How to Master at Literature Mapping: 5 Most Recommended Tools to Use
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After putting in a lot of thought, time, and effort, you’ve finally selected a research topic . As the first step towards conducting a successful and impactful research is completed, what follows it is the gruesome process of literature review . Despite the brainstorming, the struggle of understanding how much literature is enough for your research paper or thesis is very much real. Unlike the old days of flipping through pages for hours in a library, literature has come easy to us due to its availability on the internet through Open Access journals and other publishing platforms. This ubiquity has made it even more difficult to cover only significant data! Nevertheless, an ultimate solution to this problem of conglomerating relevant data is literature mapping .
Table of Contents
What is Literature Mapping?
Literature mapping is one of the key strategies when searching literature for your research. Since writing a literature review requires following a systematic method to identify, evaluate, and interpret the work of other researchers, academics, and practitioners from the same research field, creating a literature map proves beneficial. Mapping ideas, arguments, and concepts in a literature is an imperative part of literature review. Additionally, it is stated as an established method for externalizing knowledge and thinking processes. A map of literature is a “graphical plan”, “diagrammatic representation”, or a “geographical metaphor” of the research topic.
Researchers are often overwhelmed by the large amount of information they encounter and have difficulty identifying and organizing information in the context of their research. It is recommended that experts in their fields develop knowledge structures that are richer not only in terms of knowledge, but also in terms of the links between this knowledge. This knowledge linking process is termed as literature mapping .
How Literature Mapping Helps Researchers?
Literature mapping helps researchers in following ways:
It provides concrete evidence of a student’s understanding and interpretation of the research field to share with both peers and professors.
Switching to another modality helps researchers form patterns to see what might otherwise be hidden in the research area.
Furthermore, it helps in identifying gaps in pertinent research.
Finally, t lets researchers identify potential original areas of study and parameters of their work.
How to Make a Literature Map?
Literature mapping is not only an organizational tool, but also a reflexive tool. Furthermore, it distinguishes between declarative knowledge shown by identifying key concepts, ideas and methods, and procedural knowledge shown through classifying these key concepts and establishing links or relationships between them. The literature review conceptualizes research structures as a “knowledge production domain” that defines a productive and ongoing constructive element. Thus, the approaches emphasize the identity of different scientific institutions from different fields, which can be mapped theoretically, methodologically, or fundamentally.
The two literature mapping approaches are:
Mapping with key ideas or descriptors: This is developed from keywords in research topics.
Author mapping: This is also termed as citation matching that identifies key experts in the field and may include the use of citations to interlink them.
Generally, literature maps can be subdivided by categorization processes based on theories, definitions, or chronology, and cross-reference between the two types of mapping. Furthermore, researchers use mind maps as a deductive process, general concept-specific mapping (results in a right triangle), or an inductive process mapping to specific concepts (results in an inverted triangle).
What are Different Literature Mapping Methods?
The different types of literature mapping and representations are as follows:
1. Feature Mapping:
Argument structures developed from summary registration pages.
2. Topic Tree Mapping:
Summary maps showing the development of the topic in sub-themes up to any number of levels.
3. Content Mapping:
Linear structure of organization of content through hierarchical classification.
4. Taxonomic Mapping:
Classification through standardized taxonomies.
5. Concept Mapping:
Linking concepts and processes allows procedural knowledge from declarative information. With a basic principle of cause and effect and problem solving, concept maps can show the relationship between theory and practice.
6. Rhetorical Mapping:
The use of rhetoric communication to discuss, influence, or persuade is particularly important in social policy and political science and can be considered a linking strategy. A number of rhetorical tools have been identified that can be used to present a case, including ethos, metaphor, trope, and irony.
7. Citation Mapping:
Citation mapping or matching is a research process established to specifically establish links between authors by citing their articles. Traditional manual citation indexes have been replaced by automated databases that allow visual mapping methods (e.g. ISI Web of Science). In conclusion, citation matching in a subject area can be effective in determining the frequency of authors and specific articles.
5 Most Useful Literature Mapping Tools
Technology has made the literature mapping process easier now. However, with numerous options available online, it does get difficult for researchers to select one tool that is efficient. These tools are built behind explicit metadata and citations when coupled with some new machine learning techniques. Here are the most recommended literature mapping tools to choose from:
1. Connected Papers
a. Connected Papers is a simple, yet powerful, one-stop visualization tool that uses a single starter article.
b. It is easy to use tool that quickly identifies similar papers with just one “Seed paper” (a relevant paper).
c. Furthermore, it helps to detect seminal papers as well as review papers.
d. It creates a similarity graph not a citation graph and connecting lines (based on the similarity metric).
e. Does not necessarily show direct citation relationships.
f. The identified papers can then be exported into most reference managers like Zotero, EndNote, Mendeley, etc.
2. Inciteful
a. Inciteful is a customizable tool that can be used with multiple starter articles in an iterative process.
b. Results from multiple seed papers can be imported in a batch with a BibTex file.
c. Inciteful produces the following lists of papers by default:
Similar papers (uses Adamic/Adar index)
“Most Important Papers in the Graph” (based on PageRank)
Recent Papers by the Top 100 Authors
The Most Important Recent Papers
d. It allows filtration of results by keywords.
e. Importantly, seed papers can also be directly added by title or DOI.
a. Litmaps follows an iterative process and creates visualizations for found papers.
b. It allows importing of papers using BibTex format which can be exported from most reference managers like Zotero, EndNote, Mendeley. In addition, it allows paper imports from an ORCID profile.
c. Keywords search method is used to find Litmaps indexed papers.
d. Additionally, it allows setting up email updates of “emergent literature”.
e. Its unique feature that allows overlay of different maps helps to look for overlaps of papers.
f. Lastly, its explore function allows finding related papers to add to the map.
4. Citation-based Sites
a. CoCites is a citation-based method for researching scientific literature.
b. Citation Gecko is a tool for visualizing links between articles.
c. VOSviewer is a software tool for creating and visualizing bibliometric networks. These networks are for example journals, may include researchers or individual publications, which can be generated based on citation, bibliographic matching , co-citation, or co-authorship relationships. VOSviewer also offers text mining functionality that can be used to create and visualize networks of important terms extracted from a scientific literature.
5. Citation Context Tools
a. Scite allow users to see how a publication has been cited by providing the context of the citation and a classification describing whether it provides supporting or contrasting evidence for the cited claim.
b. Semantic Scholar is a freely available, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature.
Have you ever mapped your literature? Did you use any of these tools before? Lastly, what are the strategies and methods you use for literature mapping ? Let us know how this article helped you in creating a hassle-free and comprehensive literature map.
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Literature Mapping in Scientific Research: A Comprehensive Review
Accelerate scientific research with Literature Mapping: a comprehensive tool for knowledge discovery and data-driven insights.
Literature mapping is a process that involves analyzing and visualizing the scientific literature on a particular topic to identify research gaps, improve collaboration, and inform decision-making.
In this article, we list five benefits of literature mapping for scientists and researchers and show you types and tools to save your time and help you find better evidence.
What is Literature Mapping?
Literature mapping is a process that involves analyzing and visualizing the scientific literature on a particular topic. It includes systematically searching, collecting, and reviewing relevant studies, articles, and books published in a specific field or discipline.
The purpose of literature mapping is to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of knowledge on a topic, identify gaps in the literature, and potential areas for future research. It can be useful for those who seek to conduct a systematic review, develop a research proposal, or explore new research areas.
Benefits of Literature Mapping
Here are five benefits of literature mapping for scientists and researchers:
Identify research gaps : Literature mapping helps researchers to identify gaps in the existing research and to determine areas that require further investigation.
Visualize the research landscape : By creating visualizations of the scientific literature, researchers can see the relationships between different research topics.
Save time : Literature mapping can help researchers save time by providing an overview of the literature on a particular topic, including relevant studies and duplicated work.
Improve collaboration : Literature mapping can help researchers to collaborate more effectively by providing a shared understanding of the research landscape. This improves communication, and facilitates the workflow between different disciplines.
Inform decision-making : Literature mapping can help researchers to make assertive decisions. This can be especially useful for policymakers and other decision-makers who need to make decisions based on scientific evidence.
Types of Literature Mapping
Feature mapping.
Feature mapping is a technique used primarily in data analysis and machine learning to identify patterns and relationships between features of a dataset. It involves analyzing the data and plotting the relationships between different features of the dataset on a map or chart.
Some of the main features include:
Identification of relationships : Feature mapping can help identify the relationships between different features or variables in a dataset. This can allow for better modeling and prediction of outcomes.
Pattern recognition : By plotting the relationships between features of a dataset, feature mapping can help identify patterns and anomalies that may not be immediately apparent in the raw data.
Visualization : Feature mapping often involves creating visual representations of the relationships between features of a dataset. This can help make the data easier to understand and interpret.
Dimension reduction : When dealing with large datasets with many features, feature mapping can help reduce the dimensionality of the data. This can help simplify the data and make it easier to analyze.
Data clustering : Feature mapping can also help identify groups or clusters of data points that share similar features. This can allow for more targeted analysis and modeling of specific groups within the dataset.
Feature selection : Feature mapping can aid in the selection of the most important features from a dataset. By identifying the relationships between features, researchers can determine which features are most relevant to the outcomes they are trying to predict.
Topic Tree Mapping
Topic tree mapping is a technique used to visualize and organize the relationships between different topics or themes within a larger subject area. It involves creating a hierarchical structure of topics, with more general topics at the top and more specific subtopics branching out below.
Content Mapping
Content mapping is the process of creating a visual representation or map of the content of a document, website, or other information source. It involves breaking down the content into its constituent parts, organizing it according to a logical structure, and presenting it in a user-friendly and easily accessible way.
Taxonomic Mapping
Taxonomic mapping is the process of assigning different taxonomic categories to specific objects or organisms based on their characteristics, traits, and other distinguishing features. This mapping enables the organization and identification of different species and helps researchers and scientists to conduct various studies and experiments related to their classification, evolution, and diversity.
Concept Mapping
Concept Mapping is a visual representation of the relationships between concepts and ideas in a particular field. It involves identifying key concepts, and organizing them into a hierarchical structure. It can help to identify gaps in knowledge and aid in the development of new theories.
Rhetorical Mapping
Rhetorical mapping is a process used in communication studies and critical discourse analysis to analyze the structure and content of discourse. It involves creating a visual representation or diagram of a text or speech that identifies its various components, such as arguments, claims, evidence, and rhetorical strategies used to persuade the audience. Rhetorical mapping allows researchers to understand how the speaker or writer uses language and persuasion techniques to influence the audience’s beliefs and attitudes.
