numerous and picturesque details.

Charles Darwin is one of the greatest names in modern science. He devoted almost wholly to biological and allied studies. His chief works are The Voyage of the Beagle, Origin of Species, and The Descent of Man.

John Ruskin ’s works are of immense volume and complexity. His longest book is Modern Painters. The Seven Lamps of Architecture, and The Stones of Venice expound his views on artistic matters. Unto this Last is a series of articles on political economy.

Samuel Butler , the grandson of Dr. Samuel Butler was inspired by the Darwinian theory of evolution. Evolution Old and New, Unconcious Memory, Essays on Life, Art and Science, The Way of All Flesh etc. rank him as one of the greatest prose writers of ninteenth century. He was an acute and original thinker. He exposed all kinds of reliogious, political, and social shams and hypocrisies of his period.

Besides being a great poet, Mathew Arnold also excelled as an essayist. His prose works are large in bulk and wide in range. Of them all his critical essays are probably of the greatest value. Essays in Criticism, Culture and Anarchy, and Literature and Dogma have permanent value.

Lewis Carroll , another prose writer of ninteenth century is now remembered for her immortal work, Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland. Ever since its publication, this novel continues to be popular among both the children and adult readers.

Chapter 13 Twentieth-century novels and other prose

The long reign of Queen Victoria ended in 1901. There was a sweeping social reform and unprecedented progress. The reawakening of a social conscience was found its expression in the literature produced during this period.

Rudyard Kipling was born in Bombay but soon moved to Lahore. He worked as a news reporter in Lahore. Kipling was a prolific and versatile writer. His insistent proclamation of the superiority of the white races, his support for colonization, his belief in the progress and the value of the machine etc. found an echo on the hearts of many of his readers. His best-known prose works include Kim, Life’s Handicap, Debits and Credits, and Rewards and Fairies. He is now chiefly remembered for his greatest work, The Jungle Book.

E.M Forster wrote five novels in his life time. Where Angels Fear to Tread has well-drawn characters. Other novels are The Longest Journey, A Room with a View, Howards End, and A Passage to India. A Passage to India is unequal in English in its presentation of the complex problems which were to be found in the relationship between English and native people in India. E.M Forster portrayed the Indian scene in all its magic and all its wretchedness.

H.G Wells began his career as a journalist. He started his scientific romances with the publication of The Time Machine. The Invisible Man, The War of the Worlds, The First Men in the Moon and The Food of the Gods are some of his important science romances. Ann Veronica, Kipps and The History of Mr Polly are numbered among his sociological novels.

D.H Lawrence was a striking figure in the twentieth century literary world. He produced over forty volumes of fiction during his period. The White Peacock is his earliest novel. The largely autobiographical and extremely powerful novel was Sons and Lovers. It studies with great insight the relationship between a son and mother. By many, it is considered the best of all his works. Then came The Rainbow, suppressed as obscene, which treats again the conflict between man and woman. Women in Love is another important work. Lady Chatterley’s Lover is a novel in which sexual experience is handled with a wealth of physical detail and uninhibited language. Lawrence also excelled both as a poet and short story writer.

James Joyce is a serious novelist, whose concern is chiefly with human relationships- man in relation to himself, to society, and to the whole race. He was born in Dublin, Ireland. His first work, Dubliners, is followed by a largely autobiographical novel A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. It is an intense account of a developing writer. The protagonist of the story, Stephen Dedalus is James Joyce himself. The character Stephen Dedalus appears again in his highly complex novel, Ulysses published in 1922. Joyce’s mastery of language, his integrity, brilliance, and power is noticeable in his novel titled Finnefan’s Wake.

Virginia Woolf famed both as a literary critic and novelist. Her first novel, The Voyage Out is told in the conventional narrative manner. A deeper study of characters can be found in her later works such as Night and Day, Jacob’s Room, To the Lighthouse, Mrs. Dalloway and Orlando. In addition to her novels, Virginia Woolf wrote a number of essays on cultural subjects. Woolf rejected the conventional concepts of novel. She replaced emphasis on incident, external description, and straight forward narration by using the technique “ Stream of Consciousness ”. James Joyce and Virginia Woolf popularized this writing technique.

George Orwell became a figure of outstanding importance because of Animal Farm. It is a political allegory on the degeneration of communist ideals into dictatorship. Utterly different was Nineteen Eighty-Four on the surveillance of state over its citizen. Burmese Days and The Road to Wigan Pier are other works.

William Golding deals with man’s instinct to destroy what is good, whether it is material or spiritual. His best known novel is Lord of the Flies . The Scorpion God, The Inheritors and Free Fall are other notable works.

Somerset Maugham was a realist who sketched the cosmopolitan life through his characters. The Moon and Sixpence, Mrs. Craddock and The Painted Veil are some of his novels. His best novel is Of Human Bondage. It is a study in frustration, which had a strong autobiographical element.

Kingsly Amis ’s Lucky Jim, Take a Girl like You, One Fat Englishman , and Girl are notable works in the twentieth century.

Twentieth Century Drama

After a hundred years of insignificance, drama again appeared as an important form in the twentieth century. Like the novelists in the 20 th century, most of the important dramatists were chiefly concerned with the contemporary social scene. Many playwrights experimented in the theatres. There were revolutionary changes in both the theme and presentation.

John Galsworthy was a social reformer who showed both sides of the problems in his plays. He had a warm sympathy for the victims of social injustice. Of his best-known plays The Silver Box deals with the inequality of justice, Strife with the struggle between Capital and Labour, Justice with the meaninglessness of judiciary system.

George Bernard Shaw is one of the greatest dramatists of 20 th century. The first Shavian play is considered to be Arms and the Man. It is an excellent and amusing stage piece which pokes fun at the romantic conception of the soldier. The Devil’s Disciple, Caesar and Cleopatra, and The Man of Destiny are also noteworthy. Man and Superman is Shaw’s most important play which deals the theme half seriously and half comically. Religion and social problems are again the main topics in Major Barbara. The Doctor’s Dilemma is an amusing satire. Social conventions and social weaknesses were treated again in Pygmalion , a witty and highly entertaining study of the class distinction. St Joan deals with the problems in Christianity. The Apple Cart, Geneva, The Millionaire, Too True to be Good and On the Rocks are Shaw’s minor plays.

J M Synge was the greatest dramatist in the rebirth of the Irish theatre. His plays are few in number but they are of a stature to place him among the greatest playwrights in the English language. Synge was inspired by the beauty of his surroundings, the humour, tragedy, and poetry of the life of the simple fisher-folk in the Isles of Aran. The Shadow of the Glen is a comedy based on an old folktale, which gives a good romantic picture of Irish peasant life. It was followed by Riders to the Sea, a powerful, deeply moving tragedy which deals with the toll taken by the sea in the lives of the fisher-folk of the Ireland. The Winker’s Wedding and The Well of the Saints are other notable works.

Samuel Beckett, the greatest proponent of Absurd Theatre is most famous for his play, Waiting for Godot. It is a static representation without structure or development, using only meandering, seemingly incoherent dialogue to suggest despair of a society in the post-World War period. Another famous play by Beckett is Endgame.

Harold Pinter was influenced by Samuel Beckett. His plays are quite short and set in an enclosed space. His characters are always in doubt about their function, and in fear of something or someone ‘outside’. The Birthday Party, The Dumb Waiter, A Night Out, The Homecoming and Silence are his most notable plays.

James Osborne’ s Look Back in Anger gave the strongest tonic to the concept of Angry Young Man . Watch it Come Down, A Portrait of Me, Inadmissible Evidence etc. are his other major works.

T.S Eliot wrote seven dramas. They are Sweeney Agonistes, The Rock, Murder in the Cathedral, The Family Reunion, The Cocktail Party, The Confidential Clerk and The Elder Statesman.

Juno and the Paycock, The Plough and the Stars, and The Silver Tassie marked Sean O’Casey out as the greatest new figure in the inter-War years. His own experience enabled him to study the life of the Dublin slums with the warm understanding.

Another leading playwright of 20 th century was Arnold Wesker. Wesker narrated the lives of working class people in his plays. Roots, Chicken Soup with Barley and I’m Talking about Jerusalem are his famous works.

Bertolt Brecht, J.B Priestley, Somerset Maugham, Christopher Fry, Peter Usinov, Tom Stoppard, Bernard Kops, Henry Livings, Alan Bennett et al are other important playwrights of twentieth century English literature.

Chapter 15 Twentieth Century Poetry

The greatest figure in the poetry of the early part of the Twentieth century was the Irish poet William Butler Yeats. Like so many of his contemporaries, Yeats was acutely conscious of the spiritual barrenness of his age. W.B Yeats sought to escape into the land of ‘faery’ and looked for his themes in Irish legend. He is one of the most difficult of modern poets. His trust was in the imagination and intuition of man rather than in scientific reasoning. Yeats believed in fairies, magic, and other forms of superstition. He studied Indian philosophy and Vedas. An Irish Seaman Foresees His Death, The Tower, The Green Helmet etc. are his major poems.

With possible excepion of Yeats, no twentieth century poet has been held in such esteem by his fellow-poets as T.S Eliot. Eliot’s first volume of verse, Prufrock and Other Observations portrays the boredom, emptiness, and pessimism of its days. His much discussed poem The Waste Land(1922) made a tremendous impact on the post-War generation, and it is considered one of the important documents of its age. The poem is difficult to understand in detail, but its general aim is clear. The poem is built round the symbols of drought and flood, representing death and rebirth. The poem progresses in five movements, “The Burial of the Dead”, “The Game of the Chess”, “The Fire Sermon”, “Death by Water”, and “What the Thunder Said”. Eliot’s poem Ash Wednesday is probably his most difficult. Obscure images and symbols and the lack of a clear, logical structure make the poem difficult.

W.H Auden was an artist of great virtuosity, a ceaseless experimenter in verse form, with a fine ear for the rhythm and music of words. He was modern in tone and selection of themes. Auden’s later poems revealed a new note of mysticism in his approach to human problems. He was outspokingly anti-Romantic and stressed the objective attitude.

Thomas Hardy began his career as a poet. Though he was not able to find a publisher, he continued to write poetry. Hardy’s verses consist of short lyrics describing nature and natural beauty. Like his novels, the poems reveal concern with man’s unequal struggle against the mighty fate. Wessex Poems, Winter Words, and Collected Poems are his major poetry works.

G.M Hopkins is a unique figure in the history of English poetry. No modern poet has been the centre of more controversy or the cause of more misunderstanding. He was very unconventional in writing technique. He used Sprung-rhythm, counterpoint rhythm, internal rhythms, alliteration, assonance, and coinages in his poems.

Dylan Thomas was an enemy of intellectualism in verse. He drew upon the human body, sex, and the Old Testament for much of his imagery and complex word-play. His verses are splendidly colourful and musical. Appreciation of landscape, religious and mystical association, sadness and quietness were very often selected as themes for his verses.

Sylvia Plath and her husband Ted Hughes composed some brilliant poems in the 20 th century. Plath’s mental imbalance which brought her to suicide can be seen in her poetry collections titled Ariel, The Colossus, and Crossing the Water. Ted Hughes was a poet of animal and nature. His major collection of poetry are The Hawk in the Rain, Woodwo, Crow, Crow Wakes and Eat Crow.

R.S Thomas, Philip Larkin, Kingsley Amis, Peter Porter, Seamus Heaney et al are also added the beauty of 20 th century English poetry.

The First World War brought to public notice many poets, particularly among the young men of armed forces, while it provided a new source of inspiration for writers of established reputation. Rupert Brooke, Slegfried Sassoon, and Wilfred Owen are the major War poets. Rupert Brooke ’s famous sonnet “If I should die, think only this of me” has appeared in so many anthologies of twentieth century verse. Brooke turned to nature and simple pleasures for inspiration. Sassoon wrote violent and embittered poems. Sassoon painted the horrors of life and death in the trenches and hospitals. Wilfred Owen was the greatest of the war poets. In the beginning of his literary career, Owen wrote in the romantic tradition of John Keats and Lord Tennyson. Owen was a gifted artist with a fine feeling for words. He greatly experimented in verse techniques.

What are Literary Devices?

Personification
Juxtaposition
Onomatopoeia
Common Literary Devices in Poetry
Common Literary Devices in Prose
Repetition Literary Devices
Dialogue Literary Devices
Word Play Literary Devices
Parallelism Literary Devices
Rhetorical Devices

Let’s start with the basics. What are literary devices?

Literary devices take writing beyond its literal meaning. They help guide the reader in how to read the piece.

Literary devices are ways of taking writing beyond its straightforward, literal meaning. In that sense, they are techniques for helping guide the reader in how to read the piece.

Central to all literary devices is a quality of connection : by establishing or examining relationships between things, literary devices encourage the reader to perceive and interpret the world in new ways.

One common form of connection in literary devices is comparison. Metaphors and similes are the most obvious examples of comparison. A metaphor is a direct comparison of two things—“the tree is a giant,” for example. A simile is an in direct comparison—“the tree is like a giant.” In both instances, the tree is compared to—and thus connected with—something (a giant) beyond what it literally is (a tree).

Other literary devices forge connections in different ways. For example, imagery, vivid description, connects writing richly to the worlds of the senses. Alliteration uses the sound of words itself to forge new literary connections (“alligators and apples”).

By enabling new connections that go beyond straightforward details and meanings, literary devices give literature its power.

What all these literary devices have in common is that they create new connections: rich layers of sound, sense, emotion, narrative, and ultimately meaning that surpass the literal details being recounted. They are what sets literature apart, and what makes it uniquely powerful.

Read on for an in-depth look and analysis at 112 common literary devices.

Literary Devices List: 14 Common Literary Devices

In this article, we focus on literary devices that can be found in both poetry and prose.

There are a lot of literary devices to cover, each of which require their own examples and analysis. As such, we will start by focusing on common literary devices for this article: literary devices that can be found in both poetry and prose. With each device, we’ve included examples in literature and exercises you can use in your own creative writing.

Afterwards, we’ve listed other common literary devices you might see in poetry, prose, dialogue, and rhetoric.

Let’s get started!

1. Metaphor

Metaphors, also known as direct comparisons, are one of the most common literary devices. A metaphor is a statement in which two objects, often unrelated, are compared to each other.

Example of metaphor: This tree is the god of the forest.

Obviously, the tree is not a god—it is, in fact, a tree. However, by stating that the tree is the god, the reader is given the image of something strong, large, and immovable. Additionally, using “god” to describe the tree, rather than a word like “giant” or “gargantuan,” makes the tree feel like a spiritual center of the forest.

Metaphors allow the writer to pack multiple descriptions and images into one short sentence. The metaphor has much more weight and value than a direct description. If the writer chose to describe the tree as “the large, spiritual center of the forest,” the reader won’t understand the full importance of the tree’s size and scope.

Similes, also known as indirect comparisons, are similar in construction to metaphors, but they imply a different meaning. Like metaphors, two unrelated objects are being compared to each other. Unlike a metaphor, the comparison relies on the words “like” or “as.”

Example of simile: This tree is like the god of the forest. OR: This tree acts as the god of the forest.

What is the difference between a simile and a metaphor?

The obvious difference between these two common literary devices is that a simile uses “like” or “as,” whereas a metaphor never uses these comparison words.

Additionally, in reference to the above examples, the insertion of “like” or “as” creates a degree of separation between both elements of the device. In a simile, the reader understands that, although the tree is certainly large, it isn’t large enough to be a god; the tree’s “godhood” is simply a description, not a relevant piece of information to the poem or story.

Simply put, metaphors are better to use as a central device within the poem/story, encompassing the core of what you are trying to say. Similes are better as a supporting device.

Does that mean metaphors are better than similes? Absolutely not. Consider Louise Gluck’s poem “ The Past. ” Gluck uses both a simile and a metaphor to describe the sound of the wind: it is like shadows moving, but is her mother’s voice. Both devices are equally haunting, and ending the poem on the mother’s voice tells us the central emotion of the poem.

Learn more about the difference between similes and metaphors here:

Simile vs. Metaphor vs. Analogy: Definitions and Examples

Simile and Metaphor Writing Exercise: Tenors and Vehicles

Most metaphors and similes have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. The tenor refers to the subject being described, and the vehicle refers to the image that describes the tenor.

So, in the metaphor “the tree is a god of the forest,” the tenor is the tree and the vehicle is “god of the forest.”

To practice writing metaphors and similes, let’s create some literary device lists. grab a sheet of paper and write down two lists. In the first list, write down “concept words”—words that cannot be physically touched. Love, hate, peace, war, happiness, and anger are all concepts because they can all be described but are not physical objects in themselves.

In the second list, write down only concrete objects—trees, clouds, the moon, Jupiter, New York brownstones, uncut sapphires, etc.

Your concepts are your tenors, and your concrete objects are your vehicles. Now, randomly draw a one between each tenor and each vehicle, then write an explanation for your metaphor/simile. You might write, say:

Have fun, write interesting literary devices, and try to incorporate them into a future poem or story!

An analogy is an argumentative comparison: it compares two unalike things to advance an argument. Specifically, it argues that two things have equal weight, whether that weight be emotional, philosophical, or even literal. Because analogical literary devices operate on comparison, it can be considered a form of metaphor.

For example:

Making pasta is as easy as one, two, three.

This analogy argues that making pasta and counting upwards are equally easy things. This format, “A is as B” or “A is to B”, is a common analogy structure.

Another common structure for analogy literary devices is “A is to B as C is to D.” For example:

Gordon Ramsay is to cooking as Meryl Streep is to acting.

The above constructions work best in argumentative works. Lawyers and essayists will often use analogies. In other forms of creative writing, analogies aren’t as formulaic, but can still prove to be powerful literary devices. In fact, you probably know this one:

“That which we call a rose / By any other name would smell as sweet” — Romeo & Juliet by William Shakespeare

To put this into the modern language of an analogy, Shakespeare is saying “a rose with no name smells as a rose with a name does.” The name “rose” does not affect whether or not the flower smells good.

Analogy Writing Exercise

Analogies are some of the most common literary devices, alongside similes and metaphors. Here’s an exercise for writing one yourself.

On a blank sheet of paper: write down the first four nouns that come to mind. Try to use concrete, visual nouns. Then, write down a verb. If you struggle to come up with any of these, any old word generator on the internet will help.

The only requirement is that two of your four nouns should be able to perform the verb. A dog can swim, for example, but it can’t fly an airplane.

Your list might look like this:

Verb: Fall Nouns: Rain, dirt, pavement, shadow

An analogy you create from this list might be: “his shadow falls on the pavement how rain falls on the dirt in May.

Your analogy might end up being silly or poetic, strange or evocative. But, by forcing yourself to make connections between seemingly disparate items, you’re using these literary devices to hone the skills of effective, interesting writing.

Is imagery a literary device? Absolutely! Imagery can be both literal and figurative, and it relies on the interplay of language and sensation to create a sharper image in your brain.

Imagery is what it sounds like—the use of figurative language to describe something.

Imagery is what it sounds like—the use of figurative language to describe something. In fact, we’ve already seen imagery in action through the previous literary devices: by describing the tree as a “god”, the tree looks large and sturdy in the reader’s mind.

However, imagery doesn’t just involve visual descriptions; the best writers use imagery to appeal to all five senses. By appealing to the reader’s sense of sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell, your writing will create a vibrant world for readers to live and breathe in.

The best writers use imagery to appeal to all five senses.

Let’s use imagery to describe that same tree. (I promise I can write about more than just trees, but it’s a very convenient image for these common literary devices, don’t you think?)

Notice how these literary device examples also used metaphors and similes? Literary devices often pile on top of each other, which is why so many great works of literature can be analyzed endlessly. Because imagery depends on the object’s likeness to other objects, imagery upholds the idea that a literary device is synonymous with comparison.

Imagery Writing Exercise

Want to try your hand at imagery? You can practice this concept by describing an object in the same way that this article describes a tree! Choose something to write about—any object, image, or idea—and describe it using the five senses. (“This biscuit has the tidy roundness of a lady’s antique hat.” “The biscuit tastes of brand-new cardboard.” and so on!)

Then, once you’ve written five (or more) lines of imagery, try combining these images until your object is sharp and clear in the reader’s head.

Imagery is one of the most essential common literary devices. To learn more about imagery, or to find more imagery writing exercises, take a look at our article Imagery Definition: 5+ Types of Imagery in Literature .

5. Symbolism

Symbolism combines a lot of the ideas presented in metaphor and imagery. Essentially, a symbol is the use of an object to represent a concept—it’s kind of like a metaphor, except more concise!

Symbols are everywhere in the English language, and we often use these common literary devices in speech and design without realizing it. The following are very common examples of symbolism:

A few very commonly used symbols include:

“Peace” represented by a white dove
“Love” represented by a red rose
“Conformity” represented by sheep
“Idea” represented by a light bulb switching on

The symbols above are so widely used that they would likely show up as clichés in your own writing. (Would you read a poem, written today, that started with “Let’s release the white dove of peace”?) In that sense, they do their job “too well”—they’re such a good symbol for what they symbolize that they’ve become ubiquitous, and you’ll have to add something new in your own writing.

