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1.8: The Literary Landscape- Four Major Genres

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• Page ID 87725

• Heather Ringo & Athena Kashyap
• City College of San Francisco via ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative

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The Literary Landscape: Four Major Genres

In the landscape of literature, there are four major genres: poetry, drama, fiction, and creative nonfiction. While there are certain key recognizable features of each genre, these are not so much rules as they are tools, or conventions, the author uses. If we think of literature as its own world, it may help to think of genres more as regions with open borders, where there are no walls and that authors can freely move through if they desire. But, like any traveler, it helps you understand your place in the world if you know where you are located (or at least the "lay of the land"). It can also be interesting to analyze how certain texts break genre conventions. These major genres are briefly outlined below.

"Literary Genres Venn Diagram" by Matt Shirley (2021) licensed CC-BY-SA. This image shows some of the differences and overlap between different genres.

• Emphasis on image or feeling
• More emphasis on rhythm and meter than other genres (older drama, like Shakespeare, often uses rhythm and meter)
• Sometimes rhymes, but not always
• Organized through stanzas and lines
• Does not require a plot or characters, although it may (such as in narrative poetry). Often focuses on single moment or feeling or image
• Meant to be heard as well as read

"I wandered lonely as a cloud" by William Wordsworth (1807)

I wandered lonely as a cloud That floats on high o'er vales and hills, When all at once I saw a crowd, A host, of golden daffodils; Beside the lake, beneath the trees, 5 Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.

Continuous as the stars that shine And twinkle on the milky way, They stretched in never-ending line Along the margin of a bay: 10 Ten thousand saw I at a glance, Tossing their heads in sprightly dance.

The waves beside them danced; but they Out-did the sparkling waves in glee: A poet could not but be gay, In such a jocund company: 15 I gazed—and gazed—but little thought What wealth the show to me had brought:

For oft, when on my couch I lie In vacant or in pensive mood, They flash upon that inward eye Which is the bliss of solitude; 20 And then my heart with pleasure fills, And dances with the daffodils.

In-Text Citation: Wordsworth personified the daffodils as " dancing " (6). The 6 corresponds to the line number.

Works Cited Entry: Wordsworth, William. "I wandered lonely as a cloud." Poems in Two Volumes. London: Longman, 1807.

• Meant to be performed to an audience
• Character List (often); Character names indicate who is speaking (almost always)
• Organized by Acts, Scenes, and Line Numbers
• May include stage directions, but may not
• Plot based (it tells a story, usually involving a conflict of some kind)
• May be written in verse
• Types: Comedy, Tragedy, History, Romance

The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde (excerpt)

THE PERSONS IN THE PLAY

John Worthing, J.P. Algernon Moncrieff Rev. Canon Chasuble, D.D. Merriman, Butler Lane, Manservant Lady Bracknell Hon. Gwendolen Fairfax Cecily Cardew Miss Prism, Governess

ACT 1 SCENE 1

1 Morning-room in Algernon’s flat in Half-Moon Street. The room is luxuriously and artistically furnished. The sound of a piano is heard in the adjoining room.

2 [ Lane is arranging afternoon tea on the table, and after the music has ceased, Algernon enters.]

3 Algernon. Did you hear what I was playing, Lane?

4 Lane. I didn’t think it polite to listen, sir .

5 Algernon. I’m sorry for that, for your sake. I don’t play accurately—any one can play accurately—but I play with wonderful expression. As far as the piano is concerned, sentiment is my forte. I keep science for Life.

6 Lane. Yes, sir .

7 Algernon. And, speaking of the science of Life, have you got the cucumber sandwiches cut for Lady Bracknell?

8 Lane. Yes, sir . [Hands them on a salver.]

9 Algernon. [Inspects them, takes two, and sits down on the sofa.] Oh! . . . by the way, Lane, I see from your book that on Thursday night, when Lord 10 Shoreman and Mr. Worthing were dining with me, eight bottles of champagne are entered as having been consumed.

In-Text Citation: The dynamics of power are indicated by Lane's repeated use of " sir " (Wilde 1.1.4, 6, 8). Here the numbers represent the Act (1), the Scene (1), and the line numbers (4, 6, 8).

Works Cited Entry: Wilde, Oscar. The Importance of Being Earnest. London: St. James' Theatre, 1895.

• Created from the imagination. May be inspired by real events or people, but not chained by the constraints of reality.
• Character based
• Organized through paragraphs and sentences
• Types: Short Story, Novella, Novel

From the oval-shaped flower-bed there rose perhaps a hundred stalks spreading into heart-shaped or tongue-shaped leaves half way up and unfurling at the tip red or blue or yellow petals marked with spots of colour raised upon the surface; and from the red, blue or yellow gloom of the throat emerged a straight bar, rough with gold dust and slightly clubbed at the end. The petals were voluminous enough to be stirred by the summer breeze, and when they moved, the red, blue and yellow lights passed one over the other, staining an inch of the brown earth beneath with a spot of the most intricate colour. The light fell either upon the smooth, grey back of a pebble, or, the shell of a snail with its brown, circular veins, or falling into a raindrop, it expanded with such intensity of red, blue and yellow the thin walls of water that one expected them to burst and disappear. Instead, the drop was left in a second silver grey once more, and the light now settled upon the flesh of a leaf, revealing the branching thread of fibre beneath the surface, and again it moved on and spread its illumination in the vast green spaces beneath the dome of the heart-shaped and tongue-shaped leaves. Then the breeze stirred rather more briskly overhead and the colour was flashed into the air above, into the eyes of the men and women who walk in Kew Gardens in July.

In-Text Citation: The natural world is described in anatomical language, like dismembered body parts, such as the " heart-shaped or tongue-shaped leaves, " the " throat " of the flowers, and the " veins " of the snail shells (Woolf 1). If there are page numbers, the number that goes in the parenthesis is the page number. If there are no page numbers, you can use the paragraph number (Woolf par. 1). If there are not page numbers, and there are too many paragraphs to count, you can just put the author last name (Woolf).

Works Cited Entry: Woolf, Virginia. "Kew Gardens." Monday or Tuesday. New York: Harcourt, 1921.

Creative Nonfiction

• True (not fabricated, not from the imagination). This is a *very important* distinction from the other genres.
• Types: Narrative, Memoir, Literary Criticism, Literary Journalism

I was born in Tuckahoe, near Hillsborough, and about twelve miles from Easton, in Talbot county, Maryland. I have no accurate knowledge of my age, never having seen any authentic record containing it. By far the larger part of the slaves know as little of their ages as horses know of theirs, and it is the wish of most masters within my knowledge to keep their slaves thus ignorant. I do not remember to have ever met a slave who could tell of his birthday. They seldom come nearer to it than planting-time, harvest-time, cherry-time, spring-time, or fall-time. A want of information concerning my own was a source of unhappiness to me even during childhood. The white children could tell their ages. I could not tell why I ought to be deprived of the same privilege. I was not allowed to make any inquiries of my master concerning it. He deemed all such inquiries on the part of a slave improper and impertinent, and evidence of a restless spirit. The nearest estimate I can give makes me now between twenty-seven and twenty-eight years of age. I come to this, from hearing my master say, some time during 1835, I was about seventeen years old.

In-Text Citation: Even from the first paragraph of his narrative, Douglass repeatedly notes the power of " knowledge " and " information ", and of slaveowners' dehumanizing cruelty in withholding knowledge and information, such as birthdays (1). The number here represents the page. Just like in Fiction, if there is no page available, cite the paragraph number (Douglass par. 1). If there no page number, and there are too many paragraphs to count, just cite the last name (Douglass).

Works Cited Entry: Douglass, Frederick. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass . Boston: District Court of Massachusetts, 1845.

All literary works cited on this page are in the public domain.

• Literary Terms
• Definition & Examples
• When & How to Write Within a Genre

I. What is a Genre?

A genre is a category of literature identified by form, content, and style. Genres allow literary critics and students to classify compositions within the larger canon of literature. Genre (pronounced ˈzhän-rə) is derived from the French phrase genre meaning “kind” or “type.”

II. Types and Examples of Genres

Literature could be divided into countless genres and subgenres, but there are three main genres which preside over most subgenres. Here are the main genres in literature:

As poetry has evolved, it has taken on numerous forms, but in general poetry is the genre of literature which has some form of meter or rhyme with focus based on syllable counts, musicality, and division of lines (lineation). Unlike prose which runs from one end of the page to the other, poetry is typically written in lines and blocks of lines known as stanzas .

Here is an excerpt from Maya Angelou’s “Still I Rise”:

You may write me down in history

With your bitter, twisted lies,

You may trod me in the very dirt

But still, like dust, I’ll rise.