Citation Mapping
Citation Mapping involves tracing the citation history of a particular article, and identifying the articles that have cited it. This can help to identify the impact of the article on the field, and identify related research.
Tools for Literature Mapping
Citation Gecko : Citation Gecko is a web-based tool that allows users to quickly and easily search for and download citation data from various academic databases. It streamlines and simplifies the process of finding and organizing citations for research projects.
Inciteful : Inciteful is a literature-mapping tool that visualizes citation networks and identifies key authors and articles within a particular field of research. It can be used to explore the literature on a specific topic, as well as to identify gaps in current research.
OpenKnowledge : OpenKnowledge is an online platform for sharing and discovering research papers and other scholarly materials. It enables users to search for and download documents, as well as to connect with other researchers who are working in the same field.
ConnectedPapers : ConnectedPapers is a search engine that allows users to explore citation networks and discover the most influential papers and authors in a particular field. It uses citation information to uncover relationships between different papers and to suggest potentially relevant articles to read.
LitMaps : LitMaps is a mapping tool that allows users to explore the relationships between different articles and concepts within a particular field of study. It visualizes the connections between different scholarly articles and helps users to develop a deeper understanding of the underlying themes and concepts within a particular field.
Local Citation Network : Local Citation Network is a tool for mapping the relationships between different articles and authors within a particular geographic area. It allows users to explore the research in progress in a particular region and to identify potential collaborators and sources of funding.
CoCites : CoCites is a literature-mapping tool that identifies the most frequently cited articles and authors within a particular field. It allows users to explore the relationships between different papers and to identify key areas of research.
VOSviewer : VOSviewer is a tool for visualizing citation networks and identifying key authors, papers, and concepts within a particular field of research. It allows users to explore the relationships between different papers and to identify areas of overlap and potential collaboration.
ResearchRabbit : ResearchRabbit is a web-based research tool that allows users to search for and collect scholarly articles and other research materials. It streamlines the research process by helping users to find relevant articles and to organize and annotate their findings.
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You are here, structuring your ideas: creating a literature map.
It is important to have a plan of the areas to be discussed, using this to indicated how these will link together. In the overall structure of the literature review, there should be a logical flow of ideas and within each paragraph there should be a clear theme, around which related ideas are explored and developed. A literature map can be useful for this purpose as it enables you to create a visual representation of the themes and how they could relate to one another.
A literature map (Cresswell, 2011) is a two dimensional diagrammatic representation of information where links are made between concepts by drawing arrows (which could be annotated to define the nature of these links). Constructing a literature map helps you to:
develop your understanding of the key issues and research findings in the literature
to organise ideas in your mind
to see more clearly how different research studies relate to one another and to group those with similar findings.
Your map can then be used as a plan for your literature review.
As well has helping you to organise the literature for your review, a literature map can be used to help you analyse the information in a particular journal article, supporting the exploration of strengths and weaknesses of the methodology and the resultant findings and enabling you to explore how key themes and concepts in the article link together.
It is important to represent the different views and any conflicting research findings that exist in the literature (Newby, 2014). There is a danger of selective referencing, only including literature that supports your own beliefs and findings, disregarding alternative views. This should be avoided as it is based on the assumption that your views are the correct ones, and it is possible that you could miss key ideas and findings that could take your research in new and exciting directions.
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Creating a Comprehensive Literature Review Map: A Step-by-Step Example
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Writing Articles & Reviews
October 16, 2023
A literature review is an essential component of any academic research paper or thesis. IT involves examining existing literature, scholarly articles, books, and other sources related to your research topic. A literature review map acts as a visual representation of the concepts, studies, and theories that have been covered in the literature. In this article, we will guide you through the process of creating a comprehensive literature review map, step-by-step, to help you structure and organize your literature review effectively.
Step 1: Define Your Research Topic
The first step in creating a literature review map is to clearly define your research topic. Be specific and narrow down your focus to ensure that you have a manageable scope for your literature review. Take into consideration the research objectives or guiding questions that will shape your review.
Step 2: Identify Relevant Keywords
Once you have defined your research topic, identify the keywords and search terms that are most relevant to your study. Brainstorm a list of potential keywords that are commonly used in the literature related to your topic. These keywords will help you locate relevant sources during your literature search.
Step 3: Conduct a Thorough Literature Search
Using databases and search engines specific to your field of study, begin conducting a thorough literature search using the identified keywords. Take note of the key articles, books, and studies that are relevant to your research topic. In this step, IT is important to evaluate the credibility and quality of the sources to ensure that you are referring to reputable and reliable information.
Step 4: Read and Analyze the Literature
After collecting a substantial number of sources, carefully read and analyze each one. Highlight key concepts, methodologies, and findings that are relevant to your research. As you progress, make notes or annotations to help you remember important details and connections between different sources.
Step 5: Organize the Literature
Now that you have read and analyzed the literature, IT ‘s time to organize the information into a coherent structure. One effective way to do this is by using a literature review map. Start by creating categories or themes based on the concepts or theories that emerge from the literature. Group together similar ideas or findings to create a visual representation of the interconnectedness of the sources.
Step 6: Create the Literature Review Map
With your categorized information, you can now create the literature review map. This can be done using software such as Microsoft Word, PowerPoint, or dedicated mind mapping tools. Start with your main research topic in the center and branch out with subcategories based on the themes or concepts identified earlier. Connect relevant sources to each subcategory, illustrating how they contribute to the overall understanding of your research topic.
Step 7: Revise and Refine
Review your literature review map for coherence and completeness. Ensure that all the key sources are accurately placed within the appropriate category or subcategory. Check for any gaps in your coverage and make sure that the map represents a comprehensive overview of the literature on your research topic.
Q: How many sources should I include in my literature review map?
A: The number of sources you include will depend on the requirements of your research and the depth of analysis you aim to achieve. However, IT is generally recommended to thoroughly examine a range of sources, including both seminal texts and recent publications, to ensure a well-rounded and comprehensive literature review.
Q: How do I determine the credibility of the sources for my literature review?
A: Evaluating the credibility of your sources is crucial to ensure that you are basing your review on reputable information. Consider the author’s qualifications, the credibility and reputation of the publishing outlet, the presence of citations within the article, and the overall coherence and consistency of the research findings.
Q: Can I use a literature review map for disciplines outside of the humanities and social sciences?
A: Absolutely! While literature reviews are commonly associated with humanities and social sciences, they are applicable to any academic field. Whether you are conducting research in the sciences, engineering, or any other discipline, a literature review map will help you organize and present the relevant scholarly literature specific to your research topic.
By following these step-by-step guidelines, you can create a comprehensive literature review map that will serve as a valuable tool throughout your research. Remember to regularly update and refine your map as you progress in your studies. A well-organized literature review will not only demonstrate your knowledge and understanding of the field, but also provide a solid foundation for your own research and contribute to the wider scholarly conversation.
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How to Create a Literature Map
How to create a literature map. The Literature Map helps researchers review literature for gaps and points of impact. They are useful in both academic and industry related research projects to help gain traction and market interest.
Book a seat for our upcoming Literature Mapping Webinar Workshop
Learn More about Literature Mapping
Research projects usually start with a Literature Review which involves using tools such as search engines ( e.g. google scholar) and document management and reference systems (e.g. Endnote and Mandalay).
The literature review will attempt to create a space for the research project that has not been covered or is yet to be developed.
Literature Mapping uses graphical methods to plot your literature in a graphical format. There are many types of graphical method from mind mapping to infographic formats.
See our Research Gate Forum where leading experts have discussed the various graphical literature tools from Mind Maps through to Quiqqa and other methods.
Dr Jonathan Drane has developed a unique but simple literature mapping method which streamlines your literature review and helps you refine your topic and its place in the literature universe.
‘In our method we prefer to use a ‘cards on desktop’ graphical logic. It uses cards (like the icons on your desktop) and allocates identifiers to the cards including different colours as well as other key information points. Think of each card as if it was a library card which is also linked back to the actual publication it refers to’. Dr Jonathan Drane
In the method there is also an X-Y axis to allow for key concept themes to be pinned to the axis. From there each card is positioned based on its alignment to the theme. In the chart below this method is applied to City Growth Dynamics themes from Dr Drane’s doctorate.
‘ As I spent weeks in the literature mapping phase of my doctorate I realised that it was made clearer by using graphical representation of the various themes and concepts.’ Dr Jonathan Drane
An example of his literature map system is shown above which is extracted from Dr Drane’s Doctorate .
Impact and Strategic Importance
Research occurs in a huge range of endeavours from academic research to competitive analysis, market and corporate strategy. A central activity in these is to make sure you know what the current literature, articles and books are in the relevant strategic arena.
The use of literature review is essential to maintaining a strategic advantage and identifying the gaps in the theory or in corporate offerings.
We recommed that you take some time out and attend our upcoming webinar on this topic . Whether you are an academic or a business person or government researcher, this is important.
We look forward to seeing you at this webinar.
Dr Jonathan Drane
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LITERATURE REVIEW SOFTWARE FOR BETTER RESEARCH
“Litmaps is a game changer for finding novel literature... it has been invaluable for my productivity.... I also got my PhD student to use it and they also found it invaluable, finding several gaps they missed”
Varun Venkatesh
Austin Health, Australia
As a full-time researcher, Litmaps has become an indispensable tool in my arsenal. The Seed Maps and Discover features of Litmaps have transformed my literature review process, streamlining the identification of key citations while revealing previously overlooked relevant literature, ensuring no crucial connection goes unnoticed. A true game-changer indeed!
Ritwik Pandey
Doctoral Research Scholar – Sri Sathya Sai Institute of Higher Learning
Using Litmaps for my research papers has significantly improved my workflow. Typically, I start with a single paper related to my topic. Whenever I find an interesting work, I add it to my search. From there, I can quickly cover my entire Related Work section.
David Fischer
Research Associate – University of Applied Sciences Kempten
“It's nice to get a quick overview of related literature. Really easy to use, and it helps getting on top of the often complicated structures of referencing”
Christoph Ludwig
Technische Universität Dresden, Germany
“This has helped me so much in researching the literature. Currently, I am beginning to investigate new fields and this has helped me hugely”
Aran Warren
Canterbury University, NZ
“I can’t live without you anymore! I also recommend you to my students.”
Professor at The Chinese University of Hong Kong
“Seeing my literature list as a network enhances my thinking process!”
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium
“Incredibly useful tool to get to know more literature, and to gain insight in existing research”
KU Leuven, Belgium
“As a student just venturing into the world of lit reviews, this is a tool that is outstanding and helping me find deeper results for my work.”