Symbols are often contextually specific as well. For example, a common practice in Welsh marriage is to give your significant other a lovespoon , which the man has designed and carved to signify the relationship’s unique, everlasting bond. In many Western cultures, this same bond is represented by a diamond ring—which can also be unique and everlasting!

Symbolism makes the core ideas of your writing concrete.

Finally, notice how each of these examples are a concept represented by a concrete object. Symbolism makes the core ideas of your writing concrete, and also allows you to manipulate your ideas. If a rose represents love, what does a wilted rose or a rose on fire represent?

Symbolism Writing Exercise

Often, symbols are commonly understood images—but not always. You can invent your own symbols to capture the reader’s imagination, too!

Try your hand at symbolism by writing a poem or story centered around a symbol. Choose a random object, and make that object represent something. For example, you could try to make a blanket represent the idea of loneliness.

When you’ve paired an object and a concept, write your piece with that symbol at the center:

The down blanket lay crumpled, unused, on the empty side of our bed.

The goal is to make it clear that you’re associating the object with the concept. Make the reader feel the same way about your symbol as you do!

6. Personification

Personification, giving human attributes to nonhuman objects, is a powerful way to foster empathy in your readers.

Personification is exactly what it sounds like: giving human attributes to nonhuman objects. Also known as anthropomorphism, personification is a powerful way to foster empathy in your readers.

Think about personification as if it’s a specific type of imagery. You can describe a nonhuman object through the five senses, and do so by giving it human descriptions. You can even impute thoughts and emotions—mental events—to a nonhuman or even nonliving thing. This time, we’ll give human attributes to a car—see our personification examples below!

Personification (using sight): The car ran a marathon down the highway.

Personification (using sound): The car coughed, hacked, and spluttered.

Personification (using touch): The car was smooth as a baby’s bottom.

Personification (using taste): The car tasted the bitter asphalt.

Personification (using smell): The car needed a cold shower.

Personification (using mental events): The car remembered its first owner fondly.

Notice how we don’t directly say the car is like a human—we merely describe it using human behaviors. Personification exists at a unique intersection of imagery and metaphor, making it a powerful literary device that fosters empathy and generates unique descriptions.

Personification Writing Exercise

Try writing personification yourself! In the above example, we chose a random object and personified it through the five senses. It’s your turn to do the same thing: find a concrete noun and describe it like it’s a human.

Here are two examples:

The ancient, threadbare rug was clearly tired of being stepped on.

My phone issued notifications with the grimly efficient extroversion of a sorority chapter president.

Now start writing your own! Your descriptions can be active or passive, but the goal is to foster empathy in the reader’s mind by giving the object human traits.

7. Hyperbole

You know that one friend who describes things very dramatically? They’re probably speaking in hyperboles. Hyperbole is just a dramatic word for being over-dramatic—which sounds a little hyperbolic, don’t you think?

Basically, hyperbole refers to any sort of exaggerated description or statement. We use hyperbole all the time in the English language, and you’ve probably heard someone say things like:

I’ve been waiting a billion years for this
I’m so hungry I could eat a horse
I feel like a million bucks
You are the king of the kitchen

None of these examples should be interpreted literally: there are no kings in the kitchen, and I doubt anyone can eat an entire horse in one sitting. This common literary device allows us to compare our emotions to something extreme, giving the reader a sense of how intensely we feel something in the moment.

This is what makes hyperbole so fun! Coming up with crazy, exaggerated statements that convey the intensity of the speaker’s emotions can add a personable element to your writing. After all, we all feel our emotions to a certain intensity, and hyperbole allows us to experience that intensity to its fullest.

Hyperbole Writing Exercise

To master the art of the hyperbole, try expressing your own emotions as extremely as possible. For example, if you’re feeling thirsty, don’t just write that you’re thirsty, write that you could drink the entire ocean. Or, if you’re feeling homesick, don’t write that you’re yearning for home, write that your homeland feels as far as Jupiter.

As a specific exercise, you can try writing a poem or short piece about something mundane, using more and more hyperbolic language with each line or sentence. Here’s an example:

A well-written hyperbole helps focus the reader’s attention on your emotions and allows you to play with new images, making it a fun, chaos-inducing literary device.

Is irony a literary device? Yes—but it’s often used incorrectly. People often describe something as being ironic, when really it’s just a moment of dark humor. So, the colloquial use of the word irony is a bit off from its official definition as a literary device.

Irony is when the writer describes something by using opposite language. As a real-life example, if someone is having a bad day, they might say they’re doing “ greaaaaaat ”, clearly implying that they’re actually doing quite un-greatly. Or a story’s narrator might write:

Like most bureaucrats, she felt a boundless love for her job, and was eager to share that good feeling with others.

In other words, irony highlights the difference between “what seems to be” and “what is.” In literature, irony can describe dialogue, but it also describes ironic situations : situations that proceed in ways that are elaborately contrary to what one would expect. A clear example of this is in The Wizard of Oz . All of the characters already have what they are looking for, so when they go to the wizard and discover that they all have brains, hearts, etc., their petition—making a long, dangerous journey to beg for what they already have—is deeply ironic.

Irony Writing Exercise

For verbal irony, try writing a sentence that gives something the exact opposite qualities that it actually has:

The triple bacon cheeseburger glistened with health and good choices.

For situational irony, try writing an imagined plot for a sitcom, starting with “Ben lost his car keys and can’t find them anywhere.” What would be the most ironic way for that situation to be resolved? (Are they sitting in plain view on Ben’s desk… at the detective agency he runs?) Have fun with it!

9. Juxtaposition

Juxtaposition refers to the placement of contrasting ideas next to each other, often to produce an ironic or thought-provoking effect. Writers use juxtaposition in both poetry and prose, though this common literary device looks slightly different within each realm of literature.

In poetry, juxtaposition is used to build tension or highlight an important contrast. Consider the poem “ A Juxtaposition ” by Kenneth Burke, which juxtaposes nation & individual, treble & bass, and loudness & silence. The result is a poem that, although short, condemns the paradox of a citizen trapped in their own nation.

Just a note: these juxtapositions are also examples of antithesis , which is when the writer juxtaposes two completely opposite ideas. Juxtaposition doesn’t have to be completely contrarian, but in this poem, it is.

Juxtaposition accomplishes something similar in prose. A famous example comes from the opening A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of time.” Dickens opens his novel by situating his characters into a world of contrasts, which is apt for the extreme wealth disparities pre-French Revolution.

Juxtaposition Writing Exercise

One great thing about juxtaposition is that it can dismantle something that appears to be a binary. For example, black and white are often assumed to be polar opposites, but when you put them next to each other, you’ll probably get some gray in the middle.

To really master the art of juxtaposition, try finding two things that you think are polar opposites. They can be concepts, such as good & evil, or they can be people, places, objects, etc. Juxtapose your two selected items by starting your writing with both of them—for example:

Across the town from her wedding, the bank robbers were tying up the hostages.

I put the box of chocolates on the coffee table, next to the gas mask.

Then write a poem or short story that explores a “gray area,” relationship, commonality, or resonance between these two objects or events—without stating as much directly. If you can accomplish what Dickens or Burke accomplishes with their juxtapositions, then you, too, are a master!

10. Paradox

A paradox is a juxtaposition of contrasting ideas that, while seemingly impossible, actually reveals a deeper truth. One of the trickier literary devices, paradoxes are powerful tools for deconstructing binaries and challenging the reader’s beliefs.

A simple paradox example comes to us from Ancient Rome.

Catullus 85 ( translated from Latin)

I hate and I love. Why I do this, perhaps you ask. I know not, but I feel it happening and I am tortured.

Often, “hate” and “love” are assumed to be opposing forces. How is it possible for the speaker to both hate and love the object of his affection? The poem doesn’t answer this, merely telling us that the speaker is “tortured,” but the fact that these binary forces coexist in the speaker is a powerful paradox. Catullus 85 asks the reader to consider the absoluteness of feelings like hate and love, since both seem to torment the speaker equally.

Another paradox example comes from Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest.

“To be natural is such a very difficult pose to keep up.”

Here, “natural” and “pose” are conflicting ideas. Someone who poses assumes an unnatural state of being, whereas a natural poise seems effortless and innate. Despite these contrasting ideas, Wilde is exposing a deeper truth: to seem natural is often to keep up appearances, and seeming natural often requires the same work as assuming any other pose.

Note: paradox should not be confused with oxymoron. An oxymoron is also a statement with contrasting ideas, but a paradox is assumed to be true, whereas an oxymoron is merely a play on words (like the phrase “same difference”).

Paradox Writing Exercise

Paradox operates very similarly to literary devices like juxtaposition and irony. To write a paradox, juxtapose two binary ideas. Try to think outside of the box here: “hate and love” are an easy binary to conjure, so think about something more situational. Wilde’s paradox “natural and pose” is a great one; another idea could be the binaries “awkward and graceful” or “red-handed and innocent.”

Now, situate those binaries into a certain situation, and make it so that they can coexist. Imagine a scenario in which both elements of your binary are true at the same time. How can this be, and what can we learn from this surprising juxtaposition?

11. Allusion

If you haven’t noticed, literary devices are often just fancy words for simple concepts. A metaphor is literally a comparison and hyperbole is just an over-exaggeration. In this same style, allusion is just a fancy word for a literary reference; when a writer alludes to something, they are either directly or indirectly referring to another, commonly-known piece of art or literature.

The most frequently-alluded to work is probably the Bible. Many colloquial phrases and ideas stem from it, since many themes and images from the Bible present themselves in popular works, as well as throughout Western culture. Any of the following ideas, for example, are Biblical allusions:

Referring to a kind stranger as a Good Samaritan
Describing an ideal place as Edenic, or the Garden of Eden
Saying someone “turned the other cheek” when they were passive in the face of adversity
When something is described as lasting “40 days and 40 nights,” in reference to the flood of Noah’s Ark

Of course, allusion literary devices aren’t just Biblical. You might describe a woman as being as beautiful as the Mona Lisa, or you might call a man as stoic as Hemingway.

Why write allusions? Allusions appeal to common experiences: they are metaphors in their own right, as we understand what it means to describe an ideal place as Edenic.

Like the other common literary devices, allusions are often metaphors, images, and/or hyperboles. And, like other literary devices, allusions also have their own sub-categories.

Allusion Writing Exercise

See how densely you can allude to other works and experiences in writing about something simple. Go completely outside of good taste and name-drop like crazy:

Allusions (way too much version): I wanted Nikes, not Adidas, because I want to be like Mike. But still, “a rose by any other name”—they’re just shoes, and “if the shoe fits, wear it.”

From this frenetic style of writing, trim back to something more tasteful:

Allusions (more tasteful version): I had wanted Nikes, not Adidas—but “if the shoe fits, wear it.”

12. Allegory

An allegory is a story whose sole purpose is to represent an abstract concept or idea. As such, allegories are sometimes extended allusions, but the two common literary devices have their differences.

For example, George Orwell’s Animal Farm is an allegory for the deterioration of Communism during the early establishment of the U.S.S.R. The farm was founded on a shared goal of overthrowing the farming elite and establishing an equitable society, but this society soon declines. Animal Farm mirrors the Bolshevik Revolution, the overthrow of the Russian aristocracy, Lenin’s death, Stalin’s execution of Trotsky, and the nation’s dissolution into an amoral, authoritarian police state. Thus, Animal Farm is an allegory/allusion to the U.S.S.R.:

Allusion (excerpt from Animal Farm ):

“There were times when it seemed to the animals that they worked longer hours and fed no better than they had done in [Farmer] Jones’s day.”

However, allegories are not always allusions. Consider Plato’s “ Allegory of the Cave ,” which represents the idea of enlightenment. By representing a complex idea, this allegory could actually be closer to an extended symbol rather than an extended allusion.

Allegory Writing Exercise

Pick a major trend going on in the world. In this example, let’s pick the growing reach of social media as our “major trend.”

Next, what are the primary properties of that major trend? Try to list them out:

More connectedness
A loss of privacy
People carefully massaging their image and sharing that image widely

Next, is there something happening at—or that could happen at—a much smaller scale that has some or all of those primary properties? This is where your creativity comes into play.

Well… what if elementary school children not only started sharing their private diaries, but were now expected to share their diaries? Let’s try writing from inside that reality:

I know Jennifer McMahon made up her diary entry about how much she misses her grandma. The tear smudges were way too neat and perfect. Anyway, everyone loved it. They photocopied it all over the bulletin boards and they even read it over the PA, and Jennifer got two extra brownies at lunch.

Try your own! You may find that you’ve just written your own Black Mirror episode.

13. Ekphrasis

Ekphrasis refers to a poem or story that is directly inspired by another piece of art. Ekphrastic literature often describes another piece of art, such as the classic “ Ode on a Grecian Urn ”:

O Attic shape! Fair attitude! with brede Of marble men and maidens overwrought, With forest branches and the trodden weed; Thou, silent form, dost tease us out of thought As doth eternity: Cold Pastoral! When old age shall this generation waste, Thou shalt remain, in midst of other woe Than ours, a friend to man, to whom thou say’st, “Beauty is truth, truth beauty,—that is all Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know.”

Ekphrasis can be considered a direct allusion because it borrows language and images from other artwork. For a great example of ekphrasis—as well as a submission opportunity for writers!—check out the monthly ekphrastic challenge that Rattle Poetry runs.

Ekphrasis writing exercise

Try your hand at ekphrasis by picking a piece of art you really enjoy and writing a poem or story based off of it. For example, you could write a story about Mona Lisa having a really bad day, or you could write a black-out poem created from the lyrics of your favorite song.

Or, try Rattle ‘s monthly ekphrastic challenge ! All art inspires other art, and by letting ekphrasis guide your next poem or story, you’re directly participating in a greater artistic and literary conversation.

14. Onomatopoeia

Flash! Bang! Wham! An onomatopoeia is a word that sounds like the noise it describes. Conveying both a playfulness of language and a serious representation of everyday sounds, onomatopoeias draw the reader into the sensations of the story itself.

Onomatopoeia words are most often used in poetry and in comic books, though they certainly show up in works of prose as well. Some onomatopoeias can be found in the dictionary, such as “murmur,” “gargle,” and “rumble,” “click,” and “vroom.” However, writers make up onomatopoeia words all the time, so while the word “ptoo” definitely sounds like a person spitting, you won’t find it in Merriam Webster’s.

Here’s an onomatopoeia example, from the poem “Honky Tonk in Cleveland, Ohio” by Carl Sandburg .

The onomatopoeias have been highlighted in bold. These common literary devices help make your writing fresh, interesting, and vivid, creating a sonic setting that the reader can fall into.

Learn more about onomatopoeias here!

Onomatopoeia Writing Exercise

Onomatopoeias are fun literary devices to use in your work, so have fun experimenting with them. In this exercise, take a moment to listen to the noises around you. Pay close attention to the whir of electronics, the fzzzzzzz of the heater, the rumbling of cars on the street, or the tintintintintin of rain on the roof.

Whatever you hear, convert those sounds into onomatopoeias. Make a list of those sounds. Try to use a mix of real words and made up ones: the way you represent noise in language can have a huge impact on your writing style .

Do this for 5 to 10 minutes, and when you have a comprehensive list of the sounds you hear, write a poem or short story that uses every single word you’ve written down.

If you built your political campaign off of wordplay, would you be punning for president?

A pun is a literary device that plays with the sounds and meanings of words to produce new, often humorous ideas. For example, let’s say you used too much butter in your recipe, and it ruined the dish. You might joke that you were “outside the margarine of error,” which is a play on the words “margin of error.”

Puns have a rich literary history, and famous writers like Shakespeare and Charles Dickens, as well as famous texts like The Bible, have used puns to add depth and gravity to their words.

Pun Writing Exercise

Jot down a word or phrase that you commonly use. If you’re not sure of what to write down, take a look at this list of English idioms . For example, I might borrow the phrase “blow off steam,” which means to let out your anger.

Take any saying, and play around with the sounds and meanings of the words in that saying. Then, incorporate the new phrase you’ve created into a sentence that allows for the double meaning of the phrase. Here’s two examples:

If I play with the sound of the words, I might come up with “blowing off stream.” Then, I would put that into a sentence that plays with the original meaning of the phrase. Like: “Did you hear about the river boat that got angry and went off course? It was blowing off stream.”

Or, I might play with the meanings of words. For example, I might take the word “blowing” literally, and write the following: “someone who cools down their tea when they’re angry is blowing off steam.”

Searching for ways to add double meanings and challenge the sounds of language will help you build fresh, exciting puns. Learn more about these common literary devices in our article on puns in literature .

16–27. Common Literary Devices in Poetry

The following 12 devices apply to both poetry and prose writers, but they appear most often in verse. Learn more about:

Metonymy/Synecdoche
Alliteration
Consonance/Assonance
Euphony/Cacophony

12 Literary Devices in Poetry: Identifying Poetic Devices

28–37. Common Literary Devices in Prose

The following 10 devices show up in verse, but are far more prevalent in prose. Learn more about:

Parallel Plot
Foreshadowing
In Media Res
Dramatic Irony

10 Important Literary Devices in Prose: Examples & Analysis

38–48. Repetition Literary Devices

Though they have uncommon names, these common literary devices are all forms of repetition.

Anadiplosis
Anaphora (prose)
Antanaclasis
Antimetabole
Antistrophe
Epanalepsis

Repetition Definition: Types of Repetition in Poetry and Prose

49–57. Dialogue Literary Devices

While these literary elements pertain primarily to dialogue, writers use euphemisms, idioms, and neologisms all the time in their work.

Colloquialism

How to Write Dialogue in a Story

58–67. Word Play Literary Devices

The following literary devices push language to the limits. Have fun with these!

Double Entendre
Malapropism
Paraprosdokian
Portmanteau

Word Play: Examples of a Play on Words

68–72. Parallelism Literary Devices

Parallelism is a stylistic device where a sentence is composed of equally weighted items. In essence, parallel structure allows form to echo content. Learn all about this essential stylistic literary device below.

Grammatical parallelism
Rhetorical parallelism
Synthetic parallelism
Antithetical parallelism
Synonymous parallelism

Parallelism Definition: Writing With Parallel Structure

73–112. Rhetorical Devices

Rhetorical devices are literary devices intended to persuade the reader of something. You might have heard of ethos, pathos, and logos, but do you know your aposiopesis from your hyperbaton?

Many literary devices can also be considered rhetorical devices. After all, a metaphor can convince you of something just as well as a syllogism. Nonetheless, the following 40 rhetorical/literary devices will sharpen your style, argumentation, and writing abilities.

Anacoluthon
Polysyndeton
Procatalepsis
Reductio ad Absurdum
Amplification
Antiphrasis
Overstatement
Adnomination
Aposiopesis
Circumlocution

Common Rhetorical Devices List: The Art of Argument

Master These Common Literary Devices With Writers.com!

The instructors at Writers.com are masters of literary devices. Through masterful instruction and personal expertise, our instructors can help you add, refine, and improve your literary devices, helping you craft great works of literature. Check out our upcoming courses , and join our writing community on Facebook !

Sean Glatch

97 comments.

Very nice the litrery divices

Brilliant litery devices

Love this article thank you

My stoonts confess to having trouble with “poultry”.

I love this literary term it help a lot

thank you this was life-changing

Broaden the vucablry it does

Very effectively and simply elaborated

I am trying think of the specific literary structure based on loosely assembled episodes set within the framework of a journey: it is not quixotic, peripatetic, itinerant…always on the tip of my tongue. Help!

enjoyed this (and learned some new things, too). HB

Wow, very educating and nice! Quite helpful

It is very nice visiting this site.

This was put together profoundly; thank you! As a writer, you can never learn enough. I will begin incorporating these into my stories. Words can’t express how helpful this was, and it was very efficiently put together as well, so kudos to that!

I’m so happy this article helped you, Jalen! Happy writing!

Thank you for this article! It really helped a lot! hands up to the good samaritan of understanding literature :D.

But I would have one last question: Would any sort of intertextuality be considered an Allusion? (Also when you refer to the author for example?)

Great questions! That’s a great way to think about allusion–any sort of intertextuality is indeed allusive. In fact, your use of “Good Samaritan” is an allusion to the Bible, even if you didn’t mean it to be!

And yes, because an allusion is anything referential, then a reference to another author also counts as an allusion. Of course, it can’t be directly stated: “She’s reading Shakespeare” doesn’t count, but “She worships the Immortal Bard” would be an allusion. (It’s also an allusion to the story of the same name by Isaac Asimov).

I’m glad to hear our article was helpful. Happy reading!

This will help! Thanks!

There is also Onomatopoeia, you can make the list 45

This article really helped me, the techniques are amazing, and the detail is incredible. Thank you for taking your time to write this!

I’m so glad this was helpful, Gwen! Happy writing!

this was useful 🙂 thanks

I love personification; you can do so much with it.

Hi, I’m really sorry but I am still confused with juxtaposition.