Does my sassiness upset you?

Why are you beset with gloom?

‘Cause I walk like I’ve got oil wells

Pumping in my living room.

Just like moons and like suns,

With the certainty of tides,

Just like hopes springing high,

Still I’ll rise.

Prose encompasses any literary text which is not arranged in a poetic form. Put simply, prose is whatever is not poetry. Prose includes novels, short stories, journals, letters, fiction and nonfiction, among others. This article is an example of prose.

Drama is a text which has been written with the intention of being performed for an audience. Dramas range from plays to improvisations on stage. Popular dramas include Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet , Lorraine Hansberry’s A Raisin in the Sun , and Tennessee Williams’ A Streetcar Named Desire.

III. The Importance of Using Genres

Genres give writers a specific type of literature to work within. They allow writers to specialize in one genre or to dabble in others. Students in creative writing may focus in a variety of genres from poetry to prose to nonfiction to playwriting. Genres allow us to classify literature, to deem what is appropriate for a certain type of literature, and to judge the merit of literature based on its genre. In general, genre is a classifying tool which allows us to compare and contrast works within the same genre and to study how works broaden or challenge certain genre-based constraints. New genres like media (writing for television, film, websites, radios, billboards, etc.) and the graphic novel (comic books) are expanding what we consider literature today.

IV. Genres in Literature

The three main genres in literature are prose, poetry, and drama, but there are many more subgenres, or genres within genres. Here are a few examples of other genres in literature:

Maus: A Survivor’s Tale by Art Spiegelman

Maus is an example of a literary genre called the graphic novel, sometimes better known as the comic book. In Maus , Spiegelman tells the story of the Holocaust using animal characters .

Speak by Laurie Halse Anderson

THE FIRST TEN LIES THEY TELL YOU IN HIGH SCHOOL 1. We are here to help you. 2. You will have time to get to your class before the bell rings. 3. The dress code will be enforced. 4. No smoking is allowed on school grounds. 5. Our football team will win the championship this year. 6. We expect more of you here. 7. Guidance counselors are always available to listen. 8. Your schedule was created with you in mind. 9. Your locker combination is private. 10.These will be the years you look back on fondly.   TEN MORE LIES THEY TELL YOU IN HIGH SCHOOL 1. You will use algebra in your adult lives. 2.Driving to school is a privilege that can be taken away. 3. Students must stay on campus during lunch. 4. The new text books will arrive any day now. 5. Colleges care more about you than your SAT scores. 6. We are enforcing the dress code. 7. We will figure out how to turn off the heat soon. 8. Our bus drivers are highly trained professionals. 9. There is nothing wrong with summer school. 10. We want to hear what you have to say.

Speak is an example of young adult fiction, another subgenre of prose. YA fiction appeals to young adults from the ages of twelve to eighteen with coming-of-age stories about various subjects from high school struggles to family conflict to relationships.

There are numerous genres in literature, including poetry and prose, fiction and nonfiction, short stories and novels, dramas, fables , fairytales, legends , biographies, and reference books. The list goes on with countless genres and subgenres categorizing literature in numerous ways based on numerous characteristics and styles of writing.

V. Genres in Pop Culture

Genres are not limited to literature. There are genres of movies, television shows, and songs as well. Here are a few examples of genres in pop culture.

Nicholas Sparks’ The Notebook is considered by many to be the quintessential example of the romance genre in both fiction books and movies. Other movie genres include drama, comedy, romantic comedy, sci-fi, animated, and fantasy.

The are a lot of musical genres. The following are some of the most popular genres:

• Hip hop music
• Classical period
• Country music
• Classical music
• Popular music
• Rhythm and blues
• Heavy metal
• Electronic dance music
• Alternative rock
• Instrumental

VI. Related Terms: Style vs. Genre

Often, an aspect of what allows us to define a genre is the specific style of the writing. The mystery genre purposely uses suspense and withholding certain information from the reader. Different subgenres of poetry are written in different styles: haikus tend to be peaceful or playful, sonnets are often romantic, and free verse is free to hop styles with or without rhyme, with or without line breaks. The difference between style and genre is that genre is an overarching type of literature, whereas style can be considered an aspect of a genre or even of a specific writer’s voice. Here is an example of style versus genre:

We have no idea what’s going on! Who knows? Who could possibly know? Who murdered Mr. Brown?! Everyone is panicking! No one knows what to do! This is insane!

The style of this writing is choppy, overly dramatic, and panicked.

This story investigates the murder of Mr. Brown, who was found dead in the library. 

The genre, on the other hand, is the murder mystery.

VII. In Closing

Genres allow us to divide various types of literature, music, movies, and other art forms into classifiable groups. Beyond the classical genres of prose, poetry, and drama in literature, there are numerous subgenres ranging from fantasy to nonfiction.

List of Terms

• Alliteration
• Amplification
• Anachronism
• Anthropomorphism
• Antonomasia
• APA Citation
• Aposiopesis
• Autobiography
• Bildungsroman
• Characterization
• Circumlocution
• Cliffhanger
• Comic Relief
• Connotation
• Deus ex machina
• Deuteragonist
• Doppelganger
• Double Entendre
• Dramatic irony
• Equivocation
• Extended Metaphor
• Figures of Speech
• Flash-forward
• Foreshadowing
• Intertextuality
• Juxtaposition
• Literary Device
• Malapropism
• Onomatopoeia
• Parallelism
• Pathetic Fallacy
• Personification
• Point of View
• Polysyndeton
• Protagonist
• Red Herring
• Rhetorical Device
• Rhetorical Question
• Science Fiction
• Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
• Synesthesia
• Turning Point
• Understatement
• Urban Legend
• Verisimilitude
• Essay Guide
• Cite This Website

Definition of Genre

Genre originates from the French word meaning kind or type. As a literary device, genre refers to a form, class, or type of literary work. The primary genres in literature are poetry, drama / play , essay , short story , and novel . The term genre is used quite often to denote literary sub-classifications or specific types of literature such as comedy , tragedy , epic poetry, thriller , science fiction , romance , etc.

It’s important to note that, as a literary device, the genre is closely tied to the expectations of readers. This is especially true for literary sub-classifications. For example, Jane Austen ’s work is classified by most as part of the romance fiction genre, as demonstrated by this quote from her novel Sense and Sensibility :

When I fall in love, it will be forever.

Though Austen’s work is more complex than most formulaic romance novels, readers of Austen’s work have a set of expectations that it will feature a love story of some kind. If a reader found space aliens or graphic violence in a Jane Austen novel, this would undoubtedly violate their expectations of the romantic fiction genre.

Difference Between Style and Genre

Although both seem similar, the style is different from the genre. In simple terms, style means the characters or features of the work of a single person or individual. However, the genre is the classification of those words into broader categories such as modernist, postmodernist or short fiction and novels, and so on. Genres also have sub-genre, but the style does not have sub-styles. Style usually have further features and characteristics.

Common Examples of Genre

Genres could be divided into four major categories which also have further sub-categories. The four major categories are given below.

• Poetry: It could be categorized into further sub-categories such as epic, lyrical poetry, odes , sonnets , quatrains , free verse poems, etc.
• Fiction : It could be categorized into further sub-categories such as short stories, novels, skits, postmodern fiction, modern fiction, formal fiction, and so on.
• Prose : It could be further categorized into sub-genres or sub-categories such as essays, narrative essays, descriptive essays, autobiography , biographical writings, and so on.
• Drama: It could be categorized into tragedy, comedy, romantic comedy, absurd theatre, modern play, and so on.

Common Examples of Fiction Genre

In terms of literature, fiction refers to the prose of short stories, novellas , and novels in which the story originates from the writer’s imagination. These fictional literary forms are often categorized by genre, each of which features a particular style, tone , and storytelling devices and elements.

Here are some common examples of genre fiction and their characteristics:

• Literary Fiction : a work with artistic value and literary merit.
• Thriller : features dark, mysterious, and suspenseful plots.
• Horror : intended to scare and shock the reader while eliciting a sense of terror or dread; may feature scary entities such as ghosts, zombies, evil spirits, etc.
• Mystery : generally features a detective solving a case with a suspenseful plot and slowly revealing information for the reader to piece together.
• Romance : features a love story or romantic relationship; generally lighthearted, optimistic, and emotionally satisfying.
• Historical : plot takes place in the past with balanced realism and creativity; can feature actual historical figures, events, and settings.
• Western : generally features cowboys, settlers, or outlaws of the American Old West with themes of the frontier.
• Bildungsroman : story of a character passing from youth to adulthood with psychological and/or moral growth; the character becomes “educated” through loss, a journey, conflict , and maturation.
• Science Fiction : speculative stories derived and/or inspired by natural and social sciences; generally features futuristic civilizations, time travel, or space exploration.
• Dystopian : sub-genre of science fiction in which the story portrays a setting that may appear utopian but has a darker, underlying presence that is problematic.
• Fantasy : speculative stories with imaginary characters in imaginary settings; can be inspired by mythology or folklore and generally include magical elements.
• Magical Realism : realistic depiction of a story with magical elements that are accepted as “normal” in the universe of the story.
• Realism : depiction of real settings, people, and plots as a means of approaching the truth of everyday life and laws of nature.