Franklin Jeffers
South Oregon University, USA
“Any researcher could use it! The paper recommendations are great for anyone and everyone”
Swansea University, Wales
“This tool really helped me to create good bibtex references for my research papers”
Ali Mohammed-Djafari
Director of Research at LSS-CNRS, France
“Litmaps is extremely helpful with my research. It helps me organize each one of my projects and see how they relate to each other, as well as to keep up to date on publications done in my field”
Daniel Fuller
Clarkson University, USA
As a person who is an early researcher and identifies as dyslexic, I can say that having research articles laid out in the date vs cite graph format is much more approachable than looking at a standard database interface. I feel that the maps Litmaps offers lower the barrier of entry for researchers by giving them the connections between articles spaced out visually. This helps me orientate where a paper is in the history of a field. Thus, new researchers can look at one of Litmap's "seed maps" and have the same information as hours of digging through a database.
Baylor Fain
Postdoctoral Associate – University of Florida
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How to Construct Literature Maps
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This LibGuide will help you
This LibGuide will help you locate resources for constructing a literature map. If you need more assistance please click on the 24/7 Chat service or contact me using the links on the left hand side of the page.
Resources for Creating Literature Maps
Owl English's Resource for Literature Mapping This resource provides an overview of stasis theory and what you can do with it to help you conduct research, compose documents, and work in teams.
Wilson Library's "Sage Research Methods" Resources on Literature Mapping This resource provides suggestions for books, articles, videos and more for designing literature maps.
Visual of How to Create a Literature Map
Sample Look at a Literature Map (scroll to bottom of page) This is an example of the literature review process, and in particular, literature mapping (scroll to the bottom of the page).
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Sample Designs for Literature Mapping
Last Updated: Oct 27, 2021 11:04 AM
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Literature Reviews: A Working Definition
A literature review is a methodical or organized review of the published literature on a specific topic or research question designed to analyze--not just summarize--scholarly writings that are related directly to your research question. That is, it represents the literature that provides the context for your research and shows a correspondence between those writings and your own work.
Before you get started...
The past few years have seen an explosion of online tools designed to automate the process of doing literature reviews. These tools generally work by asking you to identify a relevant article (often called a "seed article") and use the metadata attached to articles (such as authors and keywords), or citations and reference lists to find related articles. Most tools offer some type of visualization feature to trace the connections between papers, and increasingly, tools offer summaries of the research content. These tools provide researchers with an option to at least partially automate some of their literature review work which can save a lot of time.
Things to keep in mind:
Very little independent research has been done to test the reliability, scope, and accuracy of these tools
In our own testing of tools that provide summaries of articles, we have sometimes found that summaries do not reflect the same key take-aways that we have identified
Reproducibility of searches is questionable so they may not be the best choice for things like systematic reviews
Because of the reliance on citation chaining, there is a built in bias towards heavily cited works which ends up creating a feedback loop that may cause you to miss relevant and/or newer materials
Not everything is indexed in the data sets used by a given tool; this is particularly the case in the arts and humanities which are more oriented towards books
Both the tools themselves, many of which are open access projects, and the indices they rely on may stop being updated/maintained, or go offline for a variety of reasons
You still need to use a library to access full text in a majority of cases
NOTE: This is a rapidly evolving field and we will be updating this guide on a regular basis.
Next: Elicit >>
Last Updated: Jun 26, 2024 2:24 PM
URL: https://guides.lib.udel.edu/litmap
Literature Reviews
What is a Literature Review?
Concept Mapping
Writing a Proposal
For Faculty
Need help? Ask a librarian
Concept map example: Chocolate Purchasing Factors
What is concept mapping.
Concept Maps are a way to graphically represent ideas and how they relate to each other.
Concept maps may be simple designs illustrating a central theme and a few associated topics or complex structures that delineate hierarchical or multiple relationships.
J.D. Novak developed concept maps in the 1970's to help facilitate the research process for his students. Novak found that visually representing thoughts helped students freely associate ideas without being blocked or intimidated by recording them in a traditional written format.
Concept mapping involves defining a topic; adding related topics; and linking related ideas
Use Bubbl.us or search for more free mind-mapping tools on the web.
Get an overview - Find documents - Identify concepts
Our mission
Revolutionising discovery
Open Knowledge Maps is the world's largest AI-based search engine for scientific knowledge. We dramatically increase the visibility of research findings for science and society alike.
Learn more about us
Open and nonprofit
We are a charitable non-profit organization based on the principles of open science. Our aim is to create an inclusive, sustainable and equitable infrastructure that can be used by anyone.
Check out our team
A sustainable platform
We propose to fund Open Knowledge Maps in a collective effort. Organizations are invited to become supporting members and co-create the platform with us.
What users and supporters say
We joined Open Knowledge Maps as a Supporting Member because it is an innovative tool for literature search and we are eager to support the further development of Open Knowledge Maps.
Dr. David Johann, Head of Group Knowledge Management, ETH Library, ETH Zurich
I love how OKMaps breaks down the papers into clusters allowing me to identify themes in the literature and focus on papers that are most pertinent for my work.
Girija Goyal, ReFigure Co-Founder, Staff Scientist at Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering at Harvard University, USA
Open Knowledge Maps is a considerable reinforcement in the areas of open science & open access, which are central to our research services.
Dr. Andrea Hacker, Open Access and Bern Open Publishing (BOP), University Library Bern
Now that science gets more and more open, we need ways to visualize it in a relevant way. That's why I support OKMaps.
Jean-Claude Burgelman, Professor of Open Science at VUB, Editor in Chief at Frontiers Policy Labs
Open Knowledge Maps is one of these initiatives we consider to be a visionary innovator in the field of discovery in open spaces.
Prof. Dr. Klaus Tochtermann, Director, ZBW
Education and Knowledge empower people, and everybody should have access to them, it is great to have tools like Open Knowledge Maps empowering people around the world.
Mari Plaza, Data Scientist
Custom integrations
Would you like to complement your services with our AI-based discovery tools? Using our Custom Services, organisations are able to embed Open Knowledge Maps components in their own discovery systems.
Explore live case studies
Supporting members
Project funding
Howard Aldrich
Kenan professor of sociology, dept of sociology @ unc chapel hill.
Powerful Tools for Mapping a Research Literature
Professor Courtney Page Tan , Assistant Professor of Human Resilience in the Department of Security and Emergency Services at Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, has compiled a list of powerful literature mapping tools. You can use these tools to increase the scale and scope of the literature for your projects. Many provide stunning graphical displays of search results (Edward Tufte would approve).
Connected Papers lets you explore connected papers in a visual graph, beginning with a starter paper you select. You can start with a DOI, URL, or paper title. Purposes: (1) Get a visual overview of a new academic field; (2) Make sure you haven’t missed an important paper; (3) Create the bibliography to your thesis; and (4) Discover the most relevant prior and derivative works.
scite_ Smart Citations for Intelligent Research . Smart Citations allow users to see how a scientific paper has been cited by providing the context of the citation and a classification describing whether it provides supporting or disputing evidence for the cited claim. They claim a database of over 23 million full-text articles.
Open Knowledge Maps . Calling themselves a “visual interface to the world’s scientific community,” their tool allows you to start with a few keywords to search for literature on a topic. Results display the main areas at a glance, and papers related to each area. In addition to giving you an overview of the area, it helps you identify important concepts. They highlight open access papers in their search results.
Local Citation Network . You input an article using its DOI or a scanned copy containing DOIs and the program shows you suggested articles for you to follow up.
They explain that “This web app aims to help scientists with their literature review using metadata from Microsoft Academic and Crossref . Academic papers cite one another, thus creating a citation network (= graph) . Each node (= vertex) represents an article and each edge (= link / arrow) represents a reference / citation. Citation graphs are a topic of bibliometrics, for which other great software exists as well .
This web app visualizes subsets of the global citation network that I call “local citation networks,” defined by the references of a given set of input articles. In addition, the most cited references missing in the set of input articles are suggested for further review.”
Citation Gecko Gecko is designed to help you find the most relevant papers to your research and give you a more complete sense of the research landscape. Users start from a small set of ‘seed papers’ that define an area you are interested. Gecko will search the citation network for connected papers allowing you to quickly identify important papers you may have missed.
PRISMA Flow Diagram Generator . This is the most complex of the tools. It generates a graphical representation of the flow of citations reviewed in the course of a Systematic Review. Click here for an example.
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3 Innovative Literature Mapping Tools for Citation Maps
In the ever-evolving landscape of academic research, navigating through vast amounts of literature can be daunting. Enter innovative literature mapping tools, packed with unique features.
They simplify and revolutionise the way researchers interact with scientific literature, enhancing the efficiency and depth of literature reviews.
Let’s dive into how these tools are reshaping the approach to academic research.
Innovative Literature Mapping Tools
Software
Features
– Dynamic, interactive literature maps for visualising citation connections. – Requires only a ‘seed paper’ – Customisable filtering by citations, dates, and keywords
– Advanced visualisation of citation relationships – Incorporates metadata from major academic databases – Supports BibTeX data import for flexibility.
– Visualises direct citations and co-citations to reveal research trends – Utilises metadata from key academic sources – Adaptable for various research purposes.
What Is A Literature Mapping Tool?
A citation mapping tool is a game-changer. Think of it as a detective tool that uncovers the intricate web of connections within scientific literature.
These tools visualise citation relationships, creating a citation map or literature map that guides you through the complex maze of scholarly papers.
One popular example is Inciteful, offering innovative literature mapping tools that not only track citation links but also analyse the context of the citation, revealing direct citation relationships and co-citation networks.
Imagine you have a ‘seed paper,’ a starting point in your literature review. A literature mapping tool then take this seed paper and branch out, finding papers:
That cite it (direct citation relationships) or
Those that share a thematic connection (co-citation).
This forms a citation tree or network, showing you not just one paper but a cluster of similar papers, interconnected by their citation relationships.
More modern citation mapping tool also integrated AI. They not only map out citation relationships but also delve into the citation context or sentiment, offering a richer, more nuanced understanding of how papers are interconnected.
Litmaps is a cutting-edge citation mapping tool that offers a unique approach to visualising the connections in scientific literature.
It’s designed to simplify and enhance the process of conducting a literature review, especially for researchers looking to map out the citation landscape of a specific topic.
At its core, Litmaps lets you visualise citation relationships in a dynamic, interactive manner. It works by creating a literature map that shows how different papers are connected through citations.
You start with a ‘seed paper,’ and Litmaps builds a citation network around it, by:
Identifying seminal papers,
similar papers, and
Other papers that cite your chosen article.
This is particularly helpful for understanding the context and development of research in a given field.