Hi Nate! Juxtaposition simply describes when contrasting ideas are placed next to each other. The effect of juxtaposition depends on the ideas that are being juxtaposed, but the point is to surprise or provoke the reader.

Take, for example, the opening line of Anna Karenina by Leo Tolstoy: “Happy families are all alike; every unhappy family is unhappy in its own way.”

Here, happy and unhappy families are being juxtaposed, and the contrast between the two is meant to provoke the reader and highlight the differences between those families. This juxtaposition sets up the novel as a whole, which often discusses themes of family and happiness (among many other themes).

I hope this helps!

very nice indeed

[…] 33 Common Literary Devices: Definitions, Examples, and Exercises […]

[…] 44 Common Literary Devices: Definitions, Examples, and Exercises […]

Thanks a lot for this it was really nice, good and fun to read it and it was really helpful for me as a student👔so please keep up with the good work 😉🌹💖😚😍💝💞💐

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Really helping. It’s a wonderful article

O mother Ghana, teach your children to change their negative attitudes towards you and what you have Please which literary device is this?

The device employed here is called apostrophe, which is when the writer addresses something not actually present for literary effect. Read more about it at this link .

This was very effective towards my writing and my family really enoyed seeing how much I had learnt. Thanks a lot.

so irony is literally sarcasm then

Sometimes! Sarcasm is a form of verbal irony.

Verbal irony occurs when a person intentionally says the opposite of what they mean. For example, you might say “I’m having the best day ever” after getting hit by a car.

Sarcasm is the use of verbal irony with the intent of mocking someone or something. You might say “Good going, genius” to someone who made a silly mistake, implying they’re not a genius at all.

Hope that makes sense!

Love this article! I used to struggle in my literature class, but after reading though this article, I certainly improved! Thanks! However, I have one question I really need your help with- Can I assume that a phrase which is the slightest bit plausible, a hyperbole? For example, a young elementary student who is exceptionally talented in basketball, to such an extent that he was quite famous nation-wide, said that he would be the next Lebron James although he was still very young. Would this be considered as a hyperbole? It would be great if you can help me with this.

That’s a great question! Although that claim is certainly exaggerated, it probably wouldn’t be hyperbole, because the child believes it to be true. A hyperbole occurs when the writer makes an exaggerated statement that they know to be false–e.g. “I’ve been waiting a billion years for this.”

Of course, if the child is self-aware and knows they’re just being cheeky, then it would be hyperbole, but I get the sense that the child genuinely believes they’re the next Lebron. 🙂

I’m glad this article has helped you in your literature class!

That makes a lot of sense, thanks for your reply!

Sorry, I have another question related to hyperbole. This is an extract from Animal Farm:

“Squealer was sent to make the necessary explanation to the others. ‘Comrades!’ he cried. ‘You do not imagine, I hope, that we pigs are doing this in a spirit of selfishness and privilege? Many of us actually dislike milk and apples. I dislike them myself. Our sole object in taking these things is to preserve our health. Milk and apples (this has been proved by Science, comrades) contain substances absolutely necessary to the well being of a pig. We pigs are brain-workers. The whole management and organisation of this farm depend on us. Day and night we are watching over your welfare. It is for your sake that we drink that milk and eat those apples. Do you know what would happen if we pigs failed in our duty? Jones would come back! Yes, Jones would come back! Surely, comrades,’ cried Squealer almost pleadingly, skipping from side to side and whisking his tail, ‘surely there is no one among you who wants to see Jones come back?’ Now if there was one thing that the animals were completely certain of, it was that they did not want Jones back. When it was put to them in this light, they had no more to say. The importance of keeping the pigs in good health was all too obvious.”

May I know if the speech made by Squealer in this extract is a hyperbole, gaslight (I’m not sure if this is a literary device), or some other device(s)? I know this is very wordy so you can take your time, no rush.

(I am doing a chapter analysis of chapter 3 in Animal Farm)

By the way, if you have written any other articles, please let me know! I would like to read them, thanks!

Take a look at writers.com/writing-tips for our archive on the craft of writing!

It wouldn’t be hyperbole, as a hyperbole is usually a word or phrase, not an entire passage of text. It’s better to analyze this passage in terms of its rhetorical strategies: Squealer is appealing to nebulous ideas like Science and the return of Jones–appeals to logos and pathos, despite there being a lack of evidence.

These strategies are logical fallacies: arguments that are easily disproven through reasoning, but which often resonate when people don’t employ critical thinking. Some of the fallacies here are “appeal to fear” and the “false dilemma” that Jones will return if the pigs don’t eat apples and milk (this is also a “red herring”).

I can’t provide much more help than this, as I don’t want to write your assignment for you, but I’m happy to point you in this direction, because understanding how logical fallacies are abused is essential to being an informed reader and citizen. 🙂

Ok, thanks for your reply!

Thank you! I am studying for an English final and this was a life saver!

My pleasure, Isla, good luck on your final!

I have a literature exam coming up,so this was much needed.Thank you!

Indeed this has been of great help to me.

I am so greatful of this website it really helps me a lot about myself and my family

This is awesome

This website is very useful to understand litery devices…

thanks it was helpful

Hi what is the name of the literary device where you name a character after their personality eg. Mr Knighley, Miss honey or Miss Trunchball? Thank you

That’s called an “aptronym”!

Mind blowing indeed. I had no idea there were so many names for patterns I hear people use with words. This lis is great as is. I am using it to probe further into what they are. I would only suggest that if the time ever allowed for someone to provide a brief detail or definition to each it would save a lot of time for many like me. None the less, I am grateful for the work provided. Thank you.

It awesome and amazing

It is personification as well as apostrophe, as Sean suggested. Ghana (the nation, I am assuming) is personified as a mother who is able to teach her citizens (children) to change their negative attitudes towards her.

Helped alot😊

This has truly helped me alot. Definitely great

Thanks so much, I never knew the list to this was as tall as everest, way back in school I didn’t take lit lessons serious and forgot everything til it came to mind to revise these devices And here google landed me, and thanks again so much.

This is awesome,it truly help me alot

It was great fun I had an amazing time doing the literary exercises and they helped so much. They really expanded my knowledge of the entire topic it was a wonderful thing to read, it will definitely help me with any English essay I have in the future.

It was very helpful. I must say that I have a better understanding of these literary devices. It was wonderful reading them.

I am overjoyed in knowing that we have different types of literary devices in literature. Thank you for this interesting article.

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The articles are well written and the concepts well explained to the understanding of a beginner. The simplified way the author explained every term makes the article not only an interesting read but also a good note for teaching.

The litrarery device is the best way to get a knowledge in education

I liked it and the English is understandable

Can Dystopia be considered a kind of literary device?

Thank you so much for this! It helped me get ready for my English exam.

Best of luck on your exam, Olive!

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[…] https://writers.com/common-literary-devices […]

Great definition and examples

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[…] 112 Common Literary Devices: Definitions, Examples, and Exercises […]

This was Uber helpful! BUT, I do wish that we got more examples, and I can see why you made it shorter. If you put examples for all of them, then this would be really long.

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Yah! That’s really the fact.

The English Renaissance

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“So long as men can breathe or eyes can see, / So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.” These two lines, the closing couplet of William Shakespeare’s Sonnet 18 (“Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?”), make one of the boldest boasts in poetry—about poetry. Centuries after the 1609 publication of the Sonnets , Shakespeare’s boast has never been proven wrong. As long as people have breathed (and spoken), seen (and read) poetry, they have returned to Shakespeare’s words and countless other poems from Shakespeare’s period in literary history. The English Renaissance, an era of cultural revival and poetic evolution starting in the late 15th century and spilling into the revolutionary years of the 17th century, stands as an early summit of poetry achievement, the era in which the modern sense of English poetry begins. The era’s influence—its enduring traditions, inspiring experiments, and seemingly unsurpassable highs—reverberates today.

The English Renaissance can be hard to date precisely, but for most scholars, it begins with the rise of the Tudor Dynasty (1485–1603) and reaches its cultural summit during the 45-year reign of the final Tudor monarch, the charismatic Elizabeth I (1558–1603). The period extends into the reigns of the Stuarts, King James I (1603–25) and perhaps that of Charles I (1625–49). The era seethed with incessant political tensions and—never separable from politics—religious rifts between Catholics and Protestants, especially the so-called Puritan sects that fought to reform the Church of England by removing any Catholic or “popish” practices. The Renaissance firmly ends once those tensions boil over into a distinctly different period of revolutionary change and a succession of nation-shaking events: the series of civil wars between Parliamentarians and Royalists, the execution of Charles I, the interregnum of republican-led governments, and the restoration of the monarchy in 1660.

A period lasting only a century or two but encompassing momentous change, the English Renaissance drastically shaped what being English meant, at home and abroad. As literacy increased and printing accelerated, the English language rose to a place of international prestige, and a distinctly English literature began to be braided from diverse cultural strands: Middle English poetry and medieval mystery plays; ballads, hymns, and popular songs; translations from classical literatures and contemporary literature from the Continent. As a nation and a fledgling empire, England emerged as an indomitable economic and military force, sending explorers, merchants, and colonists as far as Africa, Asia, and the so-called New World. At the epicenter of England’s explosive rise was the rapidly growing city of London, soon to become the largest city in Europe (and eventually the world). With its surging population, flourishing markets and ports, and thriving public theaters, London offered all the excitements of a modern metropolis—as well as all the dangers. The threat of bubonic plague loomed constantly over all of Europe, posing immense risks to a city as densely congested as London, where, every few years, a rampant outbreak forced theaters to close down for months at a time.

The term Renaissance , deriving from the French for “rebirth,” is a name retroactively bestowed by 19th-century thinkers, who distinguished the era by its revivals: a renewed interest in ancient languages, the recovery of antique manuscripts, and the return to the classical ideals underlying the era’s defining intellectual movement, Renaissance humanism. Greek and Roman models, renovated for modern purposes, were especially crucial for poets defining or defending their art. In the era’s pinnacle of literary criticism, The Defence of Poesy (1595), Philip Sidney borrowed his chief terms and questions from Greek philosophers born nearly two millennia earlier. “Poesy,” he proposes, “is an art of imitation, for so Aristotle termeth it in the word mimesis —that is to say, a representing, counterfeiting, or figuring forth—to speak metaphorically, a speaking picture—with this end, to teach and delight.” Against the charge, leveled in Plato’s Republic (c. 375 BCE), that all this poetic “counterfeiting” amounted to lying, Sidney mounted an entirely novel defense that flaunted a modern embrace of artifice and head-spinning fantasy. Poets couldn’t lie, because their allegorical and figurative inventions never pretended to be real or true—or so Sidney contended in an ingenious argumentative maneuver: “the poet, he nothing affirms, and therefore never lieth.”

Today we remember Sidney as an indisputably great poet and scholar of his time. To his contemporaries, however, he was far from a writer first: he was a nobleman, a courtier, a patron, a horseman, a paragon of knightly valor who died from battle injuries at age 31. All Renaissance poets were amateurs relative to the modern understanding of professional, career writers. Until late in the period, there was no system of royalties to reward publishing poetry, no author-owned copyright or freedom of the press to protect it, and only a small (if growing) literate audience to read it. (The first poet to collect his own work for publication was Ben Jonson , in 1616; the first to earn royalties was John Milton , who negotiated for earnings from the first edition of Paradise Lost in 1667.)

With little way to live solely on their publications, poets who needed work made their livings as playwrights, translators, essayists, scholars, secretaries, ambassadors, soldiers, politicians, physicians, composers, and clergymen—all occupations that took valuable time away from writing poetry. Poets of all classes found support and shelter—or simply an audience—in a handful of institutions. For Thomas Wyatt , Henry Howard , Sidney , and Walter Raleigh , the center of poetry was the royal court. There, noblemen and noblewomen, public servants, and charming socialites alike practiced poetry as an exquisite pastime, an imaginative competition that transformed the social arts of persuasion, diplomacy, and self-making into displays of rhetorical dexterity and verbal play. Writers of lower status, gravitating to the court hoping to acquire the financial support of a patron, offered prestige, dedications, and commissioned works in exchange for favors, employment, or steady salaries. Another institution was the church: several of the era’s best poets—such as John Donne and George Herbert —were clergymen, and many others found their calling writing devotional poetry and adapting scripture, psalms, and prayers into vernacular English. Still other poets found a home in London's first permanent public theaters, built in the late 16th century. Christopher Marlowe , William Shakespeare , and Ben Jonson conducted their audacious artistic experiments on stage in public entertainments of an unprecedentedly wide appeal. All these institutions posed immense barriers to women, even the most supremely educated and advantaged. Many of the period’s best-remembered women poets— Æemilia Lanyer , Mary Wroth , and Margaret Cavendish —came to prominence only in the 17th century.

The poetry springing from these competing centers was prismatically diverse. Just like our contemporary moment, it was volatilely susceptible to fashions and trends: first sonnet sequences and epyllions (or short epics ) were all the rage, then odes and satires, then dramatic monologues and country-house poems. In his Defence , Sidney lists major poetic “kinds” that readers then and now can still recognize: pastoral , elegiac , satiric , comic, tragic, lyric , heroic. But there is no one Renaissance style. If some poets dazzle readers with fluent sonic patterns, delightful ornaments, or one startling metaphor after the next, others adopt a plain style, achieving their judicious effects by withholding any rhetorical pyrotechnics—or by deftly hiding their rhetoric under unassuming surfaces.

The shapes and sizes of a Renaissance poem ran the gamut from Ben Jonson’s prickly, no-word-wasted epigrams ( “On Gut”: “Gut eats all day and lechers all the night; / So all his meat he tasteth over twice”) to Edmund Spenser’s gargantuan epic The Faerie Queene (1590, 1596); by his death, Spenser had completed six of a proposed 24 books and had still already produced one of the longest poems in the language. Far from a period of formal limitation or strictly codified rules, the Renaissance prized irreverent variation and brash gamesmanship. Even blank verse , or unrhymed iambic pentameter, which is quite possibly the most frequently appearing form in all of English poetry, was the result of a one-off experiment, a translation of Virgil’s Aeneid (c. 1540) by the young Earl of Surrey . A mainstay of English poetry and verse drama ever since, blank verse was, at the time of its invention, a quietly revolutionary easing of restrictions. Removing the necessities of rhyme or strict stanza length, blank verse allowed poets and playwrights to narrate, meditate, and soliloquize at any length through capacious five-stress lines that (it was believed) approximated the duration of a single breath.

Perhaps the most recognizable form in Renaissance poetry was the sonnet, an intricately rhymed, 14-line poem derived from the Italian sonetto (“little song”) and perfected by the 14th-century poet Petrarch . The first English sonnets were Petrarchan translations and imitations by Wyatt and Surrey, who inaugurated an English tradition of love poems featuring idealized but frustratingly distant beloveds and speakers working through their dizzyingly mixed feelings in impassioned, hyperbolic , and often oxymoronic language: “I fear and hope. I burn and freeze like ice,” writes Wyatt in his translation of Petrarch’s Rima 134. “I love another, and thus I hate myself.” Love may be the central subject of sonnets and Renaissance poetry generally, but it comes in a color wheel of varieties: transient and transcendental, holy and forbidden, lustful and flirtatious and platonic, heterosexual and what we today call queer. Later poets stretched the sonnet’s traditionally taut bounds to encompass less traditional feelings: devotional piety in John Donne’s Holy Sonnets , female desire in Wroth’s Pamphilia to Amphilanthus , political furor in John Milton’s “On the Late Massacre at Piedmont.”

When does Renaissance poetry end? It’s difficult to say precisely, in part because the lives of poets and their stellar achievements don’t neatly conform to the era’s political and social milestones. By Elizabeth’s death, many of the greatest Elizabethan poets were writing at or near their peak, and the century’s best-known schools of poets were already coalescing. Donne , George Herbert , Henry Vaughan , Andrew Marvell , and others became known as the Metaphysical poets, after the unfavorable nickname given by the 18th-century poet-critic Samuel Johnson . What Johnson disliked about the Metaphysical poets was precisely what modernists such as T.S. Eliot so admired: a blend of braininess and heart, willfully unmusical speech rhythms, and the outlandish, extravagantly developed metaphors that Johnson called conceits , in which “The most heterogeneous ideas are yoked by violence together.” (Consider Donne’s comparison, in “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning,” of two lovers’ souls to the “stiff twin” legs of a geometer’s compass, one moving, the other fixed, the two inextricably connected.) A later, contrasting school was the Cavalier poets, including Robert Herrick , Thomas Carew , and Richard Lovelace . All were Royalists, loyal to the king during the civil wars, and most were courtiers or otherwise linked to England’s ruling classes. Harmonizing classical moderation and cosmopolitan wit in measured verses, the Cavalier poets traced their gallant art to the urbane poet-playwright Ben Jonson ; some even labeled themselves “Sons of Ben.” As the English Renaissance closes, its many threads—religious and secular, classical and topical—entwine in the virtuosic early poems of John Milton , whose synthesizing mind produced Paradise Lost (1667, 1674), the Christian epic towering over English-language poetry for centuries to follow.

The following poets, poem guides, articles, and recordings traverse almost two centuries of poetry, from Wyatt to Milton, and the Renaissance era that readers and poets have long prized as a golden age of poetic achievement in English. This introduction offers one sketch of that period’s ceaseless innovations and tremendous expansions.

Sir Thomas Wyatt
Henry Howard, Earl Of Surrey
John Wilmot Earl of Rochester
Sir Philip Sidney
Sir Walter Raleigh
Edmund Spenser
Christopher Marlowe
William Shakespeare
Thomas Campion
Duchess of Newcastle Margaret Cavendish
George Herbert
Henry Vaughan
Andrew Marvell
Æmilia Lanyer
Lady Mary Wroth
Robert Herrick
Thomas Carew
George Chapman
John Skelton
Mary Sidney Herbert Countess of Pembroke
George Gascoigne
Chidiock Tichborne
Isabella Whitney
Thomas Bastard
Queen Elizabeth I
Samuel Daniel
Michael Drayton
Abraham Cowley
The Defence of Poesy
from Of Education
An Essay of Dramatic Poesy
Introduction to Paradise Lost
William Shakespeare: Selections
John Donne 101
Voice of Eros
Among Tyrants
Appeared in Poetry Magazine A Deeper Consideration
From the Archive: Harriet Monroe on Shakespeare
"Gabble Like a Thing Most Brutish"
Drowning in a Sea of Love
Keats and King Lear
George Herbert: “Love (III)”
John Donne: “A Valediction: of Weeping”
John Donne: “The Sun Rising”
Philip Sidney: Astrophil and Stella 63 (“O Grammar rules…”)
John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester: “Upon Nothing”
To His Coy Mistress
Sonnet 29: When, in disgrace with fortune and men’s eyes
My Picture Left in Scotland
Sonnet 106: When in the chronicle of wasted time
Song: To Celia
Our Revels Now Are Ended
My Galley, Charged With Forgetfulness
Love Looks Not with the Eyes
Hang There, My Verse
Folger Shakespeare Library
The British Library: Shakespeare and the Renaissance
Oxford Bodleian Library’s Digital Collections
Society for Renaissance Studies
The Spenser Archive
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A Brief History of the English Language: From Old English to Modern Days

Join us on a journey through the centuries as we trace the evolution of English from the Old and Middle periods to modern times.

What Is the English Language, and Where Did It Come From?

The different periods of the english language, the bottom line.

Today, English is one of the most common languages in the world, spoken by around 1.5 billion people globally. It is the official language of many countries, including the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.

English is also the lingua franca of international business and academia and is one of the six official languages of the United Nations.

Despite its widespread use, English is not without its challenges. Because it has borrowed words from so many other languages, it can be difficult to know how to spell or pronounce certain words. And, because there are so many different dialects of English, it can be hard to understand someone from a different region.

But, overall, English is a rich and flexible language that has adapted to the needs of a rapidly changing world. It is truly a global, dominant language – and one that shows no signs of slowing down. Join us as we guide you through the history of the English language.

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The English language is a West Germanic language that originated in England. It is the third most spoken language in the world after Mandarin Chinese and Spanish. English has been influenced by a number of other languages over the centuries, including Old Norse, Latin, French, and Dutch.

The earliest forms of English were spoken by the Anglo-Saxons, who settled in England in the 5th century. The Anglo-Saxons were a mix of Germanic tribes from Scandinavia and Germany. They brought with them their own language, which was called Old English.

The English language has gone through distinct periods throughout its history. Different aspects of the language have changed throughout time, such as grammar, vocabulary, spelling , etc.

The Old English period (5th-11th centuries), Middle English period (11th-15th centuries), and Modern English period (16th century to present) are the three main divisions in the history of the English language.

Let's take a closer look at each one:

Old English Period (500-1100)

The Old English period began in 449 AD with the arrival of three Germanic tribes from the Continent: the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. They settled in the south and east of Britain, which was then inhabited by the Celts. The Anglo-Saxons had their own language, called Old English, which was spoken from around the 5th century to the 11th century.

Old English was a Germanic language, and as such, it was very different from the Celtic languages spoken by the Britons. It was also a very different language from the English we speak today. It was a highly inflected language, meaning that words could change their form depending on how they were being used in a sentence.