Examples of Writers Associated with Specific Genre Fiction

Writers are often associated with a specific genre of fictional literature when they achieve critical acclaim, public notoriety, and/or commercial success with readers for a particular work or series of works. Of course, this association doesn’t limit the writer to that particular genre of fiction. However, being paired with a certain type of literature can last for an author’s entire career and beyond.

Here are some examples of writers that have become associated with specific fiction genre:

• Stephen King: horror
• Ray Bradbury : science fiction
• Jackie Collins: romance
• Toni Morrison: black feminism
• John le Carré: espionage
• Philippa Gregory: historical fiction
• Jacqueline Woodson: racial identity fiction
• Philip Pullman: fantasy
• Flannery O’Connor: Southern Gothic
• Shel Silverstein: children’s poetry
• Jonathan Swift : satire
• Larry McMurtry: western
• Virginia Woolf: feminism
• Raymond Chandler: detective fiction
• Colson Whitehead: Afrofuturism
• Gabriel García Márquez : magical realism
• Madeleine L’Engle: children’s fantasy fiction
• Agatha Christie : mystery
• John Green : young adult fiction
• Margaret Atwood: dystopian

Famous Examples of Genre in Other Art Forms

Most art forms feature genre as a means of identifying, differentiating, and categorizing the many forms and styles within a particular type of art. Though there are many crossovers when it comes to genre and no finite boundaries, most artistic works within a particular genre feature shared patterns , characteristics, and conventions.

Here are some famous examples of genres in other art forms:

• Music : rock, country, hip hop, folk, classical, heavy metal, jazz, blues
• Visual Art : portrait, landscape, still life, classical, modern, impressionism, expressionism
• Drama : comedy, tragedy, tragicomedy , melodrama , performance, musical theater, illusion
• Cinema : action, horror, drama, romantic comedy, western, adventure , musical, documentary, short, biopic, fantasy, superhero, sports

Examples of Genre in Literature

As a literary device, the genre is like an implied social contract between writers and their readers. This does not mean that writers must abide by all conventions associated with a specific genre. However, there are organizational patterns within a genre that readers tend to expect. Genre expectations allow readers to feel familiar with the literary work and help them to organize the information presented by the writer. In addition, keeping with genre conventions can establish a writer’s relationship with their readers and a framework for their literature.

Here are some examples of genres in literature and the conventions they represent:

Example 1: Macbeth by William Shakespeare

Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow , Creeps in this petty pace from day to day To the last syllable of recorded time, And all our yesterdays have lighted fools The way to dusty death. Out, out , brief candle! Life’s but a walking shadow, a poor player That struts and frets his hour upon the stage And then is heard no more: it is a tale Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, Signifying nothing.

The formal genre of this well-known literary work is Shakespearean drama or play. Macbeth can be sub-categorized as a literary tragedy in that the play features the elements of a classical tragic work. For example, Macbeth’s character aligns with the traits and path of a tragic hero –a protagonist whose tragic flaw brings about his downfall from power to ruin. This tragic arc of the protagonist often results in catharsis (emotional release) and potential empathy among readers and members of the audience .

In addition to featuring classical characteristics and conventions of the tragic genre, Shakespeare’s play also resonates with modern readers and audiences as a tragedy. In this passage, one of Macbeth’s soliloquies , his disillusionment, and suffering is made clear in that, for all his attempts and reprehensible actions at gaining power, his life has come to nothing. Macbeth realizes that death is inevitable, and no amount of power can change that truth. As Macbeth’s character confronts his mortality and the virtual meaninglessness of his life, readers and audiences are called to do the same. Without affirmation or positive resolution , Macbeth’s words are as tragic for readers and audiences as they are for his own character.

Like  M a cbeth , Shakespeare’s tragedies are as currently relevant as they were when they were written. The themes of power, ambition, death, love, and fate incorporated in his tragic literary works are universal and timeless. This allows tragedy as a genre to remain relatable to modern and future readers and audiences.

Example 2: The Color Purple by Alice Walker

All my life I had to fight. I had to fight my daddy . I had to fight my brothers. I had to fight my cousins and my uncles. A girl child ain’t safe in a family of men. But I never thought I’d have to fight in my own house. She let out her breath. I loves Harpo, she say. God knows I do. But I’ll kill him dead before I let him beat me.

The formal genre of this literary work is novel. Walker’s novel can be sub-categorized within many fictional genres. This passage represents and validates its sub-classification within the genre of feminist fiction. Sofia’s character, at the outset, is assertive as a black woman who has been systematically marginalized in her community and family, and she expresses her independence from the dominance and control of men. Sofia is a foil character for Celie, the protagonist, who often submits to the power, control, and brutality of her husband. The juxtaposition of these characters indicates the limited options and harsh consequences faced by women with feminist ideals in the novel.

Unfortunately, Sofia’s determination to fight for herself leads her to be beaten close to death and sent to prison when she asserts herself in front of the white mayor’s wife. However, Sofia’s strong feminist traits have a significant impact on the other characters in the novel, and though she is not able to alter the systemic racism and subjugation she faces as a black woman, she does maintain her dignity as a feminist character in the novel.

Example 3: A Word to Husbands by Ogden Nash

To keep your marriage brimming With love in the loving cup, Whenever you’re wrong, admit it; Whenever you’re right, shut up.

The formal genre of this literary work is poetry. Nash’s poem would be sub-categorized within the genre of humor . The poet’s message to what is presumably his fellow husbands is witty, clear, and direct–through the wording and message of the last poetic line may be unexpected for many readers. In addition, the structure of the poem sets up the “punchline” at the end. The piece begins with poetic wording that appears to romanticize love and marriage, which makes the contrasting “base” language of the final line a satisfying surprise and ironic twist for the reader. The poet’s tone is humorous and light-hearted which also appeals to the characteristics and conventions of this genre.

Synonyms of Genre

Genre doesn’t have direct synonyms . A few close meanings are category, class, group, classification, grouping, head, heading, list, set, listing, and categorization. Some other words such as species, variety, family, school, and division also fall in the category of its synonyms.

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What is Genre? Definition, Usage, and Literary Examples

Genre definition.

A  genre  (ZHAWN-ruh) is a category of literature in which different works share certain accepted conventions. Ancient Greek writers identified three main literary genres— poetry ,  prose , and  drama —as a way of categorizing the written word. But, over the subsequent centuries, evolving literary customs required the addition of numerous genres and subgenres to this list; naturally, some genres virtually disappeared as their popularity dwindled. Today, the four main literary genres are fiction, nonfiction, drama, and poetry.

The word  genre  comes from the French for “kind, sort, or style.”

Characteristics of Genre

Every genre shares certain overarching characteristics, though how these characteristics present themselves differ.

Form describes how a writer constructs, structures, and organizes a written work. Form in poetry consists of  meter ,  rhythm , line length, and number of  stanzas , among other factors. Form in fiction and drama follows generally agreed-upon ideas of  plot : a beginning, rising action, a climax, falling action, a resolution, and a conclusion. Nonfiction form can vary greatly depending on the type of work, but it still usually adheres to a basic plot structure.

Style is the way a writer uses words and language to convey meaning,  mood , and story. Style in poetry typically involves intensely descriptive language to paint a vivid mental picture, while style in fiction focuses on plot and character development through certain literary techniques and word choices. Nonfiction style can be more emotionally detached and journalistic, like in a  biography  of a political figure, or it can be very personal and intimate, as is the case in most  memoirs . Dramatic style is the approach a playwright takes to tell their story and explore the themes of the work; for example, they might employ farcical elements and plenty of jokes in a comedy, and serious dialogue and ominous  settings  in a drama.

A subject is the topic the genre centers on. Broad subjects appear across multiple genres, such as the struggle of good versus evil, quests and adventures, and the eternal mysteries of life, love, and death. Narrower subjects, however, tend to fall into specific genres; you would likely classify an epic quest about futuristic space exploration as a work in the  science fiction  genre.