One of the key features of Litmaps is its ability to create a citation tree. This tree not only shows direct citation relationships but also highlights co-citations. This gives you a deeper insight into how ideas and research are interconnected.
In terms of visualisation, Litmaps excels. It uses a similarity graph, not just a standard citation graph, to display connections.
This means you’re seeing a more nuanced representation of the literature, based on the similarity metric of papers, rather than just citation counts.
Litmaps also allows for a high level of customisation. You can filter papers based on:
The number of citations,
Publication date, and even
Specific keywords.
This makes it a highly flexible tool for conducting systematic reviews and meta-analysis.
Litmaps also have a more user-friendly interface, and additional features like tracking the latest papers on a specific topic or a random set of systematic reviews.
Inciteful is an innovative literature mapping tool that stands out in the field of academic research for its unique approach to visualizing citation networks.
This tool is designed to make the process of literature review more intuitive and insightful, especially for researchers and scholars delving into new or complex fields.
When you use Inciteful, you start by selecting a ‘seed paper’. From this single paper, Inciteful creates a citation network, branching out to reveal not only papers that cite your chosen article but also those that are contextually related through co-citation and citation relationships.
This forms a comprehensive citation map, allowing you to see how various research pieces interconnect.
A standout feature of Inciteful is its visualization capabilities. The tool presents a citation graph, where each node represents a paper, and connecting lines indicate citation links.
This visualization helps you grasp the structure of scientific discourse in a field, revealing seminal papers, emerging trends, and key authors. You can then filter and sort papers based on keywords, number of citations, or publication date.
Inciteful isn’t just about numbers of citations; it delves deeper. The tool analyzes the context of citations, bringing to light the sentiment and relevance of each citation relationship.
This adds an extra layer of depth to your literature review, offering insights that go beyond traditional citation counting. Inciteful Incorporates metadata from various sources like:
Google Scholar,
Web of Science, and
Microsoft Academic
Inciteful also ensures that its citation network is rich and current. The tool also supports importing bibliographic data in BibTeX format, making it flexible and adaptable to various research needs.
This makes Inciteful not just a powerful research tool but also a highly customizable one, suited for everything from quick overviews to in-depth systematic reviews.
Connected Papers
Connected Papers is a cool literature mapping tool that offers researchers and scholars an intuitive way to explore the citation network of a specific paper or topic.
It stands out compared to the other mapping tools for its user-friendly design and effective visualisation techniques.
Connected Papers takes a ‘seed paper’ of your choice, then generates a citation graph based on the seed paper, producing a visual network that displays how this paper is connected to others through direct citations and co-citations.
This network reveals the most relevant papers, showing you the ‘big picture’ of research trends and developments related to your topic.
The citation graph in Connected Papers isn’t just a simple map; it’s a detailed visualisation tool. Each node represents a paper, and the lines between them indicate citation relationships.
This visualisation allows you to easily identify:
Research papers,
Citations, and even
Emerging trends in the field.
You can see at a glance which papers are most cited and how they interlink, providing a comprehensive overview of the scientific landscape.
Connected Papers uses metadata and bibliographic information from databases like Google Scholar, Web of Science, and Microsoft Academic. This ensures that the citation network you’re exploring is both extensive and up-to-date.
It also supports importing data in BibTeX format, making it versatile for different research needs.
This tool is particularly valuable for researchers who are looking to map out the landscape of a new or complex field. It helps in identifying related papers that might not be immediately obvious, providing a deeper understanding of the subject matter.
Literature Review Made Easy, With Citation Map Tools
Litmaps, Inciteful, and Connected Papers represent the forefront of academic research tools, each bringing a unique approach to literature mapping.
They empower researchers with advanced visualisation, comprehensive citation networks, and user-friendly interfaces, making literature reviews more efficient and insightful.
As the landscape of scientific research continues to grow, these tools are invaluable allies in navigating and understanding the complex web of academic knowledge.
Dr Andrew Stapleton has a Masters and PhD in Chemistry from the UK and Australia. He has many years of research experience and has worked as a Postdoctoral Fellow and Associate at a number of Universities. Although having secured funding for his own research, he left academia to help others with his YouTube channel all about the inner workings of academia and how to make it work for you.
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Citation Searching This link opens in a new window
When to stop searching
Citation Management
Annotating Articles Tip
5. Critically analyze and evaluate
How to Review the Literature
Using a Synthesis Matrix
7. Write literature review
Concept maps or mind maps visually represent relationships of different concepts. In research, they can help you make connections between ideas. You can use them as you are formulating your research question, as you are reading a complex text, and when you are creating a literature review. See the video and examples below.
How to Create a Concept Map
Credit: Penn State Libraries ( CC-BY ) Run Time: 3:13
Bubbl.us Free version allows 3 mind maps, image export, and sharing.
MindMeister Free version allows 3 mind maps, sharing, collaborating, and importing. No image-based exporting.
Mind Map of a Text Example
Credit: Austin Kleon. A map I drew of John Berger’s Ways of Seeing in 2008. Tumblr post. April 14, 2016. http://tumblr.austinkleon.com/post/142802684061#notes
Literature Review Mind Map Example
This example shows the different aspects of the author's literature review with citations to scholars who have written about those aspects.
Credit: Clancy Ratliff, Dissertation: Literature Review. Culturecat: Rhetoric and Feminism [blog]. 2 October 2005. http://culturecat.net/node/955 .
GSlides can create concept maps using their Diagram feature. Insert > Diagram > Hierarchy will give you some editable templates to use.
Tutorial on diagrams in GSlides .
MICROSOFT WORD
MS Word can create concept maps using Insert > SmartArt Graphic. Select Process, Cycle, Hierarchy, or Relationship to see templates.
NVivo is software for qualitative analysis that has a concept map feature. Zotero libraries can be uploaded using ris files. NVivo Concept Map information.
A concept map or mind map is a visual representation of knowledge that illustrates relationships between concepts or ideas. It is a tool for organizing and representing information in a hierarchical and interconnected manner. At its core, a concept map consists of nodes, which represent individual concepts or ideas, and links, which depict the relationships between these concepts .
Below is a non-exhaustive list of tools that can facilitate the creation of concept maps.
www.canva.com
Canva is a user-friendly graphic design platform that enables individuals to create visual content quickly and easily. It offers a diverse array of customizable templates, design elements, and tools, making it accessible to users with varying levels of design experience.
Pros: comes with many pre-made concept map templates to get you started
Cons : not all features are available in the free version
Explore Canva concept map templates here .
Note: Although Canva advertises an "education" option, this is for K-12 only and does not apply to university users.
www.lucidchart.com
Lucid has two tools that can create mind maps (what they're called inside Lucid): Lucidchart is the place to build, document, and diagram, and Lucidspark is the place to ideate, connect, and plan.
Lucidchart is a collaborative online diagramming and visualization tool that allows users to create a wide range of diagrams, including flowcharts, org charts, wireframes, and mind maps. Its mind-mapping feature provides a structured framework for brainstorming ideas, organizing thoughts, and visualizing relationships between concepts.
Lucidspark , works as a virtual whiteboard. Here, you can add sticky notes, develop ideas through freehand drawing, and collaborate with your teammates. Has only one template for mind mapping.
Explore Lucid mind map creation here .
How to create mind maps using LucidSpark:
Note: U-M students have access to Lucid through ITS. [ info here ] Choose the "Login w Google" option, use your @umich.edu account, and access should happen automatically.
www.figma.com
Figma is a cloud-based design tool that enables collaborative interface design and prototyping. It's widely used by UI/UX designers to create, prototype, and iterate on digital designs. Figma is the main design tool, and FigJam is their virtual whiteboard:
Figma is a comprehensive design tool that enables designers to create and prototype high-fidelity designs
FigJam focuses on collaboration and brainstorming, providing a virtual whiteboard-like experience, best for concept maps
Explore FigJam concept maps here .
Note: There is a " Figma for Education " version for students that will provide access. Choose the "Login w Google" option, use your @umich.edu account, and access should happen automatically.
www.mindmeister.com
MindMeister is an online mind mapping tool that allows users to visually organize their thoughts, ideas, and information in a structured and hierarchical format. It provides a digital canvas where users can create and manipulate nodes representing concepts or topics, and connect them with lines to show relationships and associations.
Features : collaborative, permits multiple co-authors, and multiple export formats. The free version allows up to 3 mind maps.
Explore MindMeister templates here .
<< Previous: Using Citation Managers
Next: Writing the Review >>
Last Updated: May 9, 2024 11:44 AM
URL: https://guides.lib.umich.edu/litreview
Activity Diagram (UML)
Amazon Web Services
Android Mockups
Block Diagram
Business Process Management
Chemical Chart
Cisco Network Diagram
Class Diagram (UML)
Collaboration Diagram (UML)
Compare & Contrast Diagram
Component Diagram (UML)
Concept Diagram
Cycle Diagram
Data Flow Diagram
Data Flow Diagrams (YC)
Database Diagram
Deployment Diagram (UML)
Entity Relationship Diagram
Family Tree
Fishbone / Ishikawa Diagram
Gantt Chart
Infographics
iOS Mockups
Network Diagram
Object Diagram (UML)
Object Process Model
Organizational Chart
Sequence Diagram (UML)
Spider Diagram
State Chart Diagram (UML)
Story Board
SWOT Diagram
TQM - Total Quality Management
Use Case Diagram (UML)
Value Stream Mapping
Venn Diagram
Web Mockups
Work Breakdown Structure
Literature Review Map Template
Editable literature review map template to visualize the connections and associations between things. Organize your ideas
You can easily edit this template using Creately's mind mapping software . You can export it in multiple formats like JPEG, PNG and SVG and easily add it to Word documents, Powerpoint (PPT) presentations, Excel or any other documents. You can export it as a PDF for high-quality printouts.
Flowchart Templates
Org Chart Templates
Concept Map Templates
Mind Mapping Templates
WBS Templates
Family Tree Templates
VSM Templates
Data Flow Diagram Templates
Network Diagram Templates
SWOT Analysis Templates
Genogram Templates
Activity Diagram Templates
Amazon Web Services Templates
Android Mockups Templates
Block Diagram Templates
Business Process Management Templates
Chemical Chart Templates
Cisco Network Diagram Templates
Class Diagram Templates
Collaboration Diagram Templates
Compare & Contrast Diagram Templates
Component Diagram Templates
Concept Diagram Templates
Cycle Diagram Templates
Data Flow Diagrams(YC) Templates
Database Diagram Templates
Deployment Diagram Templates
Entity Relationship Diagram Templates
Fishbone Diagram Templates
Gantt Chart Templates
Infographic Templates
iOS Mockup Templates
KWL Chart Templates
Logic Gate Templates
Mind Map Templates
Object Diagram Templates
Object Process Model Templates
Organizational Chart Templates
Other Templates
PERT Chart Templates
Sequence Diagram Templates
Site Map Templates
Spider Diagram Templates
State Chart Diagram Templates
Story Board Templates
SWOT Diagram Templates
T Chart Templates
TQM - Total Quality Management Templates
UI Mockup Templates
Use Case Diagram Templates
Value Stream Mapping Templates
Venn Diagram Templates
Web Mockup Templates
Y Chart Templates
Related Templates
Application of literature maps and literature matrices for quick and effective literature reviews
What is a literature review, and why do we need a map, what is a literature map, how does a literature map solve the problem .
understanding the critical issues, proper methodologies and research findings in the literature,
organising the flow of ideas using a structured document.