There are four known dialects of the Old English language:

Northumbrian in northern England and southeastern Scotland,
Mercian in central England,
Kentish in southeastern England,
West Saxon in southern and southwestern England.

Old English grammar also had a complex system, with five main cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, instrumental), three genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter), and two numbers (singular and plural).

The Anglo-Saxons also had their own alphabet, which was known as the futhorc . The futhorc consisted of 24 letters, most of which were named after rune symbols. However, they also borrowed the Roman alphabet and eventually started using that instead.

The vocabulary was also quite different, with many words being borrowed from other languages such as Latin, French, and Old Norse. The first account of Anglo-Saxon England ever written is from 731 AD – a document known as the Venerable Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People , which remains the single most valuable source from this period.

Another one of the most famous examples of Old English literature is the epic poem Beowulf , which was written sometime between the 8th and 11th centuries. By the end of the Old English period at the close of the 11th century, West Saxon dominated, resulting in most of the surviving documents from this period being written in the West Saxon dialect.

The Old English period was a time of great change for Britain. In 1066, the Normans invaded England and conquered the Anglo-Saxons. The Normans were originally Viking settlers from Scandinavia who had settled in France in the 10th century. They spoke a form of French, which was the language of the ruling class in England after the Norman Conquest.

The Old English period came to an end in 1066 with the Norman Conquest. However, Old English continued to be spoken in some parts of England until the 12th century. After that, it was replaced by Middle English.

Middle English Period (1100-1500)

The second stage of the English language is known as the Middle English period , which was spoken from around the 12th century to the late 15th century. As mentioned above, Middle English emerged after the Norman Conquest of 1066, when the Normans conquered England.

As a result of the Norman Conquest, French became the language of the ruling class, while English was spoken by the lower classes. This led to a number of changes in the English language, including a reduction in the number of inflections and grammatical rules.

Middle English is often divided into two periods: Early Middle English (11th-13th centuries) and Late Middle English (14th-15th centuries).

Early Middle English (1100-1300)

The Early Middle English period began in 1066 with the Norman Conquest and was greatly influenced by French, as the Normans brought with them many French words that began to replace their Old English equivalents. This process is known as Normanisation.

One of the most noticeable changes was in the vocabulary of law and government. Many Old English words related to these concepts were replaced by their French equivalents. For example, the Old English word for a king was cyning or cyng , which was replaced by the Norman word we use today, king .

The Norman Conquest also affected the grammar of Old English. The inflectional system began to break down, and words started to lose their endings. This Scandinavian influence made the English vocabulary simpler and more regular.

Late Middle English (1300-1500)

The Late Middle English period began in the 14th century and lasted until the 15th century. During this time, the English language was further influenced by French.

However, the Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453) between England and France meant that English was used more and more in official documents. This helped to standardize the language and make it more uniform.

One of the most famous examples of Middle English literature is The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer, which was written in the late 14th century. Chaucer was the first major writer in English, and he e helped to standardize the language even further. For this reason, Middle English is also frequently referred to as Chaucerian English.

French influence can also be seen in the vocabulary, with many French loanwords being introduced into English during this time. Middle English was also influenced by the introduction of Christianity, with many religious terms being borrowed from Latin.

Modern English Period (1500-present)

After Old and Middle English comes the third stage of the English language, known as Modern English , which began in the 16th century and continues to the present day.

The Early Modern English period, or Early New English, emerged after the introduction of the printing press in England in 1476, which meant that books could be mass-produced, and more people learned to read and write. As a result, the standardization of English continued.

The Renaissance (14th-17th centuries) saw a rediscovery of classical learning, which had a significant impact on English literature. During this time, the English language also borrowed many Greek and Latin words. The first English dictionary , A Table Alphabeticall of Hard Words , was published in 1604.

The King James Bible , which was first published in 1611, also had a significant impact on the development of Early Modern English. The Bible was translated into English from Latin and Greek, introducing many new words into the language.

The rise of the British Empire (16th-20th centuries) also had a significant impact on the English language. English became the language of commerce, science, and politics, and was spread around the world by British colonists. This led to the development of many different varieties of English, known as dialects.

One of the most famous examples of Early Modern English literature is William Shakespeare's play Romeo and Juliet , which was first performed in 1597. To this day, William Shakespeare is considered the greatest writer in the English language.

The final stage of the English language is known as Modern English , which has been spoken from around the 19th century to the present day. Modern English has its roots in Early Modern English, but it has undergone several changes since then.

The most significant change occurred in the 20th century, with the introduction of mass media and technology. For example, new words have been created to keep up with changing technology, and old words have fallen out of use. However, the core grammar and vocabulary of the language have remained relatively stable.

Today, English is spoken by an estimated 1.5 billion people around the world, making it one of the most widely spoken languages in the world. It is the official language of many countries, including the United Kingdom, the United States, and Australia. English is also the language of international communication and is used in business, education, and tourism.

English is a fascinating language that has evolved over the centuries, and today it is one of the most commonly spoken languages in the world. The English language has its roots in Anglo-Saxon, a West Germanic language spoken by the Anglo-Saxons who settled in Britain in the 5th century.

The earliest form of English was known as Old English, which was spoken until around the 11th century. Middle English emerged after the Norman Conquest of 1066, and it was spoken until the late 15th century. Modern English began to develop in the 16th century, and it has continued to evolve since then.

If you want to expand your English vocabulary with new, relevant words, make sure to download our Langster app , and learn English with stories! Have fun!

Ellis is a seasoned polyglot and one of the creative minds behind Langster Blog, where she shares effective language learning strategies and insights from her own journey mastering the four languages. Ellis strives to empower learners globally to embrace new languages with confidence and curiosity. Off the blog, she immerses herself in exploring diverse cultures through cinema and contemporary fiction, further fueling her passion for language and connection.

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> The Cambridge History of the English Language
> LITERARY LANGUAGE

Book contents

Frontmatter
1 INTRODUCTION
2 THE PLACE OF ENGLISH IN GERMANIC AND INDO-EUROPEAN
3 PHONOLOGY AND MORPHOLOGY
5 SEMANTICS AND VOCABULARY
6 OLD ENGLISH DIALECTS
7 ONOMASTICS
8 LITERARY LANGUAGE
Glossary of linguistic terms
Bibliography
The Cambridge History of the English Language

8 - LITERARY LANGUAGE

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 28 March 2008

Introduction

The term literary language can be used in various senses, reflecting the different meanings of the word literature, and the area of discourse usefully designated by it will vary from one period to another. For the period up to 1100 there is little value in applying the broad and etymological sense of the word ‘literary’ or ‘literature’, meaning ‘all that is written down’ in contradistinction to oral discourse: to do so risks, on the one hand, excluding poetry, since the special language of verse was largely developed without benefit of writing and a number of the surviving poems probably originated in oral conditions; and on the other hand, including too much to be useful, since virtually all our evidence for the language of the time, at all levels, comes from written documents. At the other extreme, a more restricted definition of literature as imaginative composition would be in danger of excluding much that is worth attention and including some texts of little linguistic or literary interest because they happen to deal with imaginary fictions. I use the term ‘literary language’ here to cover the language of all verse and of the more sustained and ambitious writing in prose, especially those texts which reveal a concern with the selection and use of language.

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LITERARY LANGUAGE
By Malcolm R. Godden
Edited by Richard M. Hogg , University of Manchester
Book: The Cambridge History of the English Language
Online publication: 28 March 2008
Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521264747.009

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English Literature | Definition & History

Sasha Blakeley has a Bachelor's in English Literature from McGill University and a TEFL certification. She has been teaching English in Canada and Taiwan for seven years.

Ann has taught university level Film classes and has a Master's Degree in Cinema Studies.

Is there a single definition of literature?

Generally speaking, literature refers to all books, poems, essays, and short stories. However, it can also be used to refer specifically to works of greater artistic merit. The term is flexible and can be applied in various ways.

What is the simple definition of literature?

Literature is a general term for written works, including novels, short stories, poems, and essays. The study of English literature looks at all of the most important works written in English over the centuries.

What is the brief history of literature?

English literature has developed over more than a thousand years. The earliest known work of English literature is the Old English poem Beowulf . Since then, literature has developed and diversified enormously.

What is english literature, history of english literature, lesson summary.

What is the meaning of ''literature?'' English literature is a broad term for all English-language literature that has been produced throughout history. Literature that is typically read in translation into English is not considered English literature. English literature dates back centuries and is very important to study for several reasons. Many of the most famous works in the history of English literature deal with universal themes and can be helpful for those wishing to understand historical time periods and the development of literature and poetry over time.

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0:02 What Is English Literature?
0:42 Why Is Studying…
1:29 History of English Literature
6:21 Lesson Summary

Today, English literature is one of the most popular college courses around the world. An English literature definition includes writers from Britain, Ireland, America, Canada, and many other regions where English is spoken. Because English literature dates back so many centuries, it can be helpful to look at different eras to get a sense of how literature has evolved over time and what the most important works of each era were. The dates given below are not set in stone but are instead guidelines that can help differentiate time periods.

Old English Literature (700-1150 CE)

Before English evolved into its modern form, it was actually so different that contemporary English speakers could not possibly understand it. This language is called Old English , and it is in Old English that the earliest works of English literature were written. The earliest surviving work of English literature is a poem called Beowulf that was probably first written in around 700, though it probably existed as an oral story for much longer. Old English writing looks like this:

Hwæt. We Gardena in geardagum, þeodcyninga, þrym gefrunon, hu ða æþelingas ellen fremedon.

Poet Seamus Heaney translated these lines as:

So. The Spear-Danes in days gone by and the kings who ruled them had courage and greatness. We have heard of those princes' heroic campaigns.

Because literacy rates were low and stories were often passed down orally, Beowulf 's lines are alliterative to make them more memorable. It is unknown who wrote Beowulf , but it is thought that the earliest surviving version was either written or heavily edited by some monks. Other notable works of Old English literature include Caedmon's Hymn and The Dream of the Rood .

Middle English Literature (1150-1485)

Geoffrey Chaucer wrote in Middle English

Middle English was a midway point between Old English and contemporary English. While it is still quite different from the English that most people are familiar with today, it is more or less readable for contemporary English speakers. At this point in Britain, the common people were speaking Middle English, but the nobility mostly spoke French. For that reason, as well as low literacy rates, few works of English literature were produced for some time. The most notable author of this time period is Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1340-1400). Chaucer was a poet who defied tradition by writing his works in Middle English instead of French. His magnum opus was The Canterbury Tales , a series of stories told in verse about a group of people on a pilgrimage together. The stories are at once amusing and moralizing. His writing looked like this:

Experience, though noon auctoritee Were in this world, were right y-nough to me To speke of wo that is in mariage

This is the beginning of one of Chaucer's most famous stories: The Wife of Bath's Tale . In addition to Chaucer, another Middle English writer of note is Thomas Malory, who wrote Le Morte d'Arthur in 1485. This was a retelling of the myth of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table . As with Old English works, some Middle English works are anonymous or survive only in fragments.

English Renaissance Literature (1485-1660)

The term ''Renaissance'' means ''revival'' or ''rebirth.'' It was a movement that swept across Europe over the course of several centuries. It was a time of social change where people's lives were altered by urbanization and agricultural advances. By far the most influential writer of this period is William Shakespeare (1564-1616). Shakespeare authored at least 38 plays and 154 sonnets during his career, many of which are still widely read, studied, and performed around the world today. The influence that Shakespeare had on English literature and the world, in general, was profound and essentially unprecedented. His famous plays include Macbeth , Romeo and Juliet , and Much Ado About Nothing .

While Shakespeare was extremely influential, there were many other English Renaissance writers of note, including:

Sir Thomas Wyatt (1503-1542), a poet
John Donne (1572-1631), a poet
Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593), a playwright
Edmund Spenser (1552-1599), a poet
Francis Bacon (1561-1626), a philosopher

Many of the major forms of English poetry and literature were developed during this time and all of these writers are still widely read today.

English Restoration Literature (1660-1750)

In 1649, the English monarchy was abolished and the country was ruled by Oliver Cromwell, who held the title of Lord Protector. In 1660, the monarchy was re-established, leading to a period in English history called the Restoration . Because of the political instability in England at this time, some of the most popular literature was written as a form of protest. A major writer of this era was the Irish satirist Jonathan Swift (1667-1745), who frequently criticized elements of European society in his works. His satirical essay A Modest Proposal and his famous novel Gulliver's Travels were both popular when they were first published and they are still studied today. Other writers from this time include:

John Milton (1608-1674), a poet who spanned the Renaissance and Restoration periods
John Dryden (1631-1700), a poet and England's first Poet Laureate
Samuel Pepys (1633-1703), a diarist
Aphra Behn (1640-1689), a playwright
Alexander Pope (1688-1744), a poet
Daniel Defoe (c. 1660-1731), a novelist

Aphra Behn was a playwright in the Restoration era

Samuel Pepys is particularly interesting because as a diarist, he had the opportunity to directly record his experiences during the Great Fire of London . This has proved to be an extremely useful primary source for historians who want to know exactly what the fire was like, as well as other details of daily life that other people might not have thought to record.

Romantic Literature (1750-1837)

Romanticism was a literary movement that worked to deconstruct existing literary conventions to create a new kind of literature . The Romantics valued individual expression, heightened emotions, and an appreciation for the beautiful and the sublime. Romantic literature sometimes had neoclassical elements and often featured an appreciation for the natural world. As a movement, Romanticism was most prominent in England and later in America. It was also an artistic and social movement. The Romantics tended to be supportive of popular freedom movements like the French Revolution. Important Romantics include:

Writer	Notable Works
William Wordsworth (1770-1850)	''I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud'' and ''Lines Composed a Few Miles above Tintern Abbey, On Revisiting the Banks of the Wye during a Tour. July 13, 1798''
Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834)	''Kubla Khan'' and ''The Eolian Harp''
William Blake (1757-1827)	and
George Gordon, Lord Byron (1788-1824)	and ''She Walks in Beauty''
John Keats (1795-1821)	, , and ''When I Have Fears that I May Cease to Be''
Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley (1797-1851)	and
Percy Shelley (1792-1822)	''Ozymandias'' and ''Ode to the West Wind''

Mary Shelley's Frankenstein is generally considered the first work of science fiction and a major literary accomplishment. Many Romantic poets, including Mary's husband Percy, unfortunately, died young, either due to illness or accident. Their poetry is often tinged with an awareness of mortality.

Victorian Literature (1837-1901)

Queen Victoria reigned from 1837 to 1901 and her reign was a particularly notable time for English history. Rapid social changes and relative political stability characterized the era. People were living in the heart of the Industrial Revolution, which strongly influenced literature. One of the most important writers of the period was Charles Dickens (1812-1870), whose long novels exemplify life in the Victorian era, particularly because of his focus on poverty and social class in novels like David Copperfield and Oliver Twist . Other writers of note include:

Oscar Wilde (1854-1900), a playwright and novelist
Emily Brontë (1818-1848), a novelist
Charlotte Brontë (1816-1855), a novelist
George Eliot (1819-1880), a novelist
Lewis Carroll (1832-1898), a novelist
Alfred, Lord Tennyson (1809-1892), a poet
Robert Browning (1812-1889), a poet

While all of these writers were important, it is unlikely that any had more of an impact on Victorian society than Oscar Wilde. Known for his witty plays and for writing The Picture of Dorian Gray , Wilde was also famous for having an extremely heavily publicized trial and subsequent imprisonment that changed social mores in Victorian society.

Oscar Wilde was a highly influential Victorian writer

Twentieth-Century English Literature (1900-1999)

Twentieth-century literature was extremely varied and cannot truly be summed up in only a paragraph or two. The twentieth century featured colonialism on the part of the British Empire, which influenced writers like Joseph Conrad (1857-1924), who wrote Heart of Darkness . Another essential literary movement from this time period was Modernism, which was characterized by a rejection of convention and an exploration of the human psyche. Major Modernist writers include:

James Joyce (1882-1941)
T.S. Eliot (1888-1965)
Ezra Pound (1885-1972)
Virginia Woolf (1882-1941)
Franz Kafka (1883-1924)

The twentieth century saw more books published than any previous century, many of which joined the canon of English literature. Hundreds of writers left their mark on the century and their influence is still being felt today.

Twenty-first Century English Literature (2000-present)

Twenty-first-century literature is, of course, still being written. Many writers today are responding to contemporary political injustices, climate change, and technological changes. Some of the most influential writers and works of the twenty-first century so far include:

Ursula K. Le Guin (1929-2018), a twentieth and twenty-first-century novelist
Zadie Smith (b. 1975), a novelist and essayist
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie (b. 1977), a novelist
Hilary Mantel (b. 1952), a novelist
Junot Díaz (b. 1968), a novelist and essayist
Elena Ferrante (b. 1943), a novelist
Ocean Vuong (b. 1988), a poet and novelist

The twenty-first century has already seen major changes in English literature. Writers from more countries and backgrounds than ever before are contributing to the canon and more and more innovative genres are being created and developed all of the time.

English literature is a term for all literature written in English, including Old English and Middle English. Writers from countries beyond England are also included in English literature, provided they write in English. The earliest written work that is generally considered English literature is the poem Beowulf , making English literature more than a thousand years old. Some major periods of English literature include:

Old English (700-1150 CE), mostly anonymous writers
Middle English (1150-1485), including Geoffrey Chaucer
Renaissance (1485-1660), meaning 'revival' or 'rebirth', including Shakespeare
Restoration (1660-1750), including Daniel Defoe
Romantic (1750-1837), including Mary Shelley
Victorian (1837-1901), including Oscar Wilde
Twentieth century (1900-1999), including James Joyce
Twenty-first century (2000-present), including Zadie Smith

Studying English literature is particularly important because it can teach people about the past while also dealing with universal themes and values.

Video Transcript

What is english literature.

English literature is the study of literature written in the English language. The writers do not necessarily have to be from England but can be from all over the world. It includes some of history's most famous writers: James Joyce (Ireland), William Shakespeare (England), Mark Twain (United States), Arthur Conan Doyle (Scotland), Dylan Thomas (Wales), and Vladimir Nabokov (Russia), just to name a few.

English literature dates back more than five centuries. It represents writers not only from different parts of the world and time periods, but it covers every major genre and style of writing as well.

Why Is Studying English Literature Important?

Okay, so there are about a thousand things for a teenager, or even a 50-year-old adult, to do in today's wired, 500-channel cable television world. We can watch feature films on our phones or hop in a car and drive a hundred miles away in just a couple of hours. That's not how things used to be. People used to read literature for entertainment because even just 50 years ago, there were simply not many readily available entertainment options.

Despite these other entertainment options, English literature remains popular. It is time-tested and well-worn for a reason. English literature deals with universal themes and values that help us grow in our everyday lives. It also teaches us about different time periods and faraway places.

It's difficult to discuss such a broad range of work in just a short lesson, so let's take a look at the first three major periods of English literature.

Some scholars would argue that the Middle English period started as early as the 1100s. However, because the English language did not evolve into a dialect we could understand today until about the 12th century, 1150 seems like a better place to start.

By far, the most popular and influential writer during this period was Geoffrey Chaucer . He was considered the first great English poet. His works encompassed a variety of tones, styles, and genres. One of his most renowned works, The Canterbury Tales , is an epic story of pilgrims playfully pitted against each other in a storytelling contest. Each pilgrim's tale takes on a narrative of its own. The poem is structured as a frame narrative , or 'story within a story:' a literary device that would go on to become one of the most popular storytelling techniques in the history of literature.

In the middle part of 12th century, there was a revival in alliterative poetry , or poetry that uses alliteration as its key literary device. Perhaps the most popular example was Pearl, Purity and Patience , a grouping of poems written by an unknown poet. A fourth work found in the same manuscript and presumed to be of the same author, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight , is one of the finest Arthurian romances from this time period. Towards the end of the 14th century, a philosopher named John Wycliffe translated the first complete vernacular (common people's dialect) English version of the Bible.

Other popular poets from this period include William Langland, Sir Thomas Malory, and John Gower.

16th Century Renaissance (1485-1603)

First off, the word 'renaissance' means revival or rebirth. The Renaissance period marks the true start of a major artistic movement throughout Europe. We can attribute this rebirth in part to the invention of the printing press, which took the written word to a new mass-produced territory. The written word became king of the English-speaking world during this era.

Without a doubt, the most famous writer from this time period, if not the most famous writer ever, was William Shakespeare. Shakespeare was both a poet and a playwright who penned over 30 plays and 150 sonnets, many of which we have read in books, seen on stage, and watched in movie theaters. Of course, these include classics including Romeo and Juliet , King Lear , and Hamlet . If you're wondering what defines a great artist, just think about the test of time: Shakespeare died in 1616, and we're still adapting his stage plays and reading his words almost 400 years later.

This period also brought us a very renowned playwright named John Donne . He was a noted satirist who wrote poems both religious and romantic. Donne, who is considered the head metaphysical poet (a highly intellectual, imagery-rich style of writing), is also known for his elaborate use of the metaphor , and his work often featured great irony and wit.