Technique and style share similarities, but technique is more formal in nature. It consists of the methods a writer uses to construct language and present their story.  Metaphors  and  imagery  are common poetic techniques.  Foreshadowing  and  exposition  are popular among writers of fiction and nonfiction. Playwrights often use techniques of symbolism and  allegory  to make larger statements about human nature.

Tone  is the attitude of the writer. Poetic tone is philosophical, engaged, and observant. In fiction and nonfiction, tone is the writer’s viewpoint and  perspective  on the story. In drama, tone is the overall way the playwright presents the work and the mood they set; for example, you probably wouldn’t mistake a  Shakespearean tragedy  for a bedroom sex  farce , as the former would have a serious tone and the latter would have a lighter, sillier one.

Major Genres and Subgenres

Beyond the four basic genres (fiction, nonfiction, poetry, and drama), there are narrower subsets of each, called subgenres. The difference between genres and subgenres is somewhat malleable, as most people think of common subgenres as genres in and of themselves.

Take, for example, romance novels. Technically, romance novels are a subgenre of fiction. However, many people consider romance as a distinct genre because it contains so many subgenres: historical romance, contemporary romance, supernatural romance, romantic mysteries, romantic science fiction, etc.

Other fiction subgenres that often stand on their own include fantasy, science fiction,  mysteries  and suspense novels, thrillers, and  children’s  and young adult fiction. Of course, you can easily break these down into further subgenres: high and low fantasy and sword-and-sorcery; space operas, cyberpunk, and dystopias; noir, cozy mysteries, and police procedurals; horror, psychological thrillers, and legal thrillers; and picture books, “social problem” novels, and coming-of-age novels.

Autobiographies , biographies, creative nonfiction, memoirs, journalism, and science writing are popular nonfiction subgenres. Poetry subgenres include contemporary poetry, classic poetry, confessional poetry, and slam poetry. Comedies, tragedies, farces,  satires , comedies of manners, family dramas, and musicals are subgenres of drama.

All these subgenres can function as standalone genres and can be further divided into even smaller subgenres. Also, note that a genre is a system of classification, while categories are divisions within a system of classification. So, this makes the terms  subgenre  and  category  interchangeable.

The Function of Genre

Genre establishes a general code for writers to follow based on the accepted standards. This code also inspires many writers to challenge the conventions of genre and create works that defy them; for instance, Truman Capote’s classic  In Cold Blood  is often classified as a nonfiction novel, thereby spanning two genres.

Individual genres serve specific functions. Fiction and poetry spark the reader’s imagination, provide entertainment, and encourage new ways of experiencing the world. Nonfiction is primarily educational, introducing readers to subjects and ideas and sharing valuable insights. Drama is entertaining and stirs readers/viewers to think about the dynamics of interpersonal relationships, the foibles of human nature, and the points in communion we all share, as well those areas of divergence that divide us.

The end goal of genre is to set the reader’s expectation of the work. For example, you have a general idea of the type of work you’re going to read when you pick up a book of poetry; you wouldn’t mistake it for a novel or play.

Genres Outside of Literature

Genre classifications outside of literature serve the same purpose: to shape one’s expectations of the work and appeal to a specific audience by following a basic set of standards.

Film and television genres include drama, comedy, action/adventure, mystery, horror, and documentary. Pop, country, hip-hop, R&B, classical, and dance are all genres of music. The gaming world consists of many genres as well, such as role-playing, simulations, and shooter games.

Examples of Genre in Literature

1. William Shakespeare,  Hamlet

Shakespeare’s plays are all dramas that are further classified as comedies, tragedies, or histories.  Hamlet  is a tragedy because, in the end, nearly all the major characters are dead. The ghost of the King of Denmark instructs his son, Hamlet, to avenge his murder by killing the new king, Hamlet’s uncle Claudius. Hamlet pretends to be mad so he can seek revenge, while a suspicious Claudius also plots to kill Hamlet. The final scene culminates in a duel, in which the King, Queen Gertrude, Hamlet’s opponent, and Hamlet all die.

2. Rachel Carson,  Silent Spring

Carson’s 1962 environmental science book is a classic work of nonfiction. She documents the dangers of pesticides, the malfeasance of the chemical industry, and the failure of elected officials to protect the public and the environment. Aspects of the book speak to humankind’s relationship to the natural world and how, in recent years, humans have developed the power to destroy nature in major, irreversible ways.

3. James Baldwin,  If Beale Street Could Talk

Baldwin’s 1974 novel is a work of fiction. It also falls into several subgenres, including romance/love story, African American literature, and social novel. Set in Harlem, New York, in the 1970s, it chronicles the relationship between 19-year-old Tish and 22-year-old Fonny. After they become engaged, Tish discovers she is pregnant. Then, police arrest Fonny after another woman accuses him of rape. The inequities of the criminal justice system keep Tish and Fonny apart, forcing them to fashion their own version of marriage and family with Fonny behind bars.

Further Resources on Genre

An English teacher provides an overview of genres and subgenres in  an informative YouTube video .

Writers Write looks at  the 17 most popular genres/subgenres and why they matter .

Owlcation delves into the differences between  genre and form .

Electric Lit has  a list of books  that they think proves that genre distinctions are bogus.

On the other end of the spectrum, Oxford University Press discusses  why literary genres are essential .

Related Terms

• Autobiography
• Dramatic Monologue
• Figurative Language
• Narrative Poem
• Point of View
• Rhyme Scheme
• Science Fiction

Literary Genres — Definition, Types, and Examples

Genres of literature

Genre is the classification of literature based on its content, form, or style. Each genre has a specific set of characteristics, and while literary works do not need to abide strictly by those traits, each example of a genre must display some of the associated features.

Types of genres

Some of the most popular literary genres include drama, fantasy, mystery, nonfiction, thriller, and the following:

An autobiography is an account of the writer’s own life; a biography is an account of an individual’s life written by someone else.

Often associated with a coming-of-age story, bildungsroman works focus on a character’s literal or metaphorical journey through loss, personal growth, and maturation; many of these works are written for young adults.

A drama depicts fictional or non-fictional events through performance (i.e., play).

Works of fantasy incorporate magical and supernatural elements. They are typically set in an imaginary world that features fantastic and mythical characters and events.

Historical fiction novels combine historical figures and events with fictional stories.

Horror stories aim to create feelings of fear, dread, repulsion, and terror in the reader.

Magical realism consists of works that accurately depict the real world while including fantastical elements. These elements are not considered unrealistic by the characters in the work.

A mystery , also known as detective fiction or procedural, follows the main character attempting to solve a mystery. Mystery novels often turn the reader into a detective by only providing certain information as the plot progresses.

Nonfiction writing is based on facts, real people, and actual events, making the genre mainly informational or instructional.

Science fiction , or sci-fi , focuses on predictions of what the world might become in the future. Science fiction authors attempt to create details that are technically possible and based on scientific or rational thought, causing the genre to differ from fantasy. Science fiction settings are sometimes in outer space or a dystopian Earth.

Thrillers incorporate plots driven by suspense and typically keep the reader guessing through twists and cliffhangers.

Westerns focus on settlers, cowboys, and outlaws exploring America’s western frontier.

Each genre category can be distinguished by its characteristics, even though some may overlap. New genres are created as cultures and taste change and others fade away. Some different genres also have sub-genres under them, such as the following:

A romantic comedy is a funny love story.

Time travel novels may combine historical fiction and science fiction to show historical events from a future perspective or time period.

Fairy tales are typically children’s stories with an element of magic or fantasy and sometimes a moral.

Gothic fiction became popular in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, featuring mystery and horror stories often taking place in medieval castles. Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is a famous example.

Dystopian fiction imagines a future society with suffering or injustice.

Action-adventure stories follow the protagonist’s quest to reach some sort goal.

Espionage novels, like Ian Fleming’s James Bond series, detail a spy’s activities.

Graphic novels are novels in comic-strip format and became popular in the late 21st century.

Genre examples

The following list categorizes various literary works into the appropriate genre:

Autobiography/Biography

I Am Malala by Malala Yousafzai is an autobiographical account of Yousafzai’s experience of being shot by the Taliban due to her activism in the fight to provide girls and women with access to education.

Churchill: A Life by Martin Gilbert details a portrait of Winston Churchill’s youth, education, and early military career in a biography.

Bildungsroman

To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee follows the growth of young Scout Finch as she becomes familiar with the effects of racism.

The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger is a coming-of-age novel that tracks the growth of protagonist Holden Caufield as he comes to terms with who he is and how he fits into the world around him.

Oedipus Rex by Sophocles is a tragic play that follows Oedipus as he discovers the truth behind his ill-fated life.

A Midsummer Night’s Dream by Willian Shakespeare is a comedy that satirizes the idea of love by detailing the lives of four Athenian youths.