Understanding the relationships between different studies and groupings according to similar findings or methodologies.
How does one prepare a literature map?
Write your main topic in a text box at the top.
Decide on a few important subtopics related to the main topic, and write them down below it.
For each subtopic, decide on a few crucial points of research and one by one, write them down below the relevant subtopic, as shown in Figure 1.
Search Google Scholar or your favorite publication repository for good research articles pertaining to each point and record the primary author's name and the year of publication.
Download those articles and save them in your Mendeley library or at your desired location.
You may need to spend a reasonable amount of time preparing this map. Once it has been finalised, the map can be used to conduct a planned and structured literature review.
Citation mapping;
Concept mapping;
Feature mapping;
Topic-tree mapping;
Content mapping; or
Taxonomic mapping.
Connected papers ;
Inciteful ;
Scite ; and
Semantic Scholar .
What is a Literature matrix, and how can it be useful?
Article Title
Research Problem
Methodology
Main Findings
Research Gaps
Bibliography:
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How to Create a Literature Map
Amanda petrona.
Literature maps use graphic techniques of shaping and grouping written information into categories for a research project, presentation or learning exercise. The process of mapping helps the mind visualize relationships and connections from any type of literature such as works with artistic merit or a body of reviewed texts for technology and business studies or for the social, behavioral and physical sciences.
Explore this article
Basic and Advanced Techniques
Maps for Teaching and Learning
Maps for Artistic Works
Maps for Academic Research
1 Basic and Advanced Techniques
Literature maps or charts use geometric shapes such as circles and boxes connected with lines or arrows. Simple maps start with a central circle or square and connect sections of information to other boxes or circles with radiating lines that spread out in all directions. This type of simple mapping provides the basic strategy for all types of advanced mapping . More complex maps have multiple centralized areas that overlap, interconnect and use a top-down organization or a continuum with the information in hierarchies or parallel connections. Organic schemes that resemble trees, waves and other intricate designs are another way to make literature maps.
2 Maps for Teaching and Learning
Educators use literature mapping to teach young students about many subjects. For instance, students learn about characterization by writing a character’s name in a circle in the middle of a piece of paper. The teacher then guides students to add information they've observed or the narrator has described about the character’s speech and behaviors in boxes or other circles connected to the central area. This type of interactive learning project is useful for all fictional elements, such as setting, point-of-view, themes, conflicts, resolutions and consequences, tone or mood and atmosphere. Teachers also lead students in mapping exercises for the ideals and values found in historical texts and biographies.
3 Maps for Artistic Works
Adult students of literature, film and music use mapping to study a favorite musician, film or novelist for a presentation or discussion group or as a visual to include with a research paper or blog. Gnod.com provides interactive mapping applications that group artists according to genre and style. This mapping strategy shows how to make a map that helps viewers think about audience appeal and provides a way to make a list of potential works for a research mapping project. Mapping organizes works with closely related themes, such as what the story, song or film has to say about love, friendship or death. Another way to organize a more complex map of artistic works is to show the parallels or contrasts in themes, genres and styles.
4 Maps for Academic Research
Undergraduate and graduate college students use literature maps to organize and synthesize the literature reviewed for a research paper, thesis or dissertation. For example, a business or technology student can study how enterprises recruit and select employees and how the use of the Internet affects this process. The Research Observatory shows how to map the literature reviewed for this project into key concepts and reference texts numerically. This type of mapping saves space and allows some texts to be listed in different categories.
1 University of the West of England: Research Observatory: Literature Mapping
2 University of Michigan:The Record: Technology Meets Literature As Students Map a Classic Novel; Sheryl James
About the Author
A native of New Orleans, Amanda Petrona holds a Bachelor of Science in anthropology/social psychology and Master of Arts in English. She taught writing, research and literature at LSU Baton Rouge. Petrona founded Wild Spirit Louisiana, an organic farm, nature conservatory, and education center for sustainable and holistic living.
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Regardless of how old we are, we never stop learning. Classroom is the educational resource for people of all ages. Whether you’re studying times tables or applying to college, Classroom has the answers.
The central component in impactful healthcare decisions is evidence. Understanding how nurse leaders use evidence in their own managerial decision making is still limited. This mixed methods systematic review aimed to examine how evidence is used to solve leadership problems and to describe the measured and perceived effects of evidence-based leadership on nurse leaders and their performance, organizational, and clinical outcomes.
We included articles using any type of research design. We referred nurses, nurse managers or other nursing staff working in a healthcare context when they attempt to influence the behavior of individuals or a group in an organization using an evidence-based approach. Seven databases were searched until 11 November 2021. JBI Critical Appraisal Checklist for Quasi-experimental studies, JBI Critical Appraisal Checklist for Case Series, Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool were used to evaluate the Risk of bias in quasi-experimental studies, case series, mixed methods studies, respectively. The JBI approach to mixed methods systematic reviews was followed, and a parallel-results convergent approach to synthesis and integration was adopted.
Thirty-one publications were eligible for the analysis: case series ( n = 27), mixed methods studies ( n = 3) and quasi-experimental studies ( n = 1). All studies were included regardless of methodological quality. Leadership problems were related to the implementation of knowledge into practice, the quality of nursing care and the resource availability. Organizational data was used in 27 studies to understand leadership problems, scientific evidence from literature was sought in 26 studies, and stakeholders’ views were explored in 24 studies. Perceived and measured effects of evidence-based leadership focused on nurses’ performance, organizational outcomes, and clinical outcomes. Economic data were not available.
Conclusions
This is the first systematic review to examine how evidence is used to solve leadership problems and to describe its measured and perceived effects from different sites. Although a variety of perceptions and effects were identified on nurses’ performance as well as on organizational and clinical outcomes, available knowledge concerning evidence-based leadership is currently insufficient. Therefore, more high-quality research and clinical trial designs are still needed.
Trail registration
The study was registered (PROSPERO CRD42021259624).
Peer Review reports
Global health demands have set new roles for nurse leaders [ 1 ].Nurse leaders are referred to as nurses, nurse managers, or other nursing staff working in a healthcare context who attempt to influence the behavior of individuals or a group based on goals that are congruent with organizational goals [ 2 ]. They are seen as professionals “armed with data and evidence, and a commitment to mentorship and education”, and as a group in which “leaders innovate, transform, and achieve quality outcomes for patients, health care professionals, organizations, and communities” [ 3 ]. Effective leadership occurs when team members critically follow leaders and are motivated by a leader’s decisions based on the organization’s requests and targets [ 4 ]. On the other hand, problems caused by poor leadership may also occur, regarding staff relations, stress, sickness, or retention [ 5 ]. Therefore, leadership requires an understanding of different problems to be solved using synthesizing evidence from research, clinical expertise, and stakeholders’ preferences [ 6 , 7 ]. If based on evidence, leadership decisions, also referred as leadership decision making [ 8 ], could ensure adequate staffing [ 7 , 9 ] and to produce sufficient and cost-effective care [ 10 ]. However, nurse leaders still rely on their decision making on their personal [ 11 ] and professional experience [ 10 ] over research evidence, which can lead to deficiencies in the quality and safety of care delivery [ 12 , 13 , 14 ]. As all nurses should demonstrate leadership in their profession, their leadership competencies should be strengthened [ 15 ].
Evidence-informed decision-making, referred to as evidence appraisal and application, and evaluation of decisions [ 16 ], has been recognized as one of the core competencies for leaders [ 17 , 18 ]. The role of evidence in nurse leaders’ managerial decision making has been promoted by public authorities [ 19 , 20 , 21 ]. Evidence-based management, another concept related to evidence-based leadership, has been used as the potential to improve healthcare services [ 22 ]. It can guide nursing leaders, in developing working conditions, staff retention, implementation practices, strategic planning, patient care, and success of leadership [ 13 ]. Collins and Holton [ 23 ] in their systematic review and meta-analysis examined 83 studies regarding leadership development interventions. They found that leadership training can result in significant improvement in participants’ skills, especially in knowledge level, although the training effects varied across studies. Cummings et al. [ 24 ] reviewed 100 papers (93 studies) and concluded that participation in leadership interventions had a positive impact on the development of a variety of leadership styles. Clavijo-Chamorro et al. [ 25 ] in their review of 11 studies focused on leadership-related factors that facilitate evidence implementation: teamwork, organizational structures, and transformational leadership. The role of nurse managers was to facilitate evidence-based practices by transforming contexts to motivate the staff and move toward a shared vision of change.
As far as we are aware, however, only a few systematic reviews have focused on evidence-based leadership or related concepts in the healthcare context aiming to analyse how nurse leaders themselves uses evidence in the decision-making process. Young [ 26 ] targeted definitions and acceptance of evidence-based management (EBMgt) in healthcare while Hasanpoor et al. [ 22 ] identified facilitators and barriers, sources of evidence used, and the role of evidence in the process of decision making. Both these reviews concluded that EBMgt was of great importance but used limitedly in healthcare settings due to a lack of time, a lack of research management activities, and policy constraints. A review by Williams [ 27 ] showed that the usage of evidence to support management in decision making is marginal due to a shortage of relevant evidence. Fraser [ 28 ] in their review further indicated that the potential evidence-based knowledge is not used in decision making by leaders as effectively as it could be. Non-use of evidence occurs and leaders base their decisions mainly on single studies, real-world evidence, and experts’ opinions [ 29 ]. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses rarely provide evidence of management-related interventions [ 30 ]. Tate et al. [ 31 ] concluded based on their systematic review and meta-analysis that the ability of nurse leaders to use and critically appraise research evidence may influence the way policy is enacted and how resources and staff are used to meet certain objectives set by policy. This can further influence staff and workforce outcomes. It is therefore important that nurse leaders have the capacity and motivation to use the strongest evidence available to effect change and guide their decision making [ 27 ].