Other popular writers from this period include Thomas Nashe, Henry VIII, Thomas Kyd, Sir Thomas Wyatt, and Sir Thomas More.

English Literature Restoration (1660-1785)

The 1600s and 1700s continued to be a great time for literary works. This time period is known for its intellectual humor and traditional values. We get a good look at one of finest examples of journalistic fiction from Daniel Defoe's A Journal of the Plague Year . Daniel Defoe is considered the earliest literary journalist of the English language. The novel is a fictionalized account of a man's life during the Great Plague in London. Defoe uses an incredible range of imagery and description that gives the novel a feeling of realism.

Finally, we have Alexander Pope , a very famous English poet known for satire and his translation of The Iliad , an epic poem by the ancient Greek poet Homer. Pope was such a dominant figure during this era that the first part of the 18th century is often called the Age of Pope. He is considered one of the most quoted writers in history. He was also not shy about his thoughts on religion and politics. Here's one of his most famous quotes that you may have heard of: 'A little learning is a dangerous thing.'

Other popular writers from this period include John Dryden, John Gay, Joseph Addison, and Jonathan Swift.

To be classified as English literature , the work just needs to be written in the English language. Many of the great English classics are hundreds of years old, yet they are still being read today. In fact, many of the stories are still being adapted for the stage and the big screen. A good story is timeless, and English literature has millions of them!

Learning Outcomes

After you've completed this lesson, you should be able to:

Define English literature
Recall the importance of studying English literature and its impact today
Summarize the historical periods of English literature
Identify examples of some of the most famous English literature authors and their works

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English Language and Literature

Admissions Requirements
Fees and Funding
Studying at Oxford

Course overview

UCAS code: Q300 Entrance requirements: AAA Course duration: 3 years (BA)

Subject requirements

Required subjects: English Literature or English Language and Literature Recommended subjects: Not applicable Helpful subjects: A language, History

Other course requirements

Admissions tests: None Written Work: One piece

Admissions statistics*

Interviewed: 66% Successful: 23% Intake: 220 *3-year average 2021-23

Tel: +44 (0) 1865 271055 Email: [email protected]

Unistats information for this course can be found at the bottom of the page

Please note that there may be no data available if the number of course participants is very small.

About the course

The English Language and Literature course at Oxford is one of the broadest in the country, giving you the chance to study writing in English from its origins in Anglo-Saxon England to the present.

As well as British literature, you can study works written in English from other parts of the world, and some originally written in other languages, allowing you to think about literature in English in multilingual and global contexts across time.

The course allows you a considerable degree of choice, both in developing your personal interests across core papers, and in choosing a topic for your dissertation and for a special option in your final year.

Options have included:

Literature and revolution
Postcolonial literature
Writing lives
Film criticism.

Studying literature at Oxford involves the development of sophisticated reading skills and of an ability to place literary texts in their wider intellectual and historical contexts. It also requires you to:

consider the critical processes by which you analyse and judge
learn about literary form and technique
evaluate various approaches to literary criticism and theory
study the development of the English language.

The Oxford English Faculty is the largest English department in Britain. Students are taught in tutorials by an active scholar in their field, many of whom also give lectures to all students in the English Faculty. You will therefore have the opportunity to learn from a wide range of specialist teachers.

Library provision for English at Oxford is exceptionally good. All students have access to the Bodleian Library (with its extensive manuscript collection), the English Faculty Library, their own college libraries and a wide range of electronic resources.

In your first year, you will be introduced to the conceptual and technical tools used in the study of language and literature, and to a wide range of different critical approaches. At the same time, you will be doing tutorial work on early medieval literature, Victorian literature and literature from 1910 to the present.

In your second and third years, you will extend your study of English literary history in four more period papers ranging from late medieval literature to Romanticism. These papers are assessed by three-hour written examinations at the end of your third year. You will also produce:

a portfolio of three essays on Shakespeare, on topics of your choice
an extended essay (or occasionally an examination) relating to a special options paper, chosen from a list of around 25 courses
and an 8,000-word dissertation on a subject of your choice.

Submitted work will constitute almost half of the final assessment for most students.

Alternatively, in the second and third years, you can choose to follow our specialist course in Medieval Literature and Language, with papers covering literature in English from 650-1550 along with the history of the English language up to 1800, with a further paper either on Shakespeare or on manuscript and print culture. Students on this course also take a special options paper and submit a dissertation on a topic of their choice.

Astrophoria Foundation Year

If you’re interested in studying English but your personal or educational circumstances have meant you are unlikely to achieve the grades typically required for Oxford courses, then choosing to apply for English with a Foundation Year might be the course for you.

Visit our Foundation Year course pages for more details.

'The real value of Oxford’s English course is its sheer scope, stretching from Beowulf to Virginia Woolf and beyond. Being guided through all the different ages of English literature means you explore periods and styles you may otherwise have rejected out of hand, discover brand new tastes, and even more levels to your love of literature! The ability to sit and read some of the greatest works of prose, poetry and performance in a city steeped in its own near-mythological wealth of history and beautiful architecture gives you a sense of being lost in your own fantasy, your own realm of turrets, tutors and texts.'

'I never really had any doubt I wanted to study English. The course here is so broad, I feel like I'm learning about things I would never have thought to do on my own. The best thing is probably the amount of freedom we get; we choose which lectures we want to go to, which texts to focus on, and mostly even choose our own essay questions. It means from the start you really get to explore your own interests, but your tutors make sure you're still preparing for broader exam questions through these.'

'[The best thing about the course was] the freedom I had to direct my own studies, from choosing the books I wanted to write on, to developing my own specific area of focus within them. The course was a completely different learning experience from school because I was given the freedom to really work out what I thought about texts without having to worry about meeting assessment objectives or covering key themes. I've left Oxford knowing that I've really explored why I love literature so much and that I've contributed something individual to the study of literature, even if it ends up being just read by me.'

Unistats information

Discover Uni course data provides applicants with Unistats statistics about undergraduate life at Oxford for a particular undergraduate course.

Please select 'see course data' to view the full Unistats data for English Language and Literature.

Visit the Studying at Oxford section of this page for a more general insight into what studying here is likely to be like.

A typical week

Although details of practice vary from college to college, most students will have one or two tutorials (usually two students and a tutor) and one or two classes (in groups of around 8 to 10) each week. A tutorial usually involves discussion of an essay, which you will have produced based on your own reading and research that week. You will normally be expected to produce between eight and twelve pieces of written work each term. Most students will also attend several lectures each week.

Tutorials are usually 2-3 students and a tutor. Class sizes may vary depending on the options you choose. In college, there would usually be 6-12 students and in the department there would usually be no more than 15 students. There might be specific circumstances in which some classes contain around 20 students.

Most tutorials, classes, and lectures are delivered by staff who are tutors in their subject. Many are world-leading experts with years of experience in teaching and research. Some teaching may also be delivered by postgraduate students who are usually studying at doctoral level.

To find out more about how our teaching year is structured, visit our Academic Year page.

Course structure


Four papers are taken:	Three written papers form the First University Examination, together with a submitted portfolio of two essays for Introduction to English language and literature. All exams must be passed, but marks do not count towards the final degree.


1800


More information on current options is available on the .	All period papers will be examined by final written examinations at the end of the third year. Most students will submit one extended essay for Special options, due in at the end of the first term; dissertation and portfolio for Shakespeare/The material text, due during the second term.

The content and format of this course may change in some circumstances. Read further information about potential course changes .

Academic Requirements

	Requirement
	AAA
	AA/AAB
	38 (including core points) with 666 at HL
	View information on , and .

Wherever possible, your grades are considered in the context in which they have been achieved.

Read further information on how we use contextual data .

Subject requirements

	Candidates are expected to have English Literature, or English Language and Literature to A-level, Advanced Higher, Higher Level in the IB or any other equivalent.
	A language or History can be helpful to students in completing this course, although they are not required for admission.

If a practical component forms part of any of your science A‐levels used to meet your offer, we expect you to pass it.

If English is not your first language you may also need to meet our English language requirements .

Please note that creative writing qualifications, regardless of awarding body, are not accepted and will not help you meet the academic requirements for this course.

If your personal or educational circumstances have meant you are unlikely to achieve the grades listed above for undergraduate study, but you still have a strong interest in the subject, then applying for English with a Foundation Year might be right for you.

Visit the Foundation Year course pages for more details of academic requirements and eligibility.

All candidates must follow the application procedure as shown on our Applying to Oxford pages.

The following information gives specific details for students applying for this course.

Admissions test

You do not need to take a written test as part of an application for this course.

Written work

	As part of your application, you must send us a sample of your written work. If you are at school or college, this essay should be: You are welcome to send us any English Literature work that meets the requirements listed above. This could be a timed essay, a critical commentary, or an excerpt of your coursework or EPQ. Work can be handwritten or typed – either is fine. When you send us your work, please be sure to include a cover sheet. On the cover sheet you should describe the circumstances under which your work was produced. You and your teacher must both fill in this form. Tutors will take into account the information you give on your cover sheet when assessing your work. You’re welcome to submit an excerpt from a longer piece if you think it represents your best work. If so, please add a note on the cover sheet to explain the context of the excerpt. If you are a post-qualification or mature applicant, you can decide (although it is not necessary) to produce a new piece of work, as you may want to give a clearer reflection of your current abilities. We understand that this means it may not be possible to have this piece of work marked, so please use the cover sheet to detail the circumstances in which the work was produced. For full guidance on , please visit the English website.
	10 November 2024

As part of your application, you must send us a sample of your written work. If you are at school or college, this essay should be:

You are welcome to send us any English Literature work that meets the requirements listed above. This could be a timed essay, a critical commentary, or an excerpt of your coursework or EPQ. Work can be handwritten or typed – either is fine.

When you send us your work, please be sure to include a cover sheet. On the cover sheet you should describe the circumstances under which your work was produced. You and your teacher must both fill in this form. Tutors will take into account the information you give on your cover sheet when assessing your work.

You’re welcome to submit an excerpt from a longer piece if you think it represents your best work. If so, please add a note on the cover sheet to explain the context of the excerpt.

If you are a post-qualification or mature applicant, you can decide (although it is not necessary) to produce a new piece of work, as you may want to give a clearer reflection of your current abilities. We understand that this means it may not be possible to have this piece of work marked, so please use the cover sheet to detail the circumstances in which the work was produced.

For full guidance on , please visit the English website.

10 November 2024

Visit our written work page for general guidance and to download the cover sheet.

What are tutors looking for?

Successful candidates will give evidence of wide, engaged, and thoughtful reading.

Written work helps us to gauge your analytical skills and your writing.

Interviews allow us to explore your enthusiasm for literature, your response to new ideas and information and your capacity for independent thought. We are not looking for any particular reading, or particular answers: we are interested in your ideas and in how you engage with literature.

Shortlisted candidates may also be asked to discuss an unseen piece of prose or verse given to you before or in the interview. Tutors appreciate that you may be nervous, and will try to put you at ease.

Visit the English website for more detail on the selection criteria for this course.

Our students go on to succeed in a very wide range of careers: the analytical and communication skills that develop during this course equip them for many different paths.

Popular careers and fields include:

advertising
librarianship
public relations
further research
management consultancy

The Telling Our Stories Better project ran throughout 2021, bringing together alumni and current students of the English Faculty to talk about their time at Oxford and their career paths. Led by Dr Sophie Ratcliffe and Dr Ushashi Dasgupta , and managed by Dr Dominique Gracia, Stories aims to challenge misconceptions about who studies English and the career paths they take.

Note: These annual fees are for full-time students who begin this undergraduate course here in 2024. Course fee information for courses starting in 2025 will be updated in September.

We don't want anyone who has the academic ability to get a place to study here to be held back by their financial circumstances. To meet that aim, Oxford offers one of the most generous financial support packages available for UK students and this may be supplemented by support from your college.


Home	£9,250
Overseas	£38,550

Further details about fee status eligibility can be found on the fee status webpage.

For more information please refer to our course fees page . Fees will usually increase annually. For details, please see our guidance on likely increases to fees and charges.

Living costs

Living costs at Oxford might be less than you’d expect, as our world-class resources and college provision can help keep costs down.

Living costs for the academic year starting in 2024 are estimated to be between £1,345 and £1,955 for each month you are in Oxford. Our academic year is made up of three eight-week terms, so you would not usually need to be in Oxford for much more than six months of the year but may wish to budget over a nine-month period to ensure you also have sufficient funds during the holidays to meet essential costs. For further details please visit our living costs webpage .

Financial support

Home

A tuition fee loan is available from the UK government to cover course fees in full for Home (UK, Irish nationals and other eligible students with UK citizens' rights - see below*) students undertaking their first undergraduate degree**, so you don’t need to pay your course fees up front.

In 2024 Oxford is offering one of the most generous bursary packages of any UK university to Home students with a family income of around £50,000 or less, with additional opportunities available to UK students from households with incomes of £32,500 or less. The UK government also provides living costs support to Home students from the UK and those with settled status who meet the residence requirements.

*For courses starting on or after 1 August 2021, the UK government has confirmed that EU, other EEA, and Swiss Nationals will be eligible for student finance from the UK government if they have UK citizens’ rights (i.e. if they have pre-settled or settled status, or if they are an Irish citizen covered by the Common Travel Area arrangement). The support you can access from the government will depend on your residency status.

Islands
(Channel Islands and Isle of Man)

Islands students are entitled to different support to that of students from the rest of the UK.

Please refer the links below for information on the support to you available from your funding agency:

Overseas

Please refer to the "Other Scholarships" section of our .

**If you have studied at undergraduate level before and completed your course, you will be classed as an Equivalent or Lower Qualification student (ELQ) and won’t be eligible to receive government or Oxford funding

Fees, Funding and Scholarship search

Additional Fees and Charges Information for English Language and Literature

There are no compulsory costs for this course beyond the fees shown above and your living costs.

Contextual information

Unistats course data from Discover Uni provides applicants with statistics about a particular undergraduate course at Oxford. For a more holistic insight into what studying your chosen course here is likely to be like, we would encourage you to view the information below as well as to explore our website more widely.

The Oxford tutorial

College tutorials are central to teaching at Oxford. Typically, they take place in your college and are led by your academic tutor(s) who teach as well as do their own research. Students will also receive teaching in a variety of other ways, depending on the course. This will include lectures and classes, and may include laboratory work and fieldwork. However, tutorials offer a level of personalised attention from academic experts unavailable at most universities.

During tutorials (normally lasting an hour), college subject tutors will give you and one or two tutorial partners feedback on prepared work and cover a topic in depth. The other student(s) in your tutorials will be doing the same course as you. Such regular and rigorous academic discussion develops and facilitates learning in a way that isn’t possible through lectures alone. Tutorials also allow for close progress monitoring so tutors can quickly provide additional support if necessary.

Read more about tutorials and an Oxford education

College life

Our colleges are at the heart of Oxford’s reputation as one of the best universities in the world.

At Oxford, everyone is a member of a college as well as their subject department(s) and the University. Students therefore have both the benefits of belonging to a large, renowned institution and to a small and friendly academic community. Each college or hall is made up of academic and support staff, and students. Colleges provide a safe, supportive environment leaving you free to focus on your studies, enjoy time with friends and make the most of the huge variety of opportunities.
Porters’ lodge (a staffed entrance and reception)
Dining hall
Lending library (often open 24/7 in term time)
Student accommodation
Tutors’ teaching rooms
Chapel and/or music rooms
Green spaces
Common room (known as the JCR).
All first-year students are offered college accommodation either on the main site of their college or in a nearby college annexe. This means that your neighbours will also be ‘freshers’ and new to life at Oxford. This accommodation is guaranteed, so you don’t need to worry about finding somewhere to live after accepting a place here, all of this is organised for you before you arrive.
All colleges offer at least one further year of accommodation and some offer it for the entire duration of your degree. You may choose to take up the option to live in your college for the whole of your time at Oxford, or you might decide to arrange your own accommodation after your first year – perhaps because you want to live with friends from other colleges.
While college academic tutors primarily support your academic development, you can also ask their advice on other things. Lots of other college staff including welfare officers help students settle in and are available to offer guidance on practical or health matters. Current students also actively support students in earlier years, sometimes as part of a college ‘family’ or as peer supporters trained by the University’s Counselling Service.

Read more about Oxford colleges and how you choose

FIND OUT MORE

Visit the faculty's website

Our 2024 undergraduate open days will be held on 26 and 27 June and 20 September.

English Faculty State School Open Day - 9 March 2024

Which Oxford colleges offer my course?
Your academic year
Foundation Year

Related courses

English and Modern Languages
Foundation Year (Humanities)
History and English
Classics and English

Feel inspired?

Why not have a look at the University's collection of literary resources on our Great Writers Inspire site .

You may also like to listen to radio programs such as BBC Radio 4's In Our Time , or one of the University's podcast series .

Alternatively magazines like The New Yorker , or journals like London Review of Books and The Paris Review , contain lots of fascinating long-read articles and essays.

Follow us on social media

Follow us on social media to get the most up-to-date application information throughout the year, and to hear from our students.

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English Literature vs Language – How They Differ

Throughout the UK, English is a compulsory subject taught in primary and secondary classrooms. However, while you study English as a general topic in primary years, this subject is split into two categories when moving into secondary education.

The reason for this is that English language and literature, while appearing similar, are pretty different regarding learning objectives, comprehension and application outside the classroom.

When children move into secondary school, English literature and language are tackled separately, and most students complete GCSEs in both at the end of this educational experience. But for many, there is some confusion about the two subjects and what each involves at different levels of study.

In this article, we look at both subjects and explain the key differences in English literature vs language to help students and parents understand what’s involved during study.

What is English language?

Sometimes it can seem difficult to define what English language is compared to its literature counterpart, as the topic covers a wide range of concepts. This area of study mainly focuses on, of course, language – more specifically, how we communicate and the varying aspects within this.

As English is spoken and written every day, many students feel they know the ins and outs of the subject. It’s an unavoidable part of society, after all. However, when you compare it to what you learn when taking a foreign language, for example, French, its much more than just speaking and writing French words.

Again, words are just part of English language study. Pitch, tone and how language is communicated merge into this subject area.

In school, English language is a compulsory subject and must be studied at GCSE level. It’s a well-recognised qualification, and most colleges, universities and employers require this qualification as a minimum.

What is studied in English language classes?

As English language focuses on reading, writing, speaking and listening skills, the curriculum covers a variety of aspects, such as:

Creative reading and writing
Descriptive/narrative writing
Non-fiction and literary non-fiction texts
Language construction and how it’s used in standard English
Reading and responding to questions and feedback

The English language GCSE exam is typically split into two papers. The first covers Creative Reading and Writing, making up 50% of the mark. The other focuses on Writer’s Viewpoints and Perspectives and completes the remaining 50% of the marks. Different examining boards have slightly different names for the papers but generally cover the same concepts.

What is English literature?

Most people have some idea of what English literature covers – think Shakespeare and Dickens. But it’s not just about reading these texts and answering some questions about the books. There’s a lot more to it than many students anticipate.

While this subject isn’t compulsory nationally at GCSE level, most schools include it as a compulsory subject, meaning students must study the subject alongside English language. This area can often present more challenges for students as it focuses on the meaning of different texts and uncovering the hidden elements within the content to discover the deeper context.

The subject also involves understanding literary techniques and thinking about why a writer has decided to write something the way they have. This could be in terms of the language used or the form of the text. Context is also an important factor.

English literature overall plays a vital role in education and understanding the English language in more depth. While the English language GCSE is often required for higher education, literature is sometimes not – but that doesn’t make it any less desired among further education establishments.

What is studied in English literature classes?

The English literature GCSE syllabus covers a variety of areas, including different pieces of literature within the qualification. For example:

Drama texts
Shakespeare plays

Different schools may have various texts depending on the area of study, but the exam structure follows a similar pathway. There are two exams to sit, and depending on the examining board, each is worth 50% or a 60/40 split.

English language vs literature – what’s the difference?

It may first appear that English language and literature studies are similar – so why would you need to learn both? In fact, they quite different areas of study and require different thought and learning processes to understand the concepts included.

English language primarily focuses on reading, writing, speaking and listening skills. In comparison, literature hones in on the study of writing. In some cases, the subject areas may overlap. For example, each covers meaning and how it’s conveyed within language and literature. While in each, there are some differences, what you learn remains the same.

Another difference between literature and language is there are fewer terms to learn in literature. For example, in English language, there are eight terms regarding speech:

Preposition
Conjunction
Interjection

And they are just a few examples. There are the rules of grammar, structure, poetry and a whole host of general terms that explain different areas of language and how it’s used.

Do I have to take GCSE English language and literature?

GCSE English language is a compulsory subject at secondary level education. It sits alongside Maths and Science, and passing English Language in particular is essential to progress into further education. Unfortunately, if you fail English Language, then you’ll have to retake the exams to proceed to lots of other qualifications.

On the other hand, GCSE English literature is not compulsory for all students, though most schools include it as a subject studied alongside English language. As such, it is rarely listed on college course entry requirements – with the exception of related courses like English Literature A Level or an English degree.