Alice in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll is a fantastical novel that follows Alice through various absurd and illogical scenarios after falling down a rabbit hole and ending up in Wonderland.

The Lord of the Rings by J.R.R. Tolkien details the journey of various mythological beings traveling to save their world from personified evil.

Historical Fiction

The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck follows the fictional Joad family who heads west after losing their farm because of the Dust Bowl to find work as the Great Depression impacts the entire country.

Beloved by Toni Morrison is set after the Civil War and tells the story of a formerly enslaved person whose house is haunted by an evil spirit.

“The Tell-Tale Heart” by Edgar Allan Poe shows the protagonist’s guilt after committing a murder as a beating heart under his floorboards where he hid the body.

The Haunting of Hill House by Shirley Jackson follows a parapsychologist as he attempts to legitimize the study of the paranormal. Therefore, he invites a group of people to spend the summer in a supposedly haunted house.

Magical Realism

One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel Garcia Marquez details the creation of a utopian city in the middle of a swamp through the eyes of the Buendia family. The town survives for a hundred years until a five-year storm nearly wipes it from existence.

The House of the Spirits by Isabella Allende follows the Trueba family and their deep connection with the spirit world as they traverse through a turbulent world.

And Then There Were None by Agatha Christie is the story of ten people invited to a mansion. With the hosts remaining unknown, each guest must confront their troubling pasts.

The Da Vinci Code by Dan Brown follows symbologist Robert Langford as he attempts to decode a set of riddles that will help shed light on a murder in the Louvre.

The Diary of a Young Girl by Anne Frank is a published version of Anne’s diary, which tells of her Jewish family’s experience hiding from the Nazis during World War II.

Night by Elie Wiesel details his experiences as a fifteen-year-old boy during the Holocaust as he is forced to live in multiple concentration camps with his father.

Science Fiction

Brave New World by Aldous Huxley is set in the year 2540. Huxley predicts a radical future that revolves around science and efficiency and the removal of emotions and individuality.

1984 by George Orwell predicts a future where everyone is constantly under surveillance by the Party, a group that has brainwashed the citizens into blindly following its leader, Big Brother.

Gone Girl by Gillian Flynn details the disappearance of a woman and the resulting investigation that suggests her husband is a murderer.

Misery by Stephen King follows a famous author as a deranged fan imprisons him. When the author is seriously injured due to a car crash, the fan brings him into her house but forbids him from leaving.

Shane by Jack Schaefer follows events occurring in a small outpost in Wyoming when the mysterious titular character who refuses to carry a gun arrives as a cattle driver attempts to take land from a family.

Dragon Teeth by Michael Crichton focuses on the conflict between two men as they search for dinosaur bones in the 1860s.

What is a Genre? Definition, Examples of Genres in Literature

Home » The Writer’s Dictionary » What is a Genre? Definition, Examples of Genres in Literature

Genre definition: Genre is the organization and classification of writing.

What is Genre in Literature?

What does genre mean? Genre is the organization of literature into categories based on the type of writing the piece exemplifies through its content, form, or style.

Example of Literary Genre

The poem “My Papa’s Waltz” by Theodore Roethke fits under the genre of poetry because its written with lines that meter and rhythm and is divided into stanzas.

It does not follow the traditional sentence-paragraph format that is seen in other genres

Types of Literary Genre

There are a few different types of genre in literature. Let’s examine a few of them.

Poetry : Poetry is a major literary genre that can take many forms. Some common characteristics that poetry shares are that it is written in lines that have meter and rhythm. These lines are put together to form stanza in contrast to other writings that utilize sentences that are divided into paragraphs. Poetry often relies heavily on figurative language such as metaphors and similes in order to convey meanings and create images for the reader.

• “Sonnet 18” is a poem by William Shakespeare that falls within this category of literature. It is a structured poem that consists of 14 lines that follow a meter (iambic pentameter) and a rhyme scheme that is consist with Shakespearean Sonnets.

Drama : This literary genre is often also referred to as a play and is performed in front of an audience. Dramas are written through dialogue and include stage directions for the actors to follow.

• The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde would be considered a drama because it is written through dialogue in the form of a script that includes stage directions to aid the actors in the performance of the play.

Prose : Prose is a type of writing that is written through the use of sentences. These sentences are combined to form paragraphs. This type of writing is broad and includes both fiction and non-fiction.

• To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee is an example of fictional prose. It is written in complete sentences and divided through paragraphs.

Fiction : Fiction is a type of prose that is not real. Authors have the freedom to create a story based on characters or events that are products of their imaginations. While fiction can be based on true events, the stories they tell are imaginative in nature.

Like poetry, this genre also uses figurative language; however, it is more structural in nature and more closely follows grammatical conventions. Fiction often follows Freytag’s plot pyramid that includes an exposition, inciting incident, rising action, climax, falling action, resolution, and dénouement.

• The novel Slaughterhouse Five by Kurt Vonnegut is an example of a fictional story about the main character’s experience with his self-acclaimed ability to time travel.

Nonfiction : Nonfiction is another type of prose that is factual rather than imaginative in nature. Because it is more factual and less imaginative, it may use less figurative language. Nonfiction varies however from piece to piece. It may tell a story through a memoir or it could be strictly factual in nature like a history textbook.

• The memoir Night by Elie Wiesel is a memoir telling the story of Wiesel’s experience as a young Jewish boy during the Holocaust.

The Function of Genre

Genre is important in order to be able to organize writings based on their form, content, and style.

For example, this allows readers to discern whether or not the events being written about in a piece are factual or imaginative. Genre also distinguishes the purpose of the piece and the way in which it is to be delivered. In other words, plays are meant to be performed and speeches are meant to be delivered orally whereas novels and memoirs are meant to be read.

Summary: What Are Literary Genres?

Define genre in literature: Genre is the classification and organization of literary works into the following categories: poetry, drama, prose, fiction, and nonfiction. The works are divided based on their form, content, and style. While there are subcategories to each of these genres, these are the main categories in which literature is divided.

Final Example:

The short story “The Cask of Amontillado” by Edgar Allan Poe is a fictional short story that is written in prose. It fits under the prose category because it is written using complete sentences that follow conventional grammar rules that are then formed into paragraphs.

The story is also identified as fictional because it is an imagined story that follows the plot structure.

Genres in Literature

• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

In literature, every piece of writing falls under a general category, also known as a genre. We experience genres is other parts of our daily lives, such as movies and music, and in each case, the individual genres typically have distinctive styles in terms of how they are composed. At the most basic level, there are essentially three main genres for literature - poetry, prose and drama - and each can be broken down even further, resulting in dozens of subgenres for each. Some resources will cite only two genres: fiction and non-fiction, though many classics will argue that fiction and non-fiction can, and do, both fall under poetry, drama or prose.  

While there is much debate over what constitutes a genre in literature, for the purposes of this article, we will break down the classic three. From there, we will outline some of the subgenres for each, including those that some believe should be classified as main genres.

Poetry is a style of writing that tends to be written in verses, and typically employs a rhythmic and measured approach to composition. It characteristically is known for evoking emotional responses from readers through its melodic tone and use of creative language that is often imaginative and symbolic in nature. The word “poetry” comes from the Greek word “poiesis” which essentially means, making, which is translated into the making of poetry. Poetry is typically divided into two main subgenres, narrative and lyric, which each have additional types that fall under their respective umbrellas. For example, narrative poetry includes ballads and epic tales, while lyric poetry includes sonnets, psalms and even folk songs. Poetry can be fiction or nonfiction.

Prose is essentially identified as written text that aligns with the flow of conversation in sentence and paragraph form, as opposed to verses and stanzas in poetry . Writing of prose employs common grammatical structure and a natural flow of speech, not a specific tempo or rhythm as is seen in traditional poetry. Prose as a genre can be broken down into a number of subgenres including both fiction and non-fiction works. Examples of prose can range from news, biographies and essays to novels, short stories, plays and fables. The subject matter, if it is fiction versus nonfiction and length of the work, are not taken into consideration when classifying it as prose, but rather the style of writing that is conversational is what lands works in this genre.

Drama is defined as theatrical dialogue that is performed on stage and traditionally is comprised of five acts. It is generally broken down into four subgenres including comedy, melodrama, tragedy and farce. In many cases, dramas will actually overlap with poetry and prose, depending on the writing style of the author. Some dramatic pieces are written in a poetic style, while others employ a more casual writing style seen in prose, to better relate to the audience. Like both poetry and prose, dramas can be fiction or nonfiction, though most are fictional or inspired by real life, but not completely accurate.