Despite of a growing body of evidence, we found only one review focusing on the impact of evidence-based knowledge. Geert et al. [ 32 ] reviewed literature from 2007 to 2016 to understand the elements of design, delivery, and evaluation of leadership development interventions that are the most reliably linked to outcomes at the level of the individual and the organization, and that are of most benefit to patients. The authors concluded that it is possible to improve individual-level outcomes among leaders, such as knowledge, motivation, skills, and behavior change using evidence-based approaches. Some of the most effective interventions included, for example, interactive workshops, coaching, action learning, and mentoring. However, these authors found limited research evidence describing how nurse leaders themselves use evidence to support their managerial decisions in nursing and what the outcomes are.
To fill the knowledge gap and compliment to existing knowledgebase, in this mixed methods review we aimed to (1) examine what leadership problems nurse leaders solve using an evidence-based approach and (2) how they use evidence to solve these problems. We also explored (3) the measured and (4) perceived effects of the evidence-based leadership approach in healthcare settings. Both qualitative and quantitative components of the effects of evidence-based leadership were examined to provide greater insights into the available literature [ 33 ]. Together with the evidence-based leadership approach, and its impact on nursing [ 34 , 35 ], this knowledge gained in this review can be used to inform clinical policy or organizational decisions [ 33 ]. The study is registered (PROSPERO CRD42021259624). The methods used in this review were specified in advance and documented in a priori in a published protocol [ 36 ]. Key terms of the review and the search terms are defined in Table 1 (population, intervention, comparison, outcomes, context, other).
In this review, we used a mixed methods approach [ 37 ]. A mixed methods systematic review was selected as this approach has the potential to produce direct relevance to policy makers and practitioners [ 38 ]. Johnson and Onwuegbuzie [ 39 ] have defined mixed methods research as “the class of research in which the researcher mixes or combines quantitative and qualitative research techniques, methods, approaches, concepts or language into a single study.” Therefore, we combined quantitative and narrative analysis to appraise and synthesize empirical evidence, and we held them as equally important in informing clinical policy or organizational decisions [ 34 ]. In this review, a comprehensive synthesis of quantitative and qualitative data was performed first and then discussed in discussion part (parallel-results convergent design) [ 40 ]. We hoped that different type of analysis approaches could complement each other and deeper picture of the topic in line with our research questions could be gained [ 34 ].
Inclusion and exclusion criteria
Inclusion and exclusion criteria of the study are described in Table 1 .
Search strategy
A three-step search strategy was utilized. First, an initial limited search with #MEDLINE was undertaken, followed by analysis of the words used in the title, abstract, and the article’s key index terms. Second, the search strategy, including identified keywords and index terms, was adapted for each included data base and a second search was undertaken on 11 November 2021. The full search strategy for each database is described in Additional file 1 . Third, the reference list of all studies included in the review were screened for additional studies. No year limits or language restrictions were used.
Information sources
The database search included the following: CINAHL (EBSCO), Cochrane Library (academic database for medicine and health science and nursing), Embase (Elsevier), PsycINFO (EBSCO), PubMed (MEDLINE), Scopus (Elsevier) and Web of Science (academic database across all scientific and technical disciplines, ranging from medicine and social sciences to arts and humanities). These databases were selected as they represent typical databases in health care context. Subject headings from each of the databases were included in the search strategies. Boolean operators ‘AND’ and ‘OR’ were used to combine the search terms. An information specialist from the University of Turku Library was consulted in the formation of the search strategies.
Study selection
All identified citations were collated and uploaded into Covidence software (Covidence systematic review software, Veritas Health Innovation, Melbourne, Australia www.covidence.org ), and duplicates were removed by the software. Titles and abstracts were screened and assessed against the inclusion criteria independently by two reviewers out of four, and any discrepancies were resolved by the third reviewer (MV, KH, TL, WC). Studies meeting the inclusion criteria were retrieved in full and archived in Covidence. Access to one full-text article was lacking: the authors for one study were contacted about the missing full text, but no full text was received. All remaining hits of the included studies were retrieved and assessed independently against the inclusion criteria by two independent reviewers of four (MV, KH, TL, WC). Studies that did not meet the inclusion criteria were excluded, and the reasons for exclusion were recorded in Covidence. Any disagreements that arose between the reviewers were resolved through discussions with XL.
Assessment of methodological quality
Eligible studies were critically appraised by two independent reviewers (YT, SH). Standardized critical appraisal instruments based on the study design were used. First, quasi-experimental studies were assessed using the JBI Critical Appraisal Checklist for Quasi-experimental studies [ 44 ]. Second, case series were assessed using the JBI Critical Appraisal Checklist for Case Series [ 45 ]. Third, mixed methods studies were appraised using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool [ 46 ].
To increase inter-reviewer reliability, the review agreement was calculated (SH) [ 47 ]. A kappa greater than 0.8 was considered to represent a high level of agreement (0–0.1). In our data, the agreement was 0.75. Discrepancies raised between two reviewers were resolved through discussion and modifications and confirmed by XL. As an outcome, studies that met the inclusion criteria were proceeded to critical appraisal and assessed as suitable for inclusion in the review. The scores for each item and overall critical appraisal scores were presented.
Data extraction
For data extraction, specific tables were created. First, study characteristics (author(s), year, country, design, number of participants, setting) were extracted by two authors independently (JC, MV) and reviewed by TL. Second, descriptions of the interventions were extracted by two reviewers (JV, JC) using the structure of the TIDIeR (Template for Intervention Description and Replication) checklist (brief name, the goal of the intervention, material and procedure, models of delivery and location, dose, modification, adherence and fidelity) [ 48 ]. The extractions were confirmed (MV).
Third, due to a lack of effectiveness data and a wide heterogeneity between study designs and presentation of outcomes, no attempt was made to pool the quantitative data statistically; the findings of the quantitative data were presented in narrative form only [ 44 ]. The separate data extraction tables for each research question were designed specifically for this study. For both qualitative (and a qualitative component of mixed-method studies) and quantitative studies, the data were extracted and tabulated into text format according to preplanned research questions [ 36 ]. To test the quality of the tables and the data extraction process, three authors independently extracted the data from the first five studies (in alphabetical order). After that, the authors came together to share and determine whether their approaches of the data extraction were consistent with each other’s output and whether the content of each table was in line with research question. No reason was found to modify the data extraction tables or planned process. After a consensus of the data extraction process was reached, the data were extracted in pairs by independent reviewers (WC, TY, SH, GL). Any disagreements that arose between the reviewers were resolved through discussion and with a third reviewer (MV).
Data analysis
We were not able to conduct a meta-analysis due to a lack of effectiveness data based on clinical trials. Instead, we used inductive thematic analysis with constant comparison to answer the research question [ 46 , 49 ] using tabulated primary data from qualitative and quantitative studies as reported by the original authors in narrative form only [ 47 ]. In addition, the qualitizing process was used to transform quantitative data to qualitative data; this helped us to convert the whole data into themes and categories. After that we used the thematic analysis for the narrative data as follows. First, the text was carefully read, line by line, to reveal topics answering each specific review question (MV). Second, the data coding was conducted, and the themes in the data were formed by data categorization. The process of deriving the themes was inductive based on constant comparison [ 49 ]. The results of thematic analysis and data categorization was first described in narrative format and then the total number of studies was calculated where the specific category was identified (%).
Stakeholder involvement
The method of reporting stakeholders’ involvement follows the key components by [ 50 ]: (1) people involved, (2) geographical location, (3) how people were recruited, (4) format of involvement, (5) amount of involvement, (6) ethical approval, (7) financial compensation, and (8) methods for reporting involvement.
In our review, stakeholder involvement targeted nurses and nurse leader in China. Nurse Directors of two hospitals recommended potential participants who received a personal invitation letter from researchers to participate in a discussion meeting. Stakeholders’ participation was based on their own free will. Due to COVID-19, one online meeting (1 h) was organized (25 May 2022). Eleven participants joined the meeting. Ethical approval was not applied and no financial compensation was offered. At the end of the meeting, experiences of stakeholders’ involvement were explored.
The meeting started with an introductory presentation with power points. The rationale, methods, and preliminary review results were shared with the participants [ 51 ].The meeting continued with general questions for the participants: (1) Are you aware of the concepts of evidence-based practice or evidence-based leadership?; (2) How important is it to use evidence to support decisions among nurse leaders?; (3) How is the evidence-based approach used in hospital settings?; and (4) What type of evidence is currently used to support nurse leaders’ decision making (e.g. scientific literature, organizational data, stakeholder views)?
Two people took notes on the course and content of the conversation. The notes were later transcripted in verbatim, and the key points of the discussions were summarised. Although answers offered by the stakeholders were very short, the information was useful to validate the preliminary content of the results, add the rigorousness of the review, and obtain additional perspectives. A recommendation of the stakeholders was combined in the Discussion part of this review increasing the applicability of the review in the real world [ 50 ]. At the end of the discussion, the value of stakeholders’ involvement was asked. Participants shared that the experience of participating was unique and the topic of discussion was challenging. Two authors of the review group further represented stakeholders by working together with the research team throughout the review study.
Search results
From seven different electronic databases, 6053 citations were identified as being potentially relevant to the review. Then, 3133 duplicates were removed by an automation tool (Covidence: www.covidence.org ), and one was removed manually. The titles and abstracts of 3040 of citations were reviewed, and a total of 110 full texts were included (one extra citation was found on the reference list but later excluded). Based on the eligibility criteria, 31 studies (32 hits) were critically appraised and deemed suitable for inclusion in the review. The search results and selection process are presented in the PRISMA [ 52 ] flow diagram Fig. 1 . The full list of references for included studies can be find in Additional file 2 . To avoid confusion between articles of the reference list and studies included in the analysis, the studies included in the review are referred inside the article using the reference number of each study (e.g. ref 1, ref 2).
Search results and study selection and inclusion process [ 52 ]
Characteristics of included studies
The studies had multiple purposes, aiming to develop practice, implement a new approach, improve quality, or to develop a model. The 31 studies (across 32 hits) were case series studies ( n = 27), mixed methods studies ( n = 3) and a quasi-experimental study ( n = 1). All studies were published between the years 2004 and 2021. The highest number of papers was published in year 2020.
Table 2 describes the characteristics of included studies and Additional file 3 offers a narrative description of the studies.
Methodological quality assessment
Quasi-experimental studies.
We had one quasi-experimental study (ref 31). All questions in the critical appraisal tool were applicable. The total score of the study was 8 (out of a possible 9). Only one response of the tool was ‘no’ because no control group was used in the study (see Additional file 4 for the critical appraisal of included studies).