Why are English literature and language two separate GCSEs?

The subjects of English language and literature are split into two qualifications due to the diverse nature of the subjects. Each has different concepts to cover, thus providing separate areas of study and testing.

On results day, you’ll get two grades. If you fail English language, it may need to be re-sat to get onto your chosen course.

Which is more important – English language or literature?

The answer to this question is subjective because each student wants different things from their educational career. In terms of progression, English language may be considered more important as you need to pass to get into most levels of further and higher education.

After your secondary education, choosing whether to move forward with either subject can benefit your future career. So, making time for each subject and approaching both as equal at this stage will help your understanding and comprehension for each exam.

How to revise for English exams

Due to the differences between the two subject areas, English as a whole can be more challenging to revise for. The main difficulty is you never know what type of question you’ll be given in an exam, but there are some tried and tested techniques to improve your revision strategy.

In both exams, essays form a significant part of the marks. So, it’s essential to feel confident in this area.

How to revise for an English literature exam

English literature can feel daunting for many students, not just at exam time but also throughout study. You will study texts during the course, and at the exam, it’s important to remember some key quotes and passages as these are bound to help out in the test. Learning literature terminology also helps to set you aside from other students. The more you can show you know the deeper side of literature, the better your marks.

Revisiting past papers is also helpful during revision. This will give you an idea of the type of questions that may be asked. But more importantly, you can practise how to answer them.

Another area to go back on is the texts you learned in class. Even if the book you studied didn’t motivate you to read again, it’s essential to go back through it and recap the main features. When reading this, compile notes on key quotes and theme and character analysis.

How to revise for an English language exam

Similar to the English literature exam, students will do well if they can learn and use terminology and concepts correctly. Essays will again feature heavily, so practising essay writing is a key skill area.

Past papers will help to cover how to answer questions and what type of questions might be asked. It’s also worth going over the texts you studied during the course to recap on important areas.

Most schools allow students to practise mock exams in the run-up to the real thing. This will give you a chance to sit the exam with actual timings and get feedback on areas you need to improve on.

Make English language and literature study simple with an online tutor

English language and literature are two essential subjects to pass at GCSE level. However, they can be the hardest to learn and revise for. To support study and achieve success in each area, hiring an online tutor can help.

At Principal Tutors, we have qualified teachers specialising in both GCSE English Language and GCSE English Literature . Because we tutor-match for all students, you can rest assured your child will have a qualified professional who can help with their specific requirements.

If you’d like to explore the benefits of a private tutor for English courses, contact us at 0800 772 0974 or book an online tutor today.

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Literary English

What is Literary English? Characteristics of Literary English

What is Literary English?

Literary English is one of the registers of English language. Literary English is used for writing literary contents, for analysis on a literary writing or for literary criticism. During Medieval Ages, literary English was often placed at an elevated position among Fine Arts. During that time it was very distinctive from the colloquial English, but with the passage of time this distinction was decreased. At current era, there is no much difference between literary and colloquial English. Still there is a distinction between Literary English and conversational English.

English is one of the most broadly spoken languages across the globe. It has taken many shapes and registers. Those who want to learn English language as a second language they opt a suitable register for their appropriate domain. For example, a learner want to learn English for business around the world he will chose Business English, one who in only migrating to some native country he will learn English for general purpose and those who want to practice their abilities in literary field they will chose literary English.

Some exceptionally well-documented forms of literary English are the works of Marlowe, William Shakespeare, Sir Francis Bacon, and William Wordsworth. Shakespearean sonnets and plays are one of the classic examples of English literature and studied around the world in most of the universities. Sir Francis Bacon is also prominent classic prose write of his age. These literary works require supplementary effort to understand it. Literary language is rich with figurative language and literary devices such as metaphors, paradoxes, sarcasm, ironies, similes, and many more. On the other hand, Business English is the written and spoken English that is especially for business context and it is proper both in word choice and of the suitable tone for conducting business. In business, you may be required to speak, read, and write in a language that your co-workers, supervisors, and clients can understand quickly and effectively in a business context. Literary English may take a variety of forms such as prose, poetry and many other creative examples.

Characteristics of Literary English:

Structure of literary english.

Literary language is the form of a language used in its literary writing. It has complex sentence structure and lays meaning in its context in literature. The structure of literary English varies according to the literary form. In poetic form, its style differs from prose writing. Further, in one form, like in poetry, it varies its structure according to different sub-form of poetry. In a sonnet its style and structure differs from a heroic couplet. Literary books also have divergent forms depending on sub genre of literature.

Function of Literary English

Literary English is generally used for literary writing or for criticism or analysis on literary work. Even though literary content also do have a function, e.g., to criticize a literary work, to educate general public, to mock a society for its wrong pursuits or even just to entertain a reader. During Medieval Age, Fine Arts was at an elevated position and that era created lot of writers who took English as a tool for literary writings. They used rich language full of literary devices such as similes, metaphors, paradoxes, ironies, sarcasm, and many more. These literary devices are some time called figures of speech.

Literary English as an Ironic Language

Literary English is not clear and state forward like Business English or English for General Purpose. Business English or English for General Purpose are free from ironies as these are designed for clear and effective communication while literary English is quite rich with ironies. For understanding a literary text, a reader has to ponder upon it with full wit and efforts.

Literary English as an Ambiguous Language

People accept the view that literary English is far more ambiguous and more complicated than non-literary English (Business English or English for General Purpose). In Literary English, a reader cannot rely on surface text only but he has to ponder into the context of writing while on the other hand it is not the case in non-literary texts. For example, a market price-table has to be precise in order for people to rely on it and many people using the same market price-table should reach around the same result with common understanding. While on the other hand, if these ten people read a novel, they will come up with rather different interpretations of what a specific literary text ‘means’ or what it tries to convey.

Descriptive and Indirect

Literary English does not convey direct meaning but reader has to search for the hidden message in the text. If a literary piece of writing is handed over to various students and they are asked for the message written in that text. All the students will conclude different message from the text depending upon their way of extracting a message from the text.

High Level Grammar and Rich Vocabulary

Literary English is rich in vocabulary and carry complex sentence structure. Borrowing is too much in literary writings that make it more complex and difficult to understand for a common reader. Some genres of literature are free from grammatical rules as poetry or drama written in poetic form.

Background to English Literature

What is English Literature?
History of English Literature
Various Types of Literature

What is Iambic Pentameter?

Choose Your Test

Sat / act prep online guides and tips, should you take ap english literature or ap english language.

Advanced Placement (AP)

Are you considering taking an AP English class at some point during high school? You might have noticed that AP offers two English courses—AP English Literature and Composition and AP English Language and Composition. (Those titles are a mouthful, so we'll just refer to them as AP Literature and AP Language in this post.)

So what are some of the differences between the two classes? Is one class harder than the other? Should you take both or just choose one? In this guide, we'll explain the similarities and differences between the two courses to help you decide which option is best for you.

AP Literature vs. AP Language Overview

Some schools offer AP Literature and AP English Language as a sequence, with AP Language and Composition as a sophomore or junior course, and AP Literature as a junior or senior course.

In contrast, some schools only offer the AP Lit and AP Lang during senior year, so students have to choose between them. Or your school might not have strict requirements at all, and you might be wondering if you should take both, one, or none.

First, we'll reveal which course is more difficult, AP Lit or AP Lang. Then we'll discuss the similarities between the two courses as well as the differences. Finally, we'll ask you some guiding questions to help you decide between the two classes.

Which Is Harder: AP Literature or AP Language?

You're probably wondering...out of the two AP English courses, which one is harder?

In 2022, AP Lit scores were higher than AP Lang scores, both for the pass rate and the 5 rate . AP Literature had a pass rate of about 77.9%, while AP Language's pass rate was about 55.7%. Out of 38 total exams, AP Lit was the 7th highest-passed AP exam, and AP Lang was the 9th lowest-passed AP exam. (For more on AP test scoring, see our post.)

This trend carries over to the 5 rates, as well. AP Language has a 5 rate of just 10.4%, while AP Literature has a 5 rate of 16.9%. This marks AP Literature with the 14th highest 5 rate and AP Language the 5th lowest 5 rate.

There are a few factors that could explain why the AP English exams have discrepancies between their pass and 5 rates.

The first is the fact that AP Language is the number one most popular AP exam — about 520,700 students took the test in 2022 alone ! This means that the test has a very wide pool of exam-takers, suggesting there might be more students who take the exam who are unprepared.

AP Literature is also a popular test, though, with about 339,400 students sitting for the exam in 2022. However, most students who took the AP Lit exam in 2022 were in their senior year . This could account for the higher pass and 5 rates, as seniors have had a chance to adjust to the demands of high school academics and take other AP exams before taking AP Lit.

The fact that AP Language’s pass and 5 rates are both low suggests that it is more difficult than average to do well on. Conversely, AP Literature’s average-to-high pass and 5 rates indicate that it is a medium-to-low difficulty exam.

Ultimately, which test is harder for you will depend on your strengths and weaknesses, as both AP English classes have different readings and goals.

To figure out which exam is best for you, we'll compare the two classes and the content they cover . First, we will note how the classes are similar, and then we will explain what makes each AP English class unique.

What's the Same for AP Language and AP Literature?

So what are the similarities between AP Literature and AP Language? We will compare both the AP tests and the classes.

The exam format is very similar for both AP English classes.

The first part of AP Literature has 55 multiple-choice questions, and the first part of AP Language has 45 multiple choice questions. On both tests section I is worth 45% of your total score.

These questions mainly have you read passages and analyze them. The AP English Literature questions focus on literary devices, character, and theme while the AP English Language questions focus on rhetorical strategies and tone. However, both tests include comprehension questions and require you to be able to read complex passages quickly and understand them.

The second part of both exams is worth 55% and has three essay questions. This means that both exams also require very fast writing skills. You need to plan, outline, write, and edit three essays in two hours, or in about 40 minutes per essay.

Both exams also require you to be able to very quickly read and analyze a text by writing an essay, since the essay questions often ask you to analyze a piece of writing.

The only major difference in exam format is that the AP Language exam has a 15-minute reading period before the free-response section, while AP Literature does not. This is to give you time to prepare for the synthesis question, which is unique to the AP Language test. The synthesis question has you incorporate several different sources into a coherent argument.

To sum up, the format of the two AP English exams is very similar. You can expect the AP exam for either class to be quite challenging.

Both AP English classes are English courses and thus will mainly consist of reading and writing assignments.

In particular, both emphasize writing clear, analytical essays. This is very different from just summarizing a book or writing your own stories like you might have done in previous English classes. Since both classes are meant to teach the same skills as an introductory college English class, the emphasis is on analyzing and writing about texts, rather than just reading, summarizing, and creating your own work.

However, even though the exam and class formats are quite similar, the subject matter they tackle is very different . Next we will explore which makes each AP English course unique.

What Sets the Two Classes Apart?

There are some key differences between AP Language and AP Literature. This means that one AP English class might be more useful for you than the other. In this section we'll explain five of the main differences between the two classes.

Looking at examples of actual prompts for both classes can also help you get a sense of how they differ. For AP Language, you can read all of the recent past free-response topics here , and you can read all the recent past AP Literature free response questions here .

Difference 1: AP Language Is Broader Than AP Literature

The main difference between the two courses is that AP Literature focuses mostly on analyzing literature and poetry, while AP Language has a much broader scope.

AP English Language and Composition teaches you to deconstruct arguments and rhetorical strategies in mostly non-fiction works. Non-fiction is a broad term, and can include journalism, memoirs, essays, satire, comics, and even photography. In other words, you will read (and examine!) material that is likely much more far-reaching than your past English classes.

For AP Language, you will also do lots of writing, learning to maximize your argument and/or effectiveness across different forms, from persuasive essays to memoir writing. As an example, in my AP Language course, our writing assignments included persuasive essays, reports on current events, memoir writing, and keeping a nature journal, a la Henry David Thoreau in Walden . (If you don't know who that is, you probably will after taking AP Language!)

For AP Literature, the works you read will be much less broad. They will be primarily literature, although the class will also include some poetry. You'll primarily be reading novels and plays, and the texts you read will be less broad compared to what you read in AP Language.

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Difference 2: AP Literature Is More In-Depth Than AP Language

AP English Literature teaches you to read and analyze works of literature and poetry with different lenses—for example, characterization, tone, or point of view . In that sense, it has less breadth but more depth than AP Language . You will work to discover a work's theme or intent via use of literary devices , as opposed to analyzing its argument or effectiveness.

Your essays for AP Literature will be mainly analytical. For example, you will explain how a novel achieves a certain tone by closely analyzing quotations. In most cases, you won't be arguing for a point or saying how good or bad something is. You will simply read literature closely and try to figure out what makes it tick.

For AP Language, you typically won't be diving so deep into one source; you'll instead be making broader comparisons and arguments for a variety of texts. You won't be referring to specific quotes as often as you would in AP Lit because you're taking more of a high-level look at the texts.

Difference 3: AP Language Is More Applicable for Other Subjects Than AP Literature

The skills you learn in AP Language are broadly applicable to not only the humanities, but to the social sciences as well. If you're interested in political science , sociology , or economics , the skills you learn in AP Language will be directly applicable to your college coursework.

AP Language is also a good choice if you are interested in natural science or engineering , since learning to break down arguments and read non-fiction texts will likely be more helpful in your chosen field than analyzing poetry and literature. In any field, having strong writing skills is very helpful.

The essays on the AP Language exam are designed to "test your skill in composition and require close reading, thoughtful rhetorical analysis, and purposeful argumentation ." As we mentioned above, AP Language has a synthesis prompt that requires you to pull together several different sources and write a cohesive argumentative essay. The synthesis prompt is similar to the Document-Based Question you'll find on AP History exams .

For AP Literature, you'll gain writing skills useful in any field, but this class has a very specific humanities/fine arts focus. You'll be studying primarily fiction texts, including poetry and literature. You'll spend more time studying how literary pieces are composed and how literary devices are used.

Even if you rarely read newspapers anymore, you might encounter them in AP Language!

Difference 4: You'll Likely Do More Reading in AP Literature

You'll have to do a fair amount of reading for both classes, but AP Literature is generally a more reading-intensive course. For AP Literature, you need to read several books just to prepare for the AP exam, so expect regular reading assignments. For example, my class read several novels, including The Great Gatsby , as well as plays, short stories, and poetry. We also had to read six full-length books the summer before the class even started.

You'll also be doing reading for AP Language, but the readings will often be shorter, and many won't be full-length novels or plays. If you're worried about having enough time to complete the required reading, it's an important factor to consider when deciding between the two classes.

Difference 5: The Final AP Literature Prompt Is Especially Difficult

Many students find the final prompt on the AP Literature exam to be especially challenging. For the last prompt, the AP Literature test does not give you relevant quotes or summaries of the works you can write about. This means you have to be familiar with at least a few books and be able to write about them without having the books with you when you take the exam.

As an example, here is the 2021 open response prompt:

The prompt gives you a wide variety of books and plays that you could write about, but also allows you to analyze any work of "comparable literary merit." ( Twilight isn't going to cut it—sorry!) But the prompt doesn't give you any more info than the work's title — you need to be able to supply the evidence from that particular work based on memory.

Some students memorize important quotes and page numbers to be prepared for this question, but this isn't essential if you have a strong grasp of the plot, characters, tone , themes, motifs, and so on. Furthermore, to write these essays well, you need to know literary devices , like allegory and hyperbole, to name a couple, and be able to use them as evidence.

In contrast, the AP Language exam provides most of the sources for you to analyze. (You should definitely know your way around a rhetorical device , though!) Just one essay asks you to consider outside sources, but it doesn't require specific books, and in fact allows you to draw from your own experience.

Again, this shows that you'll have to do a lot more reading for AP Literature so that you have a wide pool of books you can potentially use for the final essay prompt.

How Do You Decide Which AP English Class to Take?

Both AP English classes have key similarities—like exam structure—and differences, like the type of reading you'll do. So how will you pick which one to take? Consider each of the following factors before making your decision.

What Are You Planning on Majoring In?

As a general rule, AP Language has a broader focus and will be more directly applicable to your work in various college majors, while AP Literature is a great choice if you are interested in the arts or humanities.

For example, if you know for sure you want to pursue engineering in college, then AP Language is probably the best choice. You'll pick up some writing skills, but you won’t be overloaded with tons of reading—saving you time for other challenging courses in math and science.

But if you know you want to study the humanities—including philosophy, history, English or World Literature—the depth of reading you'll do in AP Literature will give you a solid base of knowledge to build on in college.

But what if you have no clue what you want to study in college? Keep reading!

What Do You Like To Read?

AP Literature and AP Language have very different focuses and reading lists. So think about what you tend to enjoy reading! If you like the reading for a class, you are much more likely to complete it all and be interested in the assignments—meaning you'll get a better grade.

For example, if you follow the news, read lots of blogs or magazines, and enjoy non-fiction books, you'll probably enjoy the AP Language reading. If you read fiction books for fun and enjoy writing your own stories, you might prefer AP Literature. Sure, you won't be doing lots of creative writing, but studying what makes literature great will help you be a better writer.

Who Teaches These Classes at Your School?

Preferences and future major aside, your experience in the class will really depend on how it's taught at your school and how good the teacher is.

If you can, get a syllabus from both of this year's classes. There isn't required reading for either course, although AP Literature has many suggested authors, so teachers have a lot of freedom in designing their reading lists. You might be much more interested in one class's reading than another, and that will help you decide.

You can also ask upperclassmen and your guidance counselor about the reputation and pass rate of the different classes at your school.

Chances are, both AP English teachers will be pretty good, if not excellent. But if, for example, everyone raves about the AP Literature class and says that they learned a ton and loved the teacher, consider taking it even if you're leaning towards AP Language. Never underestimate the effect of an amazing teacher!

Is It Possible to Take Both AP Language and AP Literature?

If you really can't decide, see if it's possible to take both classes.

Colleges want to see that you are taking a challenging course load based on what's available at your school. That could mean fitting in both AP English courses, but if that causes you to have to sacrifice other AP classes or an extracurricular, taking one is plenty.

Again, this will also depend on your intended major. For example, if you're a future engineer, taking both AP English classes won't vastly strengthen your college applications, while fitting in both AP Calculus and AP Physics will. But if you are interested in the humanities, it would make sense to take both.

Personally, I took both AP English classes: AP Language in 10th grade, and AP Literature in 11th grade. They were both challenging, but I liked taking them in that order, since Language was broader and gave me an introduction to writing AP essays. I was able to use the skills I developed in Language to do well in Literature.

For me, Literature was more challenging, mainly because I had to know a few books and plays inside and out to be ready for the free-response section of the AP test. I found both tests' multiple-choice sections equally challenging.

I found the skills I built in both classes to be incredibly useful to me across a range of college classes—from economics to political science to English.

Don't choose just one path!

Bottom Line: AP Lang vs AP Lit

Both AP English classes will improve your writing skills. The main difference between the two is what types of reading they focus on. 2022’s exam results suggest that the AP Language exam is more difficult to pass than AP Literature, but ultimately, this can change student to student.

Hopefully reading about the two classes gave you an idea about which one you are leaning toward. If not, make an appointment to talk to your guidance counselor to discuss which class is best for you.

What's Next?

Whether you decide to take AP Literature, AP Language, or both, you might also be wondering how many AP classes total you should take in high school. See our guide to choosing the right number of AP classes .

Also studying for the SAT or ACT? Learn which reading section is harder , and get tips for an 800 SAT Reading score from our full-scorer.

Still deciding between the SAT or ACT? Find out for sure which you will do the best on . Also read a detailed comparison between the two tests .

Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points? We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download them for free now:

Halle Edwards graduated from Stanford University with honors. In high school, she earned 99th percentile ACT scores as well as 99th percentile scores on SAT subject tests. She also took nine AP classes, earning a perfect score of 5 on seven AP tests. As a graduate of a large public high school who tackled the college admission process largely on her own, she is passionate about helping high school students from different backgrounds get the knowledge they need to be successful in the college admissions process.

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Study Literature in the US
What is English Literature?

Study Literature at University of Dayton

English Literature is one of the most popular majors in colleges and universities in the US, with a huge number of students enrolling every year due to its diverse nature and numerous graduate opportunities. But with such a broad area of study, prospective students are often confused about what a degree in English Literature actually provides. This article explains what an English Literature degree looks like, and what doors it can open for graduates.

Common uses of an English Literature degree include becoming a writer, researcher, or teacher. However, there are many other ways to utilize an English Literature degree. Some students use it as a stepping stone to a degree in Law, or in this day and age, some will use it to begin a path in the digital marketing world. Whichever route you end up on, this degree can open doors to many fulfilling career options.

What is English Literature at its Very Core?

English Literature refers to the study of texts from around the world, written in the English language. By studying a degree in English Literature, you will learn how to analyze a multitude of texts and write clearly using several different styles. Generally, literature refers to different types of text including novels, non-fiction, poetry, and plays, among other forms. However, literature is a contested term, as new mediums for communication provide different types of contemporary literature.