The Genre and Subgenre Debate

Beyond these three basic genres, if you conduct an online search for “genres of literature,” you will find dozens of conflicting reports that claim any number of main genres that exist. There is often debate over what constitutes genre, but in most cases, there is a misunderstanding of the difference between genre and subject matter. It’s common for subject matter to be considered a genre in not only literature, but also in movies and even games, both of which are often based on or inspired by books . These subjects can include biography, business, fiction, history, mystery, comedy, romance and thrillers. Subjects may also include cooking, self help, diet and fitness, religion and many many more.  

Subjects and subgenres, however, can often be intermixed. Though, it can be a challenge to determine how many subgenres or subjects actually exist, as there are differing opinions on each, and new ones are created regularly. For example, young adult writing has become increasingly popular, and some would classify it as a subgenre of prose.

The difference between genre and subject is often blurred by the world around us. Think of a time when you last visited a bookstore or library. Most likely, the books were divided into sections - fiction and non-fiction for sure - and further categorized based on the type of books, such as self-help, historic, science fiction and others. Many people assume that these categorizations of subject matter are genre, and as a result, common language today has adopted a casual use of genre to mean subject.

• A Brief History of English Literature
• What Is a Novel? Definition and Characteristics
• Word Choice in English Composition and Literature
• An Introduction to Literary Nonfiction
• What Is Drama? Literary Definition and Examples
• What Is Prose?
• Are Literature and Fiction the Same?
• What Is Narrative Poetry? Definition and Examples
• What Is a Synopsis and How Do You Write One?
• Anthology: Definition and Examples in Literature
• What Is the Canon in Literature?
• Gothic Literature
• The Basic Characteristics of Effective Writing
• A Guide to All Types of Narration, With Examples
• What Is Burlesque Literature?
• Interior Monologues

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INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE: FORMS, DIVISIONS, AND SUBDIVISIONS

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List of Literary Genres

Literary genres are categories or classifications of literature that are defined by common characteristics and themes. Here is a list of some of the most common literary genres:

1. Fiction:

Novel: A long work of prose fiction that tells a complex story with developed characters.

Short Story: A brief work of fiction that typically focuses on a single character or incident.

Novella: A shorter work of fiction that is longer than a short story but shorter than a novel.

Epic Poetry: Long narrative poems that often celebrate heroic deeds and adventures.

Sonnet: A 14-line poem with specific rhyme and meter patterns.

Haiku: A traditional Japanese form of poetry with three lines and a 5-7-5 syllable pattern.

Limerick: A humorous poem with a specific five-line rhyming scheme (AABBA).

Tragedy: A genre that explores serious and often fatal events and their impact on characters.

Comedy: A genre that aims to amuse and entertain through humor and lighthearted situations.

Melodrama: A dramatic genre characterized by exaggerated emotions and sensational events.

4. Nonfiction:

Biography: A narrative account of a person’s life.

Autobiography: A person’s account of their own life.

Essay: A short piece of nonfiction that explores a specific topic or idea.

Memoir: A type of autobiography that focuses on a specific period or theme in the author’s life.

5. Fantasy:

High Fantasy: Set in entirely fictional worlds with its own rules and magic systems (e.g., Tolkien’s Middle-earth).

Low Fantasy: Fantasy elements are incorporated into the real world (e.g., Harry Potter series).

6. Science Fiction:

Hard Science Fiction: Emphasizes scientific accuracy and plausible futuristic technology.

Space Opera: Focuses on grand adventures, often set in space, with less emphasis on scientific accuracy.

7. Mystery:

Detective Fiction: Features a detective or investigator solving a crime or mystery.

Thriller: Emphasizes suspense, tension, and danger often involving crime or espionage.

8. Romance:

Historical Romance: Set in a historical time period and often features passionate love stories.

Contemporary Romance: Set in modern times and explores romantic relationships.

Gothic Horror: Often set in eerie, dark, or supernatural settings.

Psychological Horror: Focuses on the psychological torment and fear of the characters.

10. Adventure:

Action-Adventure: Combines action, adventure, and often involves heroic quests or journeys.

Survival Fiction: Focuses on characters’ struggle for survival in challenging environments.

11. Other Genres:

Satire: Uses humor, irony, or sarcasm to criticize and mock human vices or societal issues.

Historical Fiction: Set in a specific historical period and often combines fictional characters with real historical events.

Dystopian Fiction: Depicts a bleak future society with oppressive or nightmarish characteristics.

Children’s Literature: Written for and typically targeted at children or young adults, including picture books, middle-grade, and young adult (YA) fiction.

Magical Realism: Blurs the line between reality and the supernatural, often incorporating magical elements into everyday life.

Western: Typically set in the American Old West and often involves themes of exploration, frontiers, and cowboy culture.

Bildungsroman: A coming-of-age novel that follows the personal and moral growth of a character.

Experimental Literature: Pushes the boundaries of traditional narrative forms and structure.

These are just some of the many literary genres, and there are often subgenres and hybrid genres that combine elements from multiple categories. Literature is a diverse and evolving field, and new genres continue to emerge as authors experiment with different styles and themes.

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English Literature: Literary Periods & Genres

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    Literary Periods : A brief overview is located below:

• Literary periods are spans of time for literature that shares intellectual, linguistic, religious, and artistic influences.
• The following links,  organized by literary period, are  to the library's catalog for works by author, title, literary movement, type of work, etc.
• For further information on materials related to a specific literary period  click the "Literary Periods & Genres" tab on the above dropdown menu.

*The text below was taken from Dr. Wheeler's page from Carson Newman College.*

I. The Classical Period (1200 BCE - 455 CE)

Greek legends were passed along orally, including Homer 's  The Iliad and The Odyssey . This is a chaotic period of warrior-princes, wandering sea-traders, and fierce pirates.

II. CLASSICAL GREEK PERIOD       (800-200 BCE)

Greek writers, playwrights, and philosophers include  Gorgias , Aesop , Plato , Socrates , Aristotle , Euripides , and Sophocles . The fifth century (499-400 BCE) in particular is renowned as The Golden Age of Greece. This was the sophisticated era of the polis, or individual City-State, and early democracy. Some of the world's finest art, poetry, drama, architecture, and philosophy originated in Athens.

III. CLASSICAL ROMAN PERIOD         (200 BCE-455 CE)

Greece's culture gave way to Roman power when Rome conquered Greece in 146 CE. The Roman Republic was traditionally founded in 509 BCE, but it was limited in size until later. Playwrights of this time include Plautus and Terence . After nearly 500 years as a Republic, Rome slid into a dictatorship under Julius Caesar and finally into a monarchial empire under Caesar Augustus in 27 CE. This later period is known as the Roman Imperial period. Roman writers include Ovid , Horace , and Virgil . Roman philosophers include Marcus Aurelius and Lucretius . Roman rhetoricians include Cicero and Quintilian .

Early Christian writers include  Saint Augustine , Tertullian ,  Saint Cyprian , Saint Ambrose and Saint Jerome . This is the period when Saint Jerome first compiled the Bible , Christianity spread across Europe, and the Roman Empire suffered its dying convulsions. In this period, barbarians attacked Rome in 410 CE, and the city finally fell to them completely in 455 CE.

III. The Renaissance and Reformation (1485-1660 CE)

(The Renaissance took place in the late 15th, 16th, and early 17th century in Britain, but somewhat earlier in Italy and southern Europe and somewhat later in northern Europe.)

The War of the Roses ended in England with Henry Tudor (Henry VII) claiming the throne. Martin Luther's split with Rome marks the emergence of Protestantism , followed by Henry VIII's   Anglican schism , which created the first Protestant church in England. Edmund Spenser is a sample poet.

Queen Elizabeth saved England from both Spanish invasion and internal squabbles at home. Her reign is marked by the early works of Shakespeare , Marlowe , Kyd , and Sidney .

III. Jacobean Period         (1603-1625)

Shakespeare's later work include  Aemilia Lanyer , Ben Jonson , and John Donne .

John Milton , George Herbert , Robert Herrick , the " Sons of Ben " and others wrote during the reign of Charles I and his Cavaliers .

V. Commonwealth Period/Puritan Interregnum      (1649-1660)

Under Cromwell's Puritan dictatorship , John Milton continued to write, but we also find writers like Andrew Marvell and Sir Thomas Browne .

V. The Romantic Period (1790-1830 CE)

Gothic writings  (c. 1790-1890) overlap with the Romantic and Victorian periods. Writers of Gothic novels (the precursor to horror novels) include Radcliffe , "Monk" Lewis , and Victorians like Bram Stoker in Britain. In America, Gothic writers include Poe and Hawthorne .