Case series studies . A case series study is typically defined as a collection of subjects with common characteristics. The studies do not include a comparison group and are often based on prevalent cases and on a sample of convenience [ 53 ]. Munn et al. [ 45 ] further claim that case series are best described as observational studies, lacking experimental and randomized characteristics, being descriptive studies, without a control or comparator group. Out of 27 case series studies included in our review, the critical appraisal scores varied from 1 to 9. Five references were conference abstracts with empirical study results, which were scored from 1 to 3. Full reports of these studies were searched in electronic databases but not found. Critical appraisal scores for the remaining 22 studies ranged from 1 to 9 out of a possible score of 10. One question (Q3) was not applicable to 13 studies: “Were valid methods used for identification of the condition for all participants included in the case series?” Only two studies had clearly reported the demographic of the participants in the study (Q6). Twenty studies met Criteria 8 (“Were the outcomes or follow-up results of cases clearly reported?”) and 18 studies met Criteria 7 (“Q7: Was there clear reporting of clinical information of the participants?”) (see Additional file 4 for the critical appraisal of included studies).
Mixed-methods studies
Mixed-methods studies involve a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods. This is a common design and includes convergent design, sequential explanatory design, and sequential exploratory design [ 46 ]. There were three mixed-methods studies. The critical appraisal scores for the three studies ranged from 60 to 100% out of a possible 100%. Two studies met all the criteria, while one study fulfilled 60% of the scored criteria due to a lack of information to understand the relevance of the sampling strategy well enough to address the research question (Q4.1) or to determine whether the risk of nonresponse bias was low (Q4.4) (see Additional file 4 for the critical appraisal of included studies).
Intervention or program components
The intervention of program components were categorized and described using the TiDier checklist: name and goal, theory or background, material, procedure, provider, models of delivery, location, dose, modification, and adherence and fidelity [ 48 ]. A description of intervention in each study is described in Additional file 5 and a narrative description in Additional file 6 .
Leadership problems
In line with the inclusion criteria, data for the leadership problems were categorized in all 31 included studies (see Additional file 7 for leadership problems). Three types of leadership problems were identified: implementation of knowledge into practice, the quality of clinical care, and resources in nursing care. A narrative summary of the results is reported below.
Implementing knowledge into practice
Eleven studies (35%) aimed to solve leadership problems related to implementation of knowledge into practice. Studies showed how to support nurses in evidence-based implementation (EBP) (ref 3, ref 5), how to engage nurses in using evidence in practice (ref 4), how to convey the importance of EBP (ref 22) or how to change practice (ref 4). Other problems were how to facilitate nurses to use guideline recommendations (ref 7) and how nurses can make evidence-informed decisions (ref 8). General concerns also included the linkage between theory and practice (ref 1) as well as how to implement the EBP model in practice (ref 6). In addition, studies were motivated by the need for revisions or updates of protocols to improve clinical practice (ref 10) as well as the need to standardize nursing activities (ref 11, ref 14).
The quality of the care
Thirteen (42%) focused on solving problems related to the quality of clinical care. In these studies, a high number of catheter infections led a lack of achievement of organizational goals (ref 2, ref 9). A need to reduce patient symptoms in stem cell transplant patients undergoing high-dose chemotherapy (ref 24) was also one of the problems to be solved. In addition, the projects focused on how to prevent pressure ulcers (ref 26, ref 29), how to enhance the quality of cancer treatment (ref 25) and how to reduce the need for invasive constipation treatment (ref 30). Concerns about patient safety (ref 15), high fall rates (ref 16, ref 19), dissatisfaction of patients (ref 16, ref 18) and nurses (ref 16, ref 30) were also problems that had initiated the projects. Studies addressed concerns about how to promote good contingency care in residential aged care homes (ref 20) and about how to increase recognition of human trafficking problems in healthcare (ref 21).
Resources in nursing care
Nurse leaders identified problems in their resources, especially in staffing problems. These problems were identified in seven studies (23%), which involved concerns about how to prevent nurses from leaving the job (ref 31), how to ensure appropriate recruitment, staffing and retaining of nurses (ref 13) and how to decrease nurses’ burden and time spent on nursing activities (ref 12). Leadership turnover was also reported as a source of dissatisfaction (ref 17); studies addressed a lack of structured transition and training programs, which led to turnover (ref 23), as well as how to improve intershift handoff among nurses (ref 28). Optimal design for new hospitals was also examined (ref 27).
Main features of evidence-based leadership
Out of 31 studies, 17 (55%) included all four domains of an evidence-based leadership approach, and four studies (13%) included evidence of critical appraisal of the results (see Additional file 8 for the main features of evidence-based Leadership) (ref 11, ref 14, ref 23, ref 27).
Organizational evidence
Twenty-seven studies (87%) reported how organizational evidence was collected and used to solve leadership problems (ref 2). Retrospective chart reviews (ref 5), a review of the extent of specific incidents (ref 19), and chart auditing (ref 7, ref 25) were conducted. A gap between guideline recommendations and actual care was identified using organizational data (ref 7) while the percentage of nurses’ working time spent on patient care was analyzed using an electronic charting system (ref 12). Internal data (ref 22), institutional data, and programming metrics were also analyzed to understand the development of the nurse workforce (ref 13).
Surveys (ref 3, ref 25), interviews (ref 3, ref 25) and group reviews (ref 18) were used to better understand the leadership problem to be solved. Employee opinion surveys on leadership (ref 17), a nurse satisfaction survey (ref 30) and a variety of reporting templates were used for the data collection (ref 28) reported. Sometimes, leadership problems were identified by evidence facilitators or a PI’s team who worked with staff members (ref 15, ref 17). Problems in clinical practice were also identified by the Nursing Professional Council (ref 14), managers (ref 26) or nurses themselves (ref 24). Current practices were reviewed (ref 29) and a gap analysis was conducted (ref 4, ref 16, ref 23) together with SWOT analysis (ref 16). In addition, hospital mission and vision statements, research culture established and the proportion of nursing alumni with formal EBP training were analyzed (ref 5). On the other hand, it was stated that no systematic hospital-specific sources of data regarding job satisfaction or organizational commitment were used (ref 31). In addition, statements of organizational analysis were used on a general level only (ref 1).
Scientific evidence identified
Twenty-six studies (84%) reported the use of scientific evidence in their evidence-based leadership processes. A literature search was conducted (ref 21) and questions, PICO, and keywords were identified (ref 4) in collaboration with a librarian. Electronic databases, including PubMed (ref 14, ref 31), Cochrane, and EMBASE (ref 31) were searched. Galiano (ref 6) used Wiley Online Library, Elsevier, CINAHL, Health Source: Nursing/Academic Edition, PubMed, and the Cochrane Library while Hoke (ref 11) conducted an electronic search using CINAHL and PubMed to retrieve articles.
Identified journals were reviewed manually (ref 31). The findings were summarized using ‘elevator speech’ (ref 4). In a study by Gifford et al. (ref 9) evidence facilitators worked with participants to access, appraise, and adapt the research evidence to the organizational context. Ostaszkiewicz (ref 20) conducted a scoping review of literature and identified and reviewed frameworks and policy documents about the topic and the quality standards. Further, a team of nursing administrators, directors, staff nurses, and a patient representative reviewed the literature and made recommendations for practice changes.
Clinical practice guidelines were also used to offer scientific evidence (ref 7, ref 19). Evidence was further retrieved from a combination of nursing policies, guidelines, journal articles, and textbooks (ref 12) as well as from published guidelines and literature (ref 13). Internal evidence, professional practice knowledge, relevant theories and models were synthesized (ref 24) while other study (ref 25) reviewed individual studies, synthesized with systematic reviews or clinical practice guidelines. The team reviewed the research evidence (ref 3, ref 15) or conducted a literature review (ref 22, ref 28, ref 29), a literature search (ref 27), a systematic review (ref 23), a review of the literature (ref 30) or ‘the scholarly literature was reviewed’ (ref 18). In addition, ‘an extensive literature review of evidence-based best practices was carried out’ (ref 10). However, detailed description how the review was conducted was lacking.
Views of stakeholders
A total of 24 studies (77%) reported methods for how the views of stakeholders, i.e., professionals or experts, were considered. Support to run this study was received from nursing leadership and multidisciplinary teams (ref 29). Experts and stakeholders joined the study team in some cases (ref 25, ref 30), and in other studies, their opinions were sought to facilitate project success (ref 3). Sometimes a steering committee was formed by a Chief Nursing Officer and Clinical Practice Specialists (ref 2). More specifically, stakeholders’ views were considered using interviews, workshops and follow-up teleconferences (ref 7). The literature review was discussed with colleagues (ref 11), and feedback and support from physicians as well as the consensus of staff were sought (ref 16).
A summary of the project findings and suggestions for the studies were discussed at 90-minute weekly meetings by 11 charge nurses. Nurse executive directors were consulted over a 10-week period (ref 31). An implementation team (nurse, dietician, physiotherapist, occupational therapist) was formed to support the implementation of evidence-based prevention measures (ref 26). Stakeholders volunteered to join in the pilot implementation (ref 28) or a stakeholder team met to determine the best strategy for change management, shortcomings in evidence-based criteria were discussed, and strategies to address those areas were planned (ref 5). Nursing leaders, staff members (ref 22), ‘process owners (ref 18) and program team members (ref 18, ref 19, ref 24) met regularly to discuss the problems. Critical input was sought from clinical educators, physicians, nutritionists, pharmacists, and nurse managers (ref 24). The unit director and senior nursing staff reviewed the contents of the product, and the final version of clinical pathways were reviewed and approved by the Quality Control Commission of the Nursing Department (ref 12). In addition, two co-design workshops with 18 residential aged care stakeholders were organized to explore their perspectives about factors to include in a model prototype (ref 20). Further, an agreement of stakeholders in implementing continuous quality services within an open relationship was conducted (ref 1).
Critical appraisal
In five studies (16%), a critical appraisal targeting the literature search was carried out. The appraisals were conducted by interns and teams who critiqued the evidence (ref 4). In Hoke’s study, four areas that had emerged in the literature were critically reviewed (ref 11). Other methods were to ‘critically appraise the search results’ (ref 14). Journal club team meetings (ref 23) were organized to grade the level and quality of evidence and the team ‘critically appraised relevant evidence’ (ref 27). On the other hand, the studies lacked details of how the appraisals were done in each study.
The perceived effects of evidence-based leadership
Perceived effects of evidence-based leadership on nurses’ performance.