Literature is generally defined as writing with artistic merit. However, other types of text such as screenplays, nonfiction, song lyrics, and online communication through blogs and other means, could now be considered literature under the contemporary understanding of the term. The English Literature programs in most major US institutions will largely study the traditional literary texts. An English Literature major will likely examine texts including poetry, drama, and prose fiction, perhaps briefly covering more contested forms of literature in their chosen path.

Studying Literature Versus Reading for Pleasure

If you choose to study Literature in the US, you will learn how to read different texts and analyze the style, use of different types of language, and meaning, in depth. You will also learn how to write clearly, concisely and analytically in stylistically different forms. Generally, Literature courses are divided into different focuses: British Literature, American Literature, World Literature, and periods (pre-1800 and post-2000). You will have core courses in several of these topics and will also be expected to choose a focus of your own interest, such as creative writing or drama. You will ultimately gain a much more in-depth understanding of the texts you cover than is possible from solo-reading, and learn how to express your knowledge through written analysis and presentation or class discussion.

Why Study English Literature?

Studying English Literature in the USA will give you a better understanding of the world around you. A Literature degree provides transferable skills that teach you to deconstruct and analyze in order to provide a critical viewpoint in all areas. As an international student, studying English Literature demonstrates to an employer that you have a strong grasp of the English language and are proficient in professional English.

There are several different paths for careers in literature as a graduate. You can also take graduate courses and become a teacher, lecturer, or journalist, with common crossovers for graduating English students including business, law, and education. Or you can use your analytical skills to move into unexpected careers such as marketing, advertising, or pretty much anything you are willing you adapt to. There are also obvious positions available in the publishing industry, from editor, to proofreader, to literary agent. Many creative writers, including novelists, poets, and screenwriters, among others, start their careers by gaining an in-depth understanding of written English before developing their individual abilities for expression through writing.

If you want to gain a strong-hold on the English language, develop your critical analysis of the world around you, and study in a degree that will provide you with numerous different career opportunities, English Literature could be the right pursuit for you.

Learn more about studying literature in the USA by reading our growing article collection.

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Key Differences

Know the Differences & Comparisons

Difference Between Literature and Language

On the contrary, literature can be understood as any body of knowledge, present in written form which is used to express of one’s thoughts, opinions and ideas, about culture, tradition, life experiences, etc. with the use of language. Now, let’s move further to talk about the differences between language and literature.

Content: Literature Vs Language

Comparison chart.

Basis for Comparison	Literature	Language
Meaning	Literature refers to the body of the written or spoken composition, of a specific kind, on a particular topic.	Language implies any form of expression or communication, by the living organisms through arbitrary signals.
Nature	Imaginative	Expressive
Comprises of	Written works with intellectual thoughts and contemplation.	System of Sounds, words, grammar rules, etc.
Concerned with	Life Experiences	Discourse
Stimulates	Recreation and revelation of facts and thoughts.	Interaction between living organisms.

Definition of Literature

Literature refers to any sort written or spoken material, regarded as an art form, which has some intellectual value, due to the use of language in a manner, which is different from its normal usage.

Literature can be any work which is artistic, developed with a vivid imagination and which mirrors the culture of a region, language, ancient time or behaviour pattern of human society. It is an indicator of the modernization of society. It introduces the reader to a completely new world or presents a familiar thing with a different angle or perspective.

The common forms of literature are novel, poem, short story, drama, prose, biography, autobiography, memoir, play, essay etc. These forms of literature use words in a very influential, effective and thought-provoking manner. It is a record of what one has seen, experienced, thought or felt in life, which has an instant and enduring interest.

It is not just the use of words to write some technical, corporate or legal policies or frame laws of the government. In literature, creative writing is used as a means to express the intellectual thoughts and ideas, where a language is just a tool of expression. Further, it is regarded as a graciousness of written work.

Definition of Language

Language means the system of verbal or non-verbal signs which are used by living beings, so as to convey information, feelings, thoughts, etc.

In other words, language is a method of communication, which comprise of sounds, words and grammar. It has certain grammatical rules and structure that lets the people pronounce words, in such a way that it is understood to others. The scientific study of language is termed as linguistics .

It undergoes an ongoing yet unrecognized process of change and development, making it more clear, crisp and refined. There are a number of changes made in the spellings, pronunciation and meaning, of the words used in a particular language. It comprises of sounds, words, sentences, signs, gestures, postures, expressions, etc.

Language differs from society to society and region to region, and each language possesses a unique dialect. It serves various purposes, right from the casual discourse to acquiring knowledge. In fact, the introspection through which one defines own thoughts relies highly on language itself.

Key Differences Between Literature and Language

The points presented below describe the difference between literature and language:

Literature refers to the written or sometimes spoken works of imagination, having superiority in style and expression, and subject matter of common and long-lasting interest. On the other hand, Language can be defined as a means of expression or communication of thoughts ideas and feelings between living organisms, by way of arbitrary signals, i.e. words, sounds, symbols, sentences, gestures, postures, etc.
Literature is imaginative in the sense that the writer of the material uses his imagination, to produce the work. Conversely, language is expressive in nature as it helps the living organisms to express their thoughts and feelings, with one another.
While literature consists of written works of the writers with intellectual thoughts and contemplation, language is all about sounds, signs, symbols, words and grammar.
Literature is purely based on life experiences, i.e. what one has faced, experienced, felt, dreamt, etc in his/her life. In contrast, language is that abstract system which helps in discourse.
Literature often encourages recreation, revelation and introspection of thoughts, facts and imaginations of the writer. As opposed, language triggers interaction between living beings.

From the above discussion, it might be clear to you that literature and language are neither same nor contradictory in nature, rather literature is highly dependent on language.

Literature is an aesthetic subject which deals with the study of work and styles of various authors and writers. On the contrary, language is the only way of communication, no matter, if it is interpersonal or intrapersonal. The whole literature is based on the language in which it is written.

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GCSE English Language vs Literature: What’s the Difference?

In A-Level , GCSE , University by Think Student Editor November 11, 2022 Leave a Comment

Unlike the sciences, while English is split into different sub-subjects, they are still somewhat similar. You might find yourself asking, what exactly is the benefit to studying them separately? Should you pick one over the other, and if so, which one? It’s completely normal to be asking these questions. I know I did when it came to my own studies

The most important thing is obviously the answers to these questions, which I’m here to help you with! Keep reading this guide to clear up all your confusion about the two sides to English at any educational level.

Table of Contents

What does it mean to study English literature?

When you think of “English literature”, you probably think of Shakespeare or Dickens. English literature is all about analysing important texts and authors.

A huge part of English literature revolves around meaning . If you enjoy looking for hidden meanings in texts, then you’ll definitely want to study English literature, whether just at GCSE level or even further.

English literature as a subject involves thinking about literary techniques – why a writer has chosen to do something. This might be in the language they use, or the form the text takes. Similarly, in English literature, you’ll study how context influences a text.

The key difference between this and English language is that English literature is a constructive process. However, below, I’ll discuss in more detail how English language differs.

What does it mean to study English language?

English language can seem a lot more ambiguous than English literature. After all, you aren’t looking at set texts or certain people.

English language focuses on how we use language to communicate. This involves using materials like transcripts to study how we communicate with other people effectively.

English language isn’t just limited to the use of words. It also involves looking at things like pitch and tone. If you’re interested in the more “human” aspects of English as a subject, then you’ll definitely find English language an interesting subject.

You have to study English language for GCSE, but it becomes optional at A-Level and beyond. I’d seriously recommend taking English language beyond GCSE. Not only is it favoured by universities and a good subject to have under your belt, but I found it really interesting and engaging.

What is the difference between English language and literature?

The main difference between English language and English literature is that, in English language, you tend to study speech, whereas in English literature you study writing. While in English language you will study speech in text form, it was still designed to be said aloud, unlike literature. As I mentioned earlier, literature is widely considered an art form.

Sometimes, the subjects do overlap . For example, in English language and literature you’ll look at meaning and how it’s conveyed. The techniques are very different, but the skill you gain is the same . This is one reason why I found studying both incredibly helpful, because they support each other nicely.

Another difference that catches students off guard, including myself, is that with English language there are a lot of terms you have to learn . Surprisingly, there is less terminology to learn for English literature. This is mostly because you focus more on meaning. English language involves a lot more theory and concept than English literature.

GCSE English Language and Literature

GCSE English Language and GCSE English Literature are both compulsory GCSEs. Alongside GCSE Maths and GCSE Science, you must pass these GCSEs to further your education.

This is because the skills you gain in these GCSEs are considered ‘essential’. If you fail these subjects for whatever reason, you’ll have to retake them.

More information on the compulsory GCSE subjects can be found here in a Think Student article. Alternatively, to read about the pass mark for GCSE English, check out this Think Student article.

Earlier in the article, I went through what it means to study English literature and English language. Having studied English up to degree level, I’d say that the English language and literature GCSEs teach you the basic skills you’ll need for later academic life, no matter what subject.

What is GCSE English Literature like?

In GCSE English Literature, you’ll study the “Big 3” forms of texts: novels, plays and poetry . You have to study at least one Shakespeare play.

From my experience, the novel you study will almost definitely be written by a famous literary figure like Charles Dickens or Jane Austen. The main aim of GCSE English Literature is for you to analyse the texts that have had the greatest influence on literature.

GCSE English Literature is essentially all about your ability to “read between the lines”. It develops what are called critical thinking skills , which are needed in both education and employment.

I’d definitely say that, from my experience, GCSE English Literature is more complex than GCSE English Language. If you want a full guide to the GCSE, I’d recommend taking a look at this Think Student article.

What is GCSE English Language like?

In GCSE English Language, you’ll analyse interviews, speeches and articles . This teaches you how language is used to communicate our wants and needs, and thoughts and ideas, with others. You’ll also be asked to produce your own creative writing pieces, fiction and non-fiction, to see how you use language to communicate.

GCSE English Language is quite broad, which makes the content difficult to learn. If you feel like you want to get ahead of other student, this Think Student article has recommendations for good books to read.

A big component in English language is speech, as I’ve already discussed. For your GCSE you will have to give a speech to receive your full qualification. This can definitely seem daunting, but it was actually one of my favourite parts of GCSE English Language!

Unfortunately, I can’t cover everything about GCSE English Language in this article. If you want to learn more, this Think Student article has an in-depth guide to the subject which will be useful if you’re doing GCSEs.

Are English language and literature separate GCSEs?

English language and English literature are two separate GCSEs. When you receive your GCSE certificate on results day, you’ll be given two separate grades.

If you happen to pass one and fail the other, you’ll only have to retake the GCSE that you failed. Hopefully it won’t come to that for you, though! Tips on how to smash GCSE English Language and achieve a grade 9 can be found in a Think Student article linked for you here .

For more information on how many GCSEs subjects are worth, I’d recommend checking out this Think Student article.

What are the GCSE English exam boards?

In England and Wales, there are four different exam boards for GCSE English: AQA, OCR, Pearson Edexcel and WJEC/ Eduqas. You might be thinking, why do you need different exam boards?

Well , different exam boards have slight differences between them. For example, they may have different texts for you to study. For example, I studied ‘A Christmas Carol’ at GCSE, but my friend under a different exam board studied Pride and Prejudice.

While the final decision on texts is up to your school, each exam board will have a list of set texts to choose from. You can find more about these by clicking on the respective links with each exam board to find their specifications: AQA , OCR , Pearson Edexcel and WJEC / Eduqas .

Exams are also formatted differently between the boards. For example, you might be given an article to analyse for GCSE English Language.

Whereas someone under a different exam board might be given a speech. GCSE English exam boards vary between schools, but never within a school.

Revising for GCSE English Literature can be hard when different exam boards set you different texts. I struggled with this a lot, because there were no specific online resources I could use. For the ultimate guide into revision for GCSE English Literature, check out this Think Student article.

Which is more important: GCSE English Literature or GCSE English Language?

I studied both English language and English literature for my A-Levels and degree, and I would argue that English language is more important . The reason I say this is because English language is all about how language is used in our everyday life. Therefore, a good understanding of language will benefit you more than literature.

Plus, GCSE English Language is compulsory. This means that unless you get at least a grade 4 in your final exams, you will have to repeat it until you do or until you get to 18.

Don’t get me wrong, analysing literature is still a great skill to have . I really enjoyed both my GCSEs, which is why I carried on studying both at A-Level and degree level – I couldn’t choose! However, I find that I get more use out of my English language GCSE.

Due to its importance, I put in a little more work revising for my English language GCSE than I did for my English literature GCSE. However, I wouldn’t recommend doing this if you’re struggling with English literature. However, you can find some useful revision tips for GCSE English Language here in a Think Student article.

While I can’t get into the full debate in this article, you can find a much better, more detailed discussion in a Think Student article here .

How many English GCSE papers are there?

The GCSE papers you’ll have to sit for English depends on your exam board. Thankfully, for GCSE English, all the exam boards have the same number of papers, which is 4.

For each exam board, there are 2 papers for GCSE English Language, and 2 papers for GCSE English Literature . GCSE English Literature and GCSE English Language papers are always separate, so don’t worry about being caught out by a mix of the two.

Remember that for all exam boards, you’ll also have to give a speech as part of your English language GCSE. For more on this, check out this governmental guide.

Depending on the exam board, you might also have coursework as part of your GCSEs. For more information about this, this Think Student article has all the details you’ll need. You can also look here for information by WJEC on the non-exam assessment for GCSE English Literature.

A-Level English Language and Literature

A-Level English Language and Literature was my favourite subject. I originally wanted to pursue History at university but taking this A-Level completely changed my mind.

Some exam boards offer English language and literature as separate A-Levels, while other exam boards offer it as one combined A-Level. This is commonly referred to as English Lang/Lit.

In the following sections, I’ll take you through the major differences between the combined and separate English A-Levels. I’ll also talk more about how to revise for English at A-Level, and in general, so keep reading

How is A-Level English Language and Literature different to A-Level English Language or A-Level English Literature?

For the combined A-Level English Lang/Lit, you’ll study a mix of texts and spoken language pieces. For my A-Level, I still studied plays, novels, and poetry, but I also analysed transcripts, speeches, and non-fiction texts.

The specification for A-Level English Lang/Lit is a lot broader than the individual English A-Levels. If you like studying across a wide range, it’s definitely for you!

In A-Level English Language, you won’t study the literary works of great writers like Shakespeare. Instead , you’ll look more at language function and theory.

A-Level English Language is definitely a lot more technical than A-Level English Literature. This is why there’s such a big jump between GCSE and A-Level work.

In A-Level English Literature, you’ll look at big collections of “classic” texts. By classics, I mean both old and contemporary writers, from Shakespeare to Ian McEwan.

You’ll look in depth at big novels, poetry collections, and multiple plays . If you love exploring meaning and style, A-Level English Literature is right for you.

A-Level English Lang/Lit, A-Level English Language and A-Level English Literature all require coursework . However, this is really about the only thing that connects them in terms of structure. You’ll have very different experiences depending on which area of A-Level English you decide to choose!

Is A-Level English Language and Literature worth it?

In my opinion, A-Level English Language and Literature is absolutely, one-hundred-percent worth it. As I mentioned previously, it was my favourite A-Level and the reason I changed my mind with my degree choices.

I couldn’t be happier studying English Lang/Lit at degree level now! If you have an enthusiasm for the subject, I’d strongly advise you to take the A-Level.

Even if you have absolutely no intention of pursuing English beyond A-Levels, it’s still a super fun and interesting A-Level to take. I have friends who took the A-Level and loved it but went on to do STEM subjects such as Computer Science at university.

English language and literature degree

English language and literature at degree level is quite similar to A-Level study . I find myself going back to work I did for A-Level English Lang/Lit to help me with university work! If you enjoyed the A-Level, then I almost guarantee you would enjoy an English language and literature degree.

While degree content differs between university, in my degree there is less focus on the English language aspect of study. Most of the degree is focused on analysing novels, poetry and plays, like at A-Level and GCSE. However, you can still introduce English language aspects to your work!

One of the great things about English language and literature at degree level is that you have the freedom to write about the works/authors you want to . In GCSE and A-Level English, there isn’t much freedom of choice, whereas there is in your degree, which is something I’m really enjoying!

How to revise for your English exams

English exams are notoriously hard to revise for, because it all depends on the questions you’re given in the exams . However, there are still some certified revision techniques that’ll get you through exams. In the following sections, I’ll guide you through how to revise for English literature and English language.

English exams, whether language or literature, involve a lot of essay writing. Essays will be your main exam feature all the way through GCSEs, A-Levels and university. If you need help writing essays, I’d recommend either this Think Student article.

How to revise for English literature

The best tip I can give you for revision for English literature is to revise key quotes . It’s guaranteed that at least one of, if not all your exams will be closed book. Key quotes are an absolute must, because you won’t be able to get above a passing grade without them.

Another thing to revise is terminology. It’s important that you don’t fall into the habit of feature-spotting, but you need terminology to explain your ideas.

Plus, terminology is what sets you apart from other students. If you throw in a few good pieces of terminology, your examiners will definitely be more impressed because they know that you know what you’re talking about.

If you’d like more tips for revising English literature, particularly A-Level English Literature, check out this Think Student article.

How to revise for English language

Revision for English language is both similar and very different to English literature. Like English literature, the most important focus for revising English language should be on terminology.

Since meaning isn’t as important as it is in English literature, terminology is what will get you the most marks.

If you’d like more tips on how to revise for A-Level English Language, you can find them in a Think Student article linked here .

What’s the difference between IB Literature vs. IB Language & Literature?

Whether you’re a student who’s trying to decide which subjects to take or a parent who’s trying to understand what your child is studying, this post is for you! We’re going to break down exactly what the difference between Literature vs. Language & Literature in the IB. We’ve broken them down in 3 different levels of detail. Check them out below!

In a sentence

Literature focuses on the analysis of literary works and how authors convey ideas whereas Language & Literature also looks at non-literary works like advertisements, music lyrics, or political propaganda.

In a Paragraph

Literature (Lit) and Language & Literature (Lang&Lit) are two different English A courses offered by the IB, with slightly different focuses. In Lit, students spend their two years in the IB studying 9 (SL) or 13 (HL) works chosen by the teacher. Lang&Lit students study 4 (SL) or 6 (HL) works, but they need not be novels – they can be long poems, short stories, novellas, etc.. Your grade in both subjects is determined by an exam consisting of two papers, an oral presentation relating to excerpts from the works you’ve studied, and (as an HL student) a 1200-1500 word essay on one of the works studied.

The focus of IB Literature is literary texts, learning about approaches to textual criticism, the nature of literature, and the relationship between literature and the wider world. The works you are required to study comes from a set of 3 different types of works: works in translation, works originally in the language studied, and free choice texts (from the prescribed reading list or elsewhere). The texts are typically decided by the Literature teacher, but they may ask for input from students so as to choose texts that are of interest to them.

Your exam in IB Literature consists of 2 papers (Paper 1 and Paper 2). Paper 1 requires you to write an analysis of passages from different literary forms whilst Paper 2 is a comparative essay in which you choose one question out of 4 and answer it using two of the works you studied as your foundation. In addition, you have the IO (Individual Oral) in which you give a 10 minute (plus 5 minutes for questions) response, with reference to your works studied, to the following prompt: “Examine the ways in which the global issue of your choice is presented through the content and form of two of the works that you have studied”. As an HL student, you also write a 1200-1500 word essay one one work studied throughout the course.

In IB Language & Literature, students look at the world of literature, but they also study a wide range of non-literary texts from a variety of media. By examining how English is used across different literary forms students investigate language and how it affects our everyday life, identity, and culture. The syllabus outlines 3 main components that must be covered, each of equal importance:

Readers, writers and texts
Time and space
Intertextuality: connecting texts

You are then assessed in a similar way to IB Literature students, as your exam consists of 2 papers where the first is a textual analysis while the second is a comparative essay. Students also do a 15 minute oral presentation relating to the following prompt: “Examine the ways in which the global issue of your choice is presented through the content and form of two of the texts that you have studied”. HL students are also expected to submit an essay on a non-literary text, literary text, or collection of non-literary texts by one author of 1200-1500 words.

Overall, the two courses work very similarly in structure, but the day-to-day as a student may look completely different due to the completely different focuses. The choice between Lit and Lang&Lit may not be an easy one, so you may want to speak with a tutor to hear what they have to say!

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Figurative Language

Figurative language definition, types of figurative language, short examples of figurative language, examples of figurative language from literature, example #1: the base stealer (by robert francis).

Poised between going on and back, pulled Both ways taut like a tight-rope walker, Now bouncing tiptoe like a dropped ball, Or a kid skipping rope, come on, come on! … Taunts them, hovers like an ecstatic bird, He’s only flirting, crowd him, crowd him,

Example #2: I Know Why the Cage Bird Sings (By Maya Angelou)

But a BIRD that stalks down his narrow cage Can seldom see through his bars of rage His wings are clipped and his feet are tied The caged bird sings with a fearful trill … And his tune is heard on the distant hill for The caged bird sings of freedom.