VII. The Modern Period (1914-1945 CE)

II. The Medieval Period (455 CE-1485 CE)

The so-called "Dark Ages" (455 CE -799 CE) occured after Rome fell and barbarian tribes moved into Europe. Franks, Ostrogoths, Lombards, and Goths settled in the ruins of Europe, and the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes migrated to Britain displacing native Celts into Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. Early Old English poems such as Beowulf , The Wanderer , and The Seafarer originated sometime late in the Anglo-Saxon period. The Carolingian Renaissance (800- 850 CE) emerged in Europe. In central Europe, texts include early medieval grammars, encyclopedias, etc. In northern Europe, this time period marks the setting of Viking sagas.

In 1066, Norman French armies invaded and conquered England under William I . This marks the end of the Anglo-Saxon hierarchy and the emergence of the Twelfth Century Renaissance (c. 1100-1200 CE). French chivalric romances--such as works by Chretien de Troyes --and French fables --such as the works of Marie de France and  Jeun de Meun --spread in popularity. Abelard and other humanists produced great scholastic and theological works.

Late or "High" Medieval Period  (c. 1200-1485 CE)

IV. The Enlightenment (Neoclassical) Period (1660-1790 CE)

" Neoclassical " refers to the increased influence of Classical literature upon these centuries. The Neoclassical Period is also called the " Enlightenment " due to the increased reverence for logic and disdain for superstition. The period is marked by the rise of Deism , intellectual backlash against earlier Puritanism, and America's revolution against England.

This period is marked by the imitation of Virgil and Horace's literature in English letters. The principal English writers include Addison , Steele , Swift , and Alexander Pope . Abroad, Voltaire was the dominant French writer.  

This period marks the transition toward the upcoming Romanticism though the period is still largely Neoclassical. Major writers include Dr. Samuel Johnson , Boswell , and  Edward Gibbon who represent the Neoclassical tendencies, while writers like Robert Burns , Thomas Gray ,  Cowper , and Crabbe show movement away from the Neoclassical ideal. In America, this period is called the Colonial Period. It includes colonial and revolutionary writers like Ben Franklin , Thomas Jefferson , and Thomas Paine .

VI. The Victorian Period and the 19th Century (1832-1901 CE)

VIII. The Postmodern Period (1945 - onward)

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• Case report
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Portal vein thrombosis as extraintestinal complications of Crohn’s disease: a case report and review of literature

• Marouf Alhalabi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5027-2096 1 ,
• Duaa Nasri 1 &
• Widad Aji 1  

Journal of Medical Case Reports volume  18 , Article number:  246 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Introduction

Thrombotic events are more than twice as common in inflammatory bowel disease patients as in the general population. We report an interesting and rare case of portal vein thrombosis as a venous thromboembolic event in the context of extraintestinal manifestations of Crohn’s disease. We also conducted a literature review on portal vein thrombosis associated with inflammatory bowel disease, with the following concepts: inflammatory bowel diseases, ulcerative colitis, Crohn’s disease, portal vein, and thrombosis.

Case presentation

A 24-year-old Syrian female with active chronic Crohn’s disease was diagnosed 11 years ago and classified as A1L3B1P according to the Montreal classification. She had no prior surgical history. Her previous medications included azathioprine and prednisolone. Her Crohn’s disease activity index was 390 points. Gastroduodenoscopy revealed grade I esophageal varices, a complication of portal hypertension. Meanwhile, a colonoscopy revealed several deep ulcers in the sigmoid, rectum, and descending colon. An investigation of portal vein hypertension revealed portal vein thrombosis. We used corticosteroids to induce remission, followed by tapering; additionally she received ustekinumab to induce and maintain remission. She began on low-molecular-weight heparin for 1 week, warfarin for 3 months, and then apixaban, a novel oral anticoagulant, after excluding antiphospholipid syndrome. Primary prophylaxis for esophageal varices was not required. After 1 year, she achieved clinical, biochemical, and endoscopic remission. Despite 1 year of treatment, a computed tomography scan revealed no improvement in portal vein recanalization.

Portal vein thrombosis is a rare and poorly defined complication of inflammatory bowel disease. It is usually exacerbated by inflammatory bowel disease. The symptoms are nonspecific and may mimic a flare-up of inflammatory bowel disease, making the diagnosis difficult. Portal vein Doppler ultrasound for hospital-admitted inflammatory bowel disease patients may contribute to the diagnosis and management of this complication.

Peer Review reports

Extraintestinal manifestations can affect almost any organ system and have a negative impact on the patient’s functional status and quality of life. Extraintestinal manifestations are most commonly observed in the joints, skin, hepatobiliary tract, eyes, heart, pancreas, and vascular system. Portal vein thrombosis (PVT) is an obscure and poorly defined complication of many diseases, including cirrhosis, intraabdominal infection, intraabdominal surgery, pancreatitis, primary hematologic disorders, and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) [ 1 ]. The prevalence of PVT in patients with IBD ranges from 0.17% to 1.7% [ 1 ], and may be associated with inherited or acquired hypercoagulability risk factors and has a benign outcome [ 1 ]. It can be difficult to diagnose PVT in patients with IBD because its extremely generic symptoms, such as abdominal discomfort, can frequently originate from any of its triggering events. Therefore, it should come as no surprise that the diagnosis is frequently made by accident when imaging is performed to check for one of these triggering processes, also the laboratory results are nonspecific [ 1 ]. We report an interesting and uncommon case of PVT associated with Crohn’s disease that was discovered when investigating the cause of esophageal varices related to portal vein hypertension. We also conducted a literature review on portal vein thrombosis associated with inflammatory bowel disease using the following concepts: inflammatory bowel disease, ulcerative colitis, Crohn’s disease, portal vein, and thrombosis.

We evaluated a 24-year-old Syrian female with active chronic Crohn’s disease, diagnosed 11 years ago. She was classified as A1L3B1P according to the Montreal classification [ 2 ]. She had no prior surgical history; her past medications included azathioprine 2.5 mg/kg/day since diagnosis until now and prednisolone 1 mg/kg up to 40 mg during flares, then tapering [ 3 ]. Furthermore, she did not use oral contraceptive pills. Her weight was 50 kg, her height was 161 cm, and she had a body mass index of 19.29 kg/m 2 . She complained of watery, bloody diarrhea up to eight times a day, accompanied by abdominal pain in the prior month. Her Crohn’s disease activity index (CDAI) was 390 points. Initial blood tests confirmed leukocytosis, anemia, elevated fecal calprotectin (FC), and C-reactive protein (CRP) levels. Stool cultures, Clostridium difficile toxin, Escherichia coli , and Cryptosporidium , as well as microscopy for ova and parasites, all returned negative. The hypercoagulability work-up revealed negative results for anti-Beta-2 Glycoprotein-1 IgM antibodies, antinuclear antibodies (ANA), fibrinogen, protein S (activity), antithrombin III, and homocysteine, whereas lupus anticoagulant (LA1, LA2) was positive. Factor II mutation and factor V Leiden mutation were normal, whereas the methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase mutation was a homozygous mutant gene. The portal system and suprahepatic vein ultrasound revealed a thrombus that covered nearly half of the lumen of the portal vein and splenomegaly. Gogastroduodenoscopy showed grade I esophageal varices (less than 5 mm, without bleeding risk signs), which indicate portal vein hypertension owing to splenomegaly and esophageal varices. In light of the patient’s recent onset of abdominal pain and the absence of portosystemic collaterals on Doppler ultrasound, a recent PVT is a strong possibility [ 4 ]. The colonoscopy revealed several deep ulcers in the sigmoid, rectum, and descending colon Fig.  1 . The biopsies were negative for Clostridium difficile , and immunohistochemical staining was negative for cytomegalovirus (CMV) [ 3 , 5 ]. The median liver stiffness measured by FibroScan was 2.4 kPa, which suggests the absence of fibrosis. Protein electrophoresis was normal. The abdomen and pelvis contrast-enhanced computed tomography (CT) scan confirmed the PVT and displayed thickening in the descending colon (Fig.  2 ). Antiphospholipid syndrome was initially diagnosed on the basis of an antiphospholipid profile, a history of PVT (thrombotic event), and an association with Crohn’s disease [ 6 ]. She initially received corticosteroids to achieve disease remission, followed by ustekinumab to induce and maintain therapy (390 mg intravenous induction followed by 90 mg subcutaneous every 8 weeks) owing to moderate-to-severe Crohn’s disease unresponsive to azathioprine [ 7 , 8 ]. She began on low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) for 1 week, and warfarin for 3 months with an international normalized ratio (INR) target of 2–3. The lupus anticoagulant (LA1, LA2) was retested after 12 weeks and returned to negative [ 6 ], so we switched to apixaban, a novel oral anticoagulant (NOAC) [ 4 ]. The 1-year reevaluation indicated clinical, biochemical, and endoscopic remission with CDAI of 150 points, normal lab test, and normal endoscopy. The patient’s tests are presented in Table  1 . Despite 1 year of treatment, a CT scan revealed no improvement in portal vein recanalization. We continued 90 mg of subcutaneous (SC) ustekinumab every 8 weeks, while we stopped apixaban [ 3 , 4 ].