Eleven studies (35%) described perceived effects of evidence-based leadership on nurses’ performance (see Additional file 9 for perceived effects of evidence-based leadership), which were categorized in four groups: awareness and knowledge, competence, ability to understand patients’ needs, and engagement. First, regarding ‘awareness and knowledge’, different projects provided nurses with new learning opportunities (ref 3). Staff’s knowledge (ref 20, ref 28), skills, and education levels improved (ref 20), as did nurses’ knowledge comprehension (ref 21). Second, interventions and approaches focusing on management and leadership positively influenced participants’ competence level to improve the quality of services. Their confidence level (ref 1) and motivation to change practice increased, self-esteem improved, and they were more positive and enthusiastic in their work (ref 22). Third, some nurses were relieved that they had learned to better handle patients’ needs (ref 25). For example, a systematic work approach increased nurses’ awareness of the patients who were at risk of developing health problems (ref 26). And last, nurse leaders were more engaged with staff, encouraging them to adopt the new practices and recognizing their efforts to change (ref 8).
Perceived effects on organizational outcomes
Nine studies (29%) described the perceived effects of evidence-based leadership on organizational outcomes (see Additional file 9 for perceived effects of evidence-based leadership). These were categorized into three groups: use of resources, staff commitment, and team effort. First, more appropriate use of resources was reported (ref 15, ref 20), and working time was more efficiently used (ref 16). In generally, a structured approach made implementing change more manageable (ref 1). On the other hand, in the beginning of the change process, the feedback from nurses was unfavorable, and they experienced discomfort in the new work style (ref 29). New approaches were also perceived as time consuming (ref 3). Second, nurse leaders believed that fewer nursing staff than expected left the organization over the course of the study (ref 31). Third, the project helped staff in their efforts to make changes, and it validated the importance of working as a team (ref 7). Collaboration and support between the nurses increased (ref 26). On the other hand, new work style caused challenges in teamwork (ref 3).
Perceived effects on clinical outcomes
Five studies (16%) reported the perceived effects of evidence-based leadership on clinical outcomes (see Additional file 9 for perceived effects of evidence-based leadership), which were categorized in two groups: general patient outcomes and specific clinical outcomes. First, in general, the project assisted in connecting the guideline recommendations and patient outcomes (ref 7). The project was good for the patients in general, and especially to improve patient safety (ref 16). On the other hand, some nurses thought that the new working style did not work at all for patients (ref 28). Second, the new approach used assisted in optimizing patients’ clinical problems and person-centered care (ref 20). Bowel management, for example, received very good feedback (ref 30).
The measured effects of evidence-based leadership
The measured effects on nurses’ performance.
Data were obtained from 20 studies (65%) (see Additional file 10 for measured effects of evidence-based leadership) and categorized nurse performance outcomes for three groups: awareness and knowledge, engagement, and satisfaction. First, six studies (19%) measured the awareness and knowledge levels of participants. Internship for staff nurses was beneficial to help participants to understand the process for using evidence-based practice and to grow professionally, to stimulate for innovative thinking, to give knowledge needed to use evidence-based practice to answer clinical questions, and to make possible to complete an evidence-based practice project (ref 3). Regarding implementation program of evidence-based practice, those with formal EBP training showed an improvement in knowledge, attitude, confidence, awareness and application after intervention (ref 3, ref 11, ref 20, ref 23, ref 25). On the contrary, in other study, attitude towards EBP remained stable ( p = 0.543). and those who applied EBP decreased although no significant differences over the years ( p = 0.879) (ref 6).
Second, 10 studies (35%) described nurses’ engagement to new practices (ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 10, ref 16, ref 17, ref 18, ref 21, ref 25, ref 27). 9 studies (29%) studies reported that there was an improvement of compliance level of participants (ref 6, ref 7, ref 10, ref 16, ref 17, ref 18, ref 21, ref 25, ref 27). On the contrary, in DeLeskey’s (ref 5) study, although improvement was found in post-operative nausea and vomiting’s (PONV) risk factors documented’ (2.5–63%), and ’risk factors communicated among anaesthesia and surgical staff’ (0–62%), the improvement did not achieve the goal. The reason was a limited improvement was analysed. It was noted that only those patients who had been seen by the pre-admission testing nurse had risk assessments completed. Appropriate treatment/prophylaxis increased from 69 to 77%, and from 30 to 49%; routine assessment for PONV/rescue treatment 97% and 100% was both at 100% following the project. The results were discussed with staff but further reasons for a lack of engagement in nursing care was not reported.
And third, six studies (19%) reported nurses’ satisfaction with project outcomes. The study results showed that using evidence in managerial decisions improved nurses’ satisfaction and attitudes toward their organization ( P < 0.05) (ref 31). Nurses’ overall job satisfaction improved as well (ref 17). Nurses’ satisfaction with usability of the electronic charting system significantly improved after introduction of the intervention (ref 12). In handoff project in seven hospitals, improvement was reported in all satisfaction indicators used in the study although improvement level varied in different units (ref 28). In addition, positive changes were reported in nurses’ ability to autonomously perform their job (“How satisfied are you with the tools and resources available for you treat and prevent patient constipation?” (54%, n = 17 vs. 92%, n = 35, p < 0.001) (ref 30).
The measured effects on organizational outcomes
Thirteen studies (42%) described the effects of a project on organizational outcomes (see Additional file 10 for measured effects of evidence-based leadership), which were categorized in two groups: staff compliance, and changes in practices. First, studies reported improved organizational outcomes due to staff better compliance in care (ref 4, ref 13, ref 17, ref 23, ref 27, ref 31). Second, changes in organization practices were also described (ref 11) like changes in patient documentation (ref 12, ref 21). Van Orne (ref 30) found a statistically significant reduction in the average rate of invasive medication administration between pre-intervention and post-intervention ( p = 0.01). Salvador (ref 24) also reported an improvement in a proactive approach to mucositis prevention with an evidence-based oral care guide. On the contrary, concerns were also raised such as not enough time for new bedside report (ref 16) or a lack of improvement of assessment of diabetic ulcer (ref 8).
The measured effects on clinical outcomes
A variety of improvements in clinical outcomes were reported (see Additional file 10 for measured effects of evidence-based leadership): improvement in patient clinical status and satisfaction level. First, a variety of improvement in patient clinical status was reported. improvement in Incidence of CAUTI decreased 27.8% between 2015 and 2019 (ref 2) while a patient-centered quality improvement project reduced CAUTI rates to 0 (ref 10). A significant decrease in transmission rate of MRSA transmission was also reported (ref 27) and in other study incidences of CLABSIs dropped following of CHG bathing (ref 14). Further, it was possible to decrease patient nausea from 18 to 5% and vomiting to 0% (ref 5) while the percentage of patients who left the hospital without being seen was below 2% after the project (ref 17). In addition, a significant reduction in the prevalence of pressure ulcers was found (ref 26, ref 29) and a significant reduction of mucositis severity/distress was achieved (ref 24). Patient falls rate decreased (ref 15, ref 16, ref 19, ref 27).
Second, patient satisfaction level after project implementation improved (ref 28). The scale assessing healthcare providers by consumers showed improvement, but the changes were not statistically significant. Improvement in an emergency department leadership model and in methods of communication with patients improved patient satisfaction scores by 600% (ref 17). In addition, new evidence-based unit improved patient experiences about the unit although not all items improved significantly (ref 18).
Stakeholder involvement in the mixed-method review
To ensure stakeholders’ involvement in the review, the real-world relevance of our research [ 53 ], achieve a higher level of meaning in our review results, and gain new perspectives on our preliminary findings [ 50 ], a meeting with 11 stakeholders was organized. First, we asked if participants were aware of the concepts of evidence-based practice or evidence-based leadership. Responses revealed that participants were familiar with the concept of evidence-based practice, but the topic of evidence-based leadership was totally new. Examples of nurses and nurse leaders’ responses are as follows: “I have heard a concept of evidence-based practice but never a concept of evidence-based leadership.” Another participant described: “I have heard it [evidence-based leadership] but I do not understand what it means.”
Second, as stakeholder involvement is beneficial to the relevance and impact of health research [ 54 ], we asked how important evidence is to them in supporting decisions in health care services. One participant described as follows: “Using evidence in decisions is crucial to the wards and also to the entire hospital.” Third, we asked how the evidence-based approach is used in hospital settings. Participants expressed that literature is commonly used to solve clinical problems in patient care but not to solve leadership problems. “In [patient] medication and care, clinical guidelines are regularly used. However, I am aware only a few cases where evidence has been sought to solve leadership problems.”
And last, we asked what type of evidence is currently used to support nurse leaders’ decision making (e.g. scientific literature, organizational data, stakeholder views)? The participants were aware that different types of information were collected in their organization on a daily basis (e.g. patient satisfaction surveys). However, the information was seldom used to support decision making because nurse leaders did not know how to access this information. Even so, the participants agreed that the use of evidence from different sources was important in approaching any leadership or managerial problems in the organization. Participants also suggested that all nurse leaders should receive systematic training related to the topic; this could support the daily use of the evidence-based approach.
To our knowledge, this article represents the first mixed-methods systematic review to examine leadership problems, how evidence is used to solve these problems and what the perceived and measured effects of evidence-based leadership are on nurse leaders and their performance, organizational, and clinical outcomes. This review has two key findings. First, the available research data suggests that evidence-based leadership has potential in the healthcare context, not only to improve knowledge and skills among nurses, but also to improve organizational outcomes and the quality of patient care. Second, remarkably little published research was found to explore the effects of evidence-based leadership with an efficient trial design. We validated the preliminary results with nurse stakeholders, and confirmed that nursing staff, especially nurse leaders, were not familiar with the concept of evidence-based leadership, nor were they used to implementing evidence into their leadership decisions. Our data was based on many databases, and we screened a large number of studies. We also checked existing registers and databases and found no registered or ongoing similar reviews being conducted. Therefore, our results may not change in the near future.
We found that after identifying the leadership problems, 26 (84%) studies out of 31 used organizational data, 25 (81%) studies used scientific evidence from the literature, and 21 (68%) studies considered the views of stakeholders in attempting to understand specific leadership problems more deeply. However, only four studies critically appraised any of these findings. Considering previous critical statements of nurse leaders’ use of evidence in their decision making [ 14 , 30 , 31 , 34 , 55 ], our results are still quite promising.
Our results support a previous systematic review by Geert et al. [ 32 ], which concluded that it is possible to improve leaders’ individual-level outcomes, such as knowledge, motivation, skills, and behavior change using evidence-based approaches. Collins and Holton [ 23 ] particularly found that leadership training resulted in significant knowledge and skill improvements, although the effects varied widely across studies. In our study, evidence-based leadership was seen to enable changes in clinical practice, especially in patient care. On the other hand, we understand that