The entire poem is rich with metaphor as a bird in a cage represents a group of people who are oppressed and cannot get freedom. The cage represents physical barriers, fear, addiction, or society; while the song of the bird represents true self yearning for something greater in life.

Example #3: She Sweeps with Many-Colored Brooms (By Emily Dickinson)

Personification.

She sweeps with many-colored Brooms And leaves the Shreds behind Oh Housewife in the Evening West Come back, and dust the Pond!

Dickinson uses personification of a housewife to describe the sunset in the very first line of this poem. She is using a sweeping housewife who does her daily work, likewise the rays of the setting sun sweep away beneath the horizon.

Example #4: The Raven (By Edgar Allen Poe)

Alliteration.

O nce upon a midnight dreary w hile I pondered w eak and w eary ; r are and r adiant maiden; And the s ilken s ad uncertain rustling of each purple curtain … D eep into that d arkness peering, long I stood there wondering, fearing, D oubting, d reaming d reams no mortal ever d ared to d ream before.

Poe uses alliteration by repeating the /w/ sound to emphasize the weariness of the narrator , and then /r/ and /s/ sounds in the second and third lines respectively. In the last two lines, the /d/ sound highlights the narrator’s hopelessness.

Example #5: The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (By Samuel Taylor Coleridge)

Ah ! well a-day ! what evil looks Had I from old and young ! Instead of the cross , the Albatross About my neck was hung.

In these lines, the albatross symbolizes a big mistake, or a burden of sin, just like the cross on which Christ was crucified. Therefore, all people on the ship agreed to slay that bird.

Example #6: The Bluest Eyes (By Toni Morrison)

Personification, consonance, and simile.

She ran down the street, the green knee socks making her legs look like wild dandelion of stems that had somehow lost their heads. The weight of her remark stunned us.

Example #7: The Week of Diana (By Maya Angelou)

Metaphor, consonance, personification.

“The dark lantern of world sadness has cast its shadow upon the land. We stumble into our misery on leaden feet.”

in just these two lines, Maya Angelou has used a metaphor of the dark lantern, consonance of the /s/ sounds, and personification of misery.

Example #8: The Negro Speaks of River (By Langston Hughes)

Consonance, simile.

“I’ve known rivers: I’ve known rivers ancient as the world and older than the flow of human blood in human veins. My soul has grown deep like the rivers.”

Example #9: Musée des Beaux Arts (By W. H. Auden)

Personification, consonance.

That even the dreadful martyrdom must run its course Anyhow in a corner, some untidy spot Where the dogs go on with their doggy W. H. Auden life and the torturer’s horse Scratches its innocent behind on a tree.

Function of Figurative Language

Understanding The Difference Between Formal and Informal Language in Writing

A good writer knows when to use formal or informal language in their writing. We’ll go over the difference between the two and provide examples.

Formally and informally | What is informal tone? | Formal vs informal tone

Quick Summary of Formal and Informal Language

The main difference between formal and informal language in writing is that formal language is more rigid and less personal, whereas informal language is more easygoing and adaptive.
Deciding on using formal or informal language depends on what you’re writing and who you’re writing it for:
Formal language is usually reserved for professional and academic settings, while informal writing is used for more casual settings, like friendly text messages and creative writing.
There are many differences found in formal and informal writing. One of them is that contractions shouldn’t be used in formal writing, but are acceptable in informal writing .
Vocabulary is another major difference between formal and informal language.

Formal vs. Informal Language

Effective writing has a lot to do with not only what you write but also how you write it. The type of language you use— formal or informal —must suit your audience and setting.

If you want your message to resonate, then it wouldn’t be a good idea to use colloquialisms in formal settings. Similarly, you shouldn’t use rigid language when you’re writing about something light, playful, or funny.

But what exactly is the difference between formal and informal language in writing? That’s what we’ll be covering in this blog. We’ll also provide helpful examples so you can better recognize the difference.

Plus, we’ll show you a paraphrasing tool that’ll ensure your text is pristine, regardless of what you’re writing.

Let’s begin!

What Is The Difference Between Formal and Informal Language?

Compared to formal language, informal language is considered more casual. Informal language also evolves much more rapidly than formal language. While new words or phrases can be introduced to informal language seemingly overnight (e.g., GOAT referring to the greatest of all time) , these changes can take years in formal language (e.g., you replacing thou, thee, and thy ).

But there are also more notable differences between formal and informal language. We’ll give some examples below.

1. Contractions

It is advised to avoid contractions (shortened versions of words) in formal language, but they’re acceptable in informal language.

Unfortunately, the team could not replicate the results. (Formal)

Unfortunately, the team couldn’t replicate the results. ( Informal)

2. Colloquial Phrases/Slang

Formal language is also marked by an absence of colloquial phrases and slang (words or phrases that are common only in everyday speech), but are typically used in informal language.

Everyone was disappointed . (Formal)

Everyone was bummed . ( Informal)

3. First-Person Pronouns

Generally, first-person pronouns (like I and we ) are avoided when writing with formal language. However, it’s accepted (and expected) in informal language.

The students were asked to fill out the questionnaire. (Formal)

Informal: We asked the students to fill out the questionnaire. ( Informal)

4. Phrasal Verbs

When using formal language in your writing, it is also recommended to replace phrasal verbs (proper verbs that are followed by one or more prepositions and act as a single verb).

It was something the protestors could endure . (Formal)

It was something the protestors could put up with . ( Informal)

5. Grammar Rules

When writing for formal settings, it is recommended to follow all grammar rules, even those that are considered trivial. In informal settings, some grammar rules can be ignored. For example, in informal settings, it’s okay to use who in place of whom . However, always using who in place of whom is not recommended when writing with formal language.

Whom do I have to speak to? (Formal)

Who do I have to speak to? ( Informal)

6. Vocabulary Choice

Formal language tends to use longer, more complex vocabulary. Sometimes it is not recommended to use this type of vocabulary with informal language (depending on what you’re writing) because it can confuse or distract your audience.

They needed assistance while recovering from the outcomes of the hurricane. (Formal)

They needed help while recovering from the effects of the hurricane. ( Informal)

Whether you’re writing in a professional or academic setting or a casual and creative one, LanguageTool can provide stronger vocabulary options—all you have to do is double-click on the word. This multilingual spelling and grammar checker can also detect different types of errors, whether you choose to write in formal or informal language.

Deciding When To Use Formal and Informal Language

Remember that choosing when to use formal or informal language in your writing depends on what you’re writing and who your audience is. However, you should also be mindful of the fact that formal and informal language is a spectrum, and some types of writing can fall in between these categories. Regardless of what type of language you’re using in your writing, keep these differences in mind to guarantee the most effective writing possible.

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20 Classic English Books Available as Free PDFs

If you’re looking for free English books online, either in PDF or e-reader formats, start with classic literature .

People have enjoyed these books for a long time, and they still enjoy them today. They contain themes and topics that are relevant to every human being, no matter whether they were born in 1600, 1950 or 2010.

And luckily, many of these books now belong to the public domain and available for free—that’s why you’ll find them readily available to download to your computer, phone or e-reader.

I’ve scoured the internet for some great options to get you started building your digital library. Enjoy!

1. The Story of Doctor Dolittle by Hugh Lofting

2. The Red House Mystery by A.A. Milne
3. The Secret Garden by Frances Hodgson Burnett
4. Treasure Island by Robert Louis Stevenson
5. Black Beauty by Anna Sewell

6. Heidi by Johana Spyri

7. My Man Jeeves by P.G. Wodehouse
8. Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte
9. The Merry Adventures of Robin Hood by Howard Pyle
10. The Red Badge of Courage by Stephen Crane
11. The Picture of Dorian Gray by Oscar Wilde
12. The Count of Monte Cristo by Alexander Dumas
13. The Adventures of Tom Sawyer by Mark Twain
14. The Invisible Man by H.G. Wells
15. Emma by Jane Austen
16. Tarzan of the Apes by Edgar Rice Burroughs
17. The Innocence of Father Brown by G.K. Chesterton
18. Frankenstein by Mary Shelley

19. The Moonstone by Wilkie Collins

20. Dracula by Bram Stoker

And One More Thing...

Doctor Dolittle loves animals. He loves them so much that when his many pets scare away his human patients, he learns how to talk to animals and becomes a veterinarian instead.

He then travels the world to help animals with his unique ability to speak their language.

2. The Red House Mystery by A.A. Milne

Does the name Winnie the Pooh sound familiar? Author A.A. Milne is best remembered for creating the fluffy, yellow teddy bear.

But before he became a famous children’s book author Milne wrote a few adult fiction books. “The Red House Mystery” is one of these.

In this mystery novel, the guests in a man’s home become detectives as they try to find a killer—who is one of them!

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3. The Secret Garden by Frances Hodgson Burnett

The Secret Garden: The Original 1911 Edition (A Frances Hodgson Burnett Classic Novel)

“The Secret Garden” is a touching story about the power of friendship.

Mary Lennox is a spoiled and rude little girl sent by her parents to live at her uncle’s huge home. One day while exploring outside the home, she discovers a secret: a locked garden.

The secret garden helps her make a friend, and thanks to the love of their friendship she learns to be a better person.

4. Treasure Island by Robert Louis Stevenson

Robert Louis Stevenson - Treasure Island

Everything you know about pirates probably came from this one book: wooden legs, parrots on the shoulder and treasure maps.

“Treasure Island” is the story of a boy who sails on a ship searching for treasure, but instead finds himself surrounded by terrible pirates. It’s also a story about growing up, full of action and adventure.

5. Black Beauty by Anna Sewell

Black Beauty: The Original 1877 Edition (A Anna Sewell Classic Novel)

“Black Beauty” is one the best-selling books of all time, and for a good reason—this story about a horse teaches kindness towards animals and people.

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The story is told by the horse. It describes his life and the many cruel people and difficult times he had to live through before finding peace.

It’s a great read even if you’re not a fan of horses.

“Heidi” is a book often described as being “for children and for people who love children.”

It does a great job of showing the world through a little girl’s eyes as she explores the mountains in Switzerland. She makes many friends along the way, but also deals with the kinds of fears that a child would have, like being alone and away from the people who love you.

It’s a long book, but one that’s easy to fall in love with.

7. My Man Jeeves by P.G. Wodehouse

These days not many of us have butlers (servants hired to care for you and your house) but whenever people talk about a butler, his name sometimes comes up as Jeeves.

That name comes from Wodehouse’s series of books featuring the perfect butler Jeeves, and the many humorous adventures he and his employer had.

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8. Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte

Wuthering Heights: The Original 1847 Edition (A Emily Brontë Classic Novel)

Jealousy and revenge are the main themes of “Wuthering Heights,” which is the name of the farmhouse where the story takes place.

This book can be hard to get through, and it’s not because of the vocabulary. It’s a hard book to read because of all the cruelty in it. Still, this is a good book if you’re interested in dramas and passions.

9. The Merry Adventures of Robin Hood by Howard Pyle

Robin Hood is a special kind of thief: he steals from the rich and gives to the poor. This book is a collection of stories about the legendary, kindhearted thief and his group of outlaw friends.

Be prepared for many fun and funny moments, and some with a more serious tone. This book is perfect for reading little by little, since the stories are only connected by their characters.

10. The Red Badge of Courage by Stephen Crane

There are many war books that show how terrible war is physically—all the violence and death. “The Red Badge of Courage” talks instead about the psychological terrors of war.

It’s told from the point of view of a soldier in the Civil War who’s actually running away from the battlefield. It uses many symbols and metaphors to discuss the important themes.

If you can handle the advanced vocabulary, you can find much more meaning hidden in this book.

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11. The Picture of Dorian Gray by Oscar Wilde

What if you could stay young forever? Dorian Gray makes a deal to stay young forever—while a painted portrait of him shows all the signs of aging.

Of course, it turns out this deal he made might not have been such a good idea after all…

12. The Count of Monte Cristo by Alexander Dumas

After being thrown into jail for a crime he didn’t commit, Edmond manages to escape and become rich. With his new money, he tries to get revenge on the people who put him in prison, but his plans don’t quite go like he hopes.

“The Count of Monte Cristo” is about betrayal, love and letting go.

13. The Adventures of Tom Sawyer by Mark Twain

Tom Sawyer is a troublemaking little boy who’s always causing problems, having fun and enjoying many crazy adventures. In this classic tale by Mark Twain, Tom visits his own funeral, stops a crime and tries very hard to get a girl to like him.

Tom Sawyer is a well-known name in American literature and his stories of adventure are very fun to read.

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14. The Invisible Man by H.G. Wells

Being invisible sounds like fun, but is it really?

When a man learns how to make himself invisible, all he gets in return is problems and people betraying him. Maybe he should have just stayed normal…

15. Emma by Jane Austen

Jane Austen is perhaps best known for her novel “Pride and Prejudice,” which is about life and love for rich, upper-class people in the early 1800s.

“Emma” takes place in the same time period, focusing on the character of Emma who is “handsome, clever and rich.”

Emma thinks that she’s great at matching people up to get married, but she soon learns that maybe she shouldn’t interfere with (get involved in) people’s lives so much.

16. Tarzan of the Apes by Edgar Rice Burroughs

Tarzan is a wild man, raised by apes in the middle of the jungle. This book tells about his life among the apes and other animals, and what happens when a wild monkey man meets other humans for the first time.

17. The Innocence of Father Brown by G.K. Chesterton

If you met Father Brown, you wouldn’t realize that he’s a great detective. He’s a small Catholic priest who always carries an umbrella—the kind of person who’s easy to forget.

He’s a great thinker, though, and he can see people for who they really are. “The Innocence of Father Brown” has 12 short stories where the little priest uses his knowledge of human nature to solve mysteries.

18. Frankenstein by Mary Shelley

Creating life from death is Dr. Frankenstein’s dream. When he finally brings a dead man to life, things don’t work out the way he wants.

If you know the Frankenstein monster, you might think he’s a terrible creature.

But this book tells the real story of Dr. Frankenstein’s creation, named only “the monster.” It turns out that the monster might not be such a monster after all.

If you love detective books, you’ll love “The Moonstone,” which might be the first detective novel in the English language!

It has everything that a good mystery needs—a precious jewel is stolen during a young woman’s 18th birthday party.

Who stole the jewel and where is it now? Follow the trail of the thief in this book.

20. Dracula by Bram Stoker

Dracula is one of the best known vampires of all time. If you’ve watched any movies about Dracula, you might be surprised at what the actual book is like.

It’s an epistolary novel, which means it’s written completely in the form of letters, and the story of Dracula is told through other people’s points of view.

It’s an interesting look at the first “modern” vampire, and it’s really a great read.

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Bible Odyssey

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What Was the Original Language of the Bible?

Nicola Denzey Lewis

The Bible’s singular authoritativeness seems to be uncompromised by the many translations that have been created in the past few millennia.

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Detail of a page from Codex Sinaiticus (circa 350 C.E.)

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Results from new revised standard version updated edition.

In third-century B.C.E. Alexandria, Egypt, one of the last of the pharaonic rulers—Ptolemy Philadelphus II—wanted his Jewish subjects to have access to their own holy books. Because of the far-reaching conquests of Alexander the Great, Greek had become the language of the eastern Mediterranean, and Egypt was no exception. Those who identified themselves as Jewish could no longer read their own Scriptures, and Philadelphus was keen to help. More importantly, he wished to collect a compilation of these %%writings, in Greek, for Alexandria’s famous library, which boasted a copy of every book in the known world. Calling together seventy of his best scholars, he charged them with a massive undertaking: each one was to work independently, carefully translating Hebrew texts to Greek.

And then, according to legend, an extraordinary thing happened. When Ptolemy compared the seventy different translations, he found that each copy was precisely like the next. There could be no explanation other than that God himself directed the translators in their work. This new Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint (from the Greek for seventy ), was perfect, authoritative, useful, and—above all—divinely inspired.

Is this legend true? Some maintain that it is. Many scholars, however, prefer to consider this story not for its factual merit but for what it tells us about the historical moment. For one thing, it reveals anxieties over the issue of words and texts and their relationship to ideas of holiness. Does the Bible “mean” something different in its original language than it does in translation? This story about Ptolemy Philadelphus II suggests the opposite: in whatever language, the Bible is still a holy book because God directs the work of the translators.

Most of the Hebrew Bible was written in Hebrew, including all of the Torah, the first five books of the Bible. But around 250 Bible verses (of a total of 23,000)—primarily portions of the Book of Daniel ( Dan 2:4-7:28 ) and fifth-century B.C.E. official court documents embedded in Ezra ( Ezra 4:8-6:18 , Ezra 7:12-26 )—are in a related language, Aramaic. At different times in history, Aramaic transformed from an international language that united people living in different parts of the Assyrian Empire, to the dominant language of Jews living in the Babylonian captivity, to the official language of the western half of the Persian Empire (500 B.C.E.).

During this time, Hebrew was used less and less frequently until it came to be almost exclusively a religious or sacred language. Still today, Jews study and memorize the Torah in Hebrew while worshiping in the synagogue; Hebrew is the language of the liturgy, and no synagogue is complete without at least one Torah scroll, painstakingly hand copied in Hebrew and kept carefully protected at the front of the congregation. Although Jews may read the %%writings of the Torah in English as part of the Hebrew Bible or Tanak—it is only in its original Hebrew that the text is particularly sacred.

Did Alexandrian Jews of the third century B.C.E. consider their Septuagint sacred even though the Hebrew %%writings were translated into Greek? We don’t know the answer to this question, but we do know that for centuries, the Septuagint was the predominant form in which Jews read their Scriptures. Even those Jews of ancient Palestine who spoke primarily Aramaic among themselves knew their Scriptures in Greek, not Hebrew. When the apostle Paul quotes Scripture, it is the Septuagint that he cites.

But what about the New Testament? It’s written in a form of Greek that most educated people of the first century C.E. used every day, known as Koine (“common”) Greek. It was simpler in its style, syntax, and grammar than classical Greek, and it was probably easier for non-native speakers of Greek to learn. While Jesus and his disciples would have spoken Aramaic (in fact, Jesus speaks Aramaic in certain passages of the New Testament, in words like maranatha and ephaphtha and in his cry “Eloi Eloi…”), the Gospel writers wrote in Koine Greek. This means that our earliest Christian literature has already translated Jesus’ words from Aramaic. Some have wondered if this means that Jesus’ words have been altered in meaning, or even if the meaning of his original words could have been lost.

Many Christians counter, however, that the process of translating Scripture from Aramaic to Greek to English (or whatever language) was divinely inspired and guided by God and thus can have no mistake. In its most strict form, this idea is called biblical inerrancy or biblical infallibility, and it is a hallmark of American fundamentalist and Evangelical Protestantism. This view holds that there are no such things as errors because scribes and scholars translated the Bible from its original languages. In essence, this principle has as its basis an idea very similar to the legend of the Septuagint’s translation: whatever language the Bible is in, God guided people to make sure that its sacredness was not lost in translation.

Although numerous editions, or versions, of the Bible have been made over the past two millennia, many American fundamentalists and Evangelicals hold only one translation to be authoritative: the King James Version (or KJV; also known as the Authorized Version, or AV). King James I of England commissioned 47 of the finest scholars in the land to translate the Old Testament from Hebrew and Aramaic and the New Testament from Greek. The impetus for the new translation, which was completed in 1611, came from the Church of England’s push to produce not just an English translation but one that conformed to the tenets of the new Anglican denomination. There was no mystical agreement by different scholars working independently—the translation was a group effort that took considerable labor and that generated controversy in its time.

While Protestants worldwide—particularly English-speaking ones—continue to favor the KJV, other Christians consider different translations to be authoritative. For at least 1500 years, Catholics used a fourth-century C.E. translation of the Scriptures into Latin known as the Vulgate (meaning “commonly used”) for ecclesiastical purposes. Christian Orthodox churches use versions of the Septuagint translated into the language of their national churches. There are also study Bibles used primarily by scholars that aim for the most accurate modern translations of ancient language; there are common-language translations in local slang and vernaculars for Christians seeking more modern and accessible Bibles, and translations such as the New Revised Standard Version (NRSV) aim to use gender-neutral language so as to be more inclusive of women. The interesting thing about these translations is that most are considered to be inspired, authoritative, or sacred to those who use them, even though they are sometimes far from the original languages of the Bible. This sense that the Bible’s holiness transcends language, in fact, makes Christianity unique among Western religious traditions.

Bibliography

Carr, David M. Writing on the Tablet of the Heart: Origins of Scripture and Literature . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.

Nicola Denzey Lewis is a visiting associate professor in the Department of Religious Studies at Brown University. An award-winning teacher and researcher, she is a frequent contributor to Bible Odyssey . She is also featured in documentaries on the Bible and Early Christianity on the History Channel, the BBC, and CNN’s new six-part series, Finding Jesus: Faith, Fact, and Forgery.

Aramaic Literature in the Dead Sea Scrolls

Andrew B. Perrin

What Is the Septuagint?

Jannes Smith

The History of the English Bible

Languages of First-Century Palestine

Samuel Thomas

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