Colonoscopy revealed several ulcerations in the sigmoid, rectum, and descending colon

The contrast-enhanced computed tomography scan of the abdomen, which shows portal vein thrombosis

Review of literature

To facilitate this literature review, we used a combination of keywords and database subject headings to search the MEDLINE (through PubMed) database on 1 July 2023 for the following concepts: Crohn’s disease, ulcerative colitis, IBD, portal vein, PVT, and thrombosis. We also manually searched the reference lists of the included papers. We returned the research on 7 April 2024, and no new findings were obtained.

Eligibility criteria

We searched for any case reports, case series, observational, or interventional studies that addressed portal vein thrombosis associated with inflammatory bowel disease. Table 2 summarizes the basic features and treatment outcomes of the reported cases.

Crohn’s disease is linked to a variety of extraintestinal complications. Oral aphthous ulcers, peripheral arthritis, erythema nodosum, and episcleritis are frequently associated with active intestinal disease. Whereas uveitis and ankylosing spondylitis are usually unrelated to disease activity, pyoderma gangrenosum and primary sclerosing cholangitis have a questionable relationship to disease activity [ 9 ]. Venous thromboembolic events are fearsome manifestations that are related to disease activity and associated with significant morbidity and mortality [ 9 ]. Deep vein thrombosis (DVT) is the most prevalent thrombotic event, followed by pulmonary embolism (PE). The relative risk of thrombotic events in patients with inflammatory bowel disease was 2.03 [ 10 ]. Although inflammatory bowel disease treatment options have improved over the last three decades [ 11 ], thrombotic events among hospitalized individuals with inflammatory bowel disease continued to rise [ 12 ]. The overall thrombotic risk did not differ between sexes or between individuals who have ulcerative colitis or Crohn’s disease [ 13 ]. There have been very few reports of portal vein thrombosis in the context of inflammatory bowel disease. The presenting indications, symptoms, and laboratory data are all extremely nonspecific, and a PVT diagnosis is nearly always made by chance. It is important to note that PVT is related to disease activity, particularly IBD flare. We found that portal vein thrombosis affects both men and women, with a small male predominance. It is also more frequent in individuals with ulcerative colitis than in those with Crohn’s disease. It is a rare complication in Crohn’s disease, identified in only 14 cases. Hypercoagulability testing in a subset of patients (around half) revealed inherited or acquired hypercoagulability factors in some, with antiphospholipid antibodies and factor V Leiden mutation being the most common. Treatment for thrombosis in Crohn’s disease involves tailored anticoagulation (heparin, warfarin, DOACs) or even surgery, with outcomes ranging from successful resolution to bleeding or death. However, limitations include the use of case reports and retrospective studies, and the small number of CD cases, which hinder definitive conclusions. There are no recommendations for thrombophilia screening in cases of portal vein thrombosis; many reports, including ours, have included thrombophilia testing. Naymagon et al . suggested that thrombophilia testing is not required in cases of clearly triggered PVT, such as after recent surgery or in the setting of a recent or active intraabdominal infection or IBD-flare [ 1 ]; moreover, he suggested that thrombophilia testing should be undertaken if PVT is not induced, such as spontaneous PVT in an otherwise stable and inactive IBD patient, or patients with a history of previous venous thromboembolism or unexplained blood count abnormalities [ 1 ]. Furthermore, testing for antiphospholipid syndrome and paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria may affect management and should be considered in certain conditions, such as a history of autoimmune disease or arterial thrombosis for antiphospholipid syndrome and unexplained cytopenia or evidence of intravascular hemolysis for paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria. Other thrombophilia testing are often unnecessary because the results have little impact on therapy [ 1 ]. A mutation of JAK2 could be detected in splanchnic vein thrombosis and thus provide a marker of latent myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs), which are a major primary cause of abdominal vein thrombosis [ 14 ]. MPNs are made up of three key rare diseases: (1) polycythemia vera, which leads to an elevation in all blood cells, especially red blood cells; (2) essential thrombocythemia, which leads to an increase in platelets; and (3) primary myelofibrosis, a bone marrow disorder that leads to defects in blood cell production [ 14 , 15 ]. MPNs were diagnosed through a variety of criteria, including the typical alterations in peripheral blood cells [ 4 ], as she had chronic active CD with possible previous CD-flare and a normal blood profile which excludes MPNs [ 1 , 14 , 15 ]. We screened for antiphospholipid syndrome antibodies because the patient was a young female with a significant thrombotic event without a clear relationship with a Crohn’s disease flare. Although the lupus anticoagulant (LA1, LA2) was initially positive, it was found to be negative 12 weeks later. The explanations for the false positive in our instance were anticoagulant treatment, including therapy with LWMH, which is indicated to every patient admitted to the hospital with inflammatory bowel disease, and later warfarin for the management of portal vein thrombosis [ 3 , 6 , 13 ]. For PVT management, literature was unclear concerning the selection of anticoagulants. Most patients who require anticoagulation are started on LMWH, or unfractionated heparin, and then switched to vitamin K antagonists (VKAs) to maintain a goal international normalization rate of 2–3. While VKAs can be substituted orally with direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) or novel oral anticoagulants (NOACs). These medications do not require monitoring of the INR because of their speedier onset of action and lesser risk of bleeding. DOACs are just as effective as VKAs for treating deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, and stroke prevention in patients with atrial fibrillation, and may be considered owing to potentially less frequent monitoring needs and a fixed dosing regimen, which could enhance medication adherence. However, owing to unbalanced hemostasis, patients with cirrhosis have been excluded from most trials. Our case was portal hypertension without cirrhosis; therefore, DOACs or NOACs are not contraindicated after excluding antiphospholipid syndrome. For Crohn’s disease treatment, ustekinumab was more suitable than tumor necrosis factor inhibitors (anti-TNFα), as ustekinumab had low immunogenicity (generating antidrug antibodies), so it is feasible to avoid a combination of azathioprine and ustekinumab, in contrast to anti-TNF treatment, which necessitates such a combination [ 3 , 6 , 7 , 9 ]. Ustekinumab helped to eliminate the drug interactions of azathioprine and warfarin, note that warfarin was the only therapeutic option owing to the initial diagnosis of antiphospholipid syndrome. In addition, ustekinumab had the lowest rate of serious infections among the biological treatments [ 7 ]. Esophageal varices primary prophylaxis is not required, as primary prophylaxis must be initiated upon the detection of high-risk varices, such as small varices with red signs, medium or large varices regardless of Child–Pugh classification, or small varices in patients classified as Child–Pugh C [ 16 ]. It is possible to discontinue anticoagulant treatment after a year, whether or not portal vein recanalization occurs, because a longer period of anticoagulant treatment is unlikely to enhance the probability of recanalization if it does not occur after a year [ 4 ].

PVT symptoms are similar to the symptoms of an inflammatory bowel disease flare. Initial tests for antiphospholipid syndrome were falsely positive [ 17 ]. The wise choice of ustekinumab as the first-line biological treatment, which aided in weaning off azathioprine, led to avoiding azathioprine–warfarin interactions. Using DOACs or NOACs for the management of portal vein thrombosis in case of portal vein hypertension. Finally, the management of esophageal varices in the context of anticoagulant treatment. The use of portal vein Doppler ultrasound, particularly during flare-ups of inflammatory bowel disease, may contribute to the diagnosis and management of this uncommon complication.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Abbreviations

• Portal vein thrombosis
• Inflammatory bowel disease
• Crohn’s disease

C-reactive protein

International normalized ratio

K antagonists

Computed tomography

Subcutaneous

Antiphospholipid syndrome

Direct oral anticoagulants

Novel oral anticoagulants

Low molecular weight heparin

Hepatitis B surface antigen

Hepatitis B surface antibody

Hepatitis B core antibody

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Gastroenterology Department, Damascus Hospital, Almujtahed Street, Damascus, Syria

Marouf Alhalabi, Duaa Nasri & Widad Aji

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Alhalabi, M., Nasri, D. & Aji, W. Portal vein thrombosis as extraintestinal complications of Crohn’s disease: a case report and review of literature. J Med Case Reports 18 , 246 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13256-024-04560-w

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Received : 10 October 2023

Accepted : 17 April 2024

Published : 14 May 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s13256-024-04560-w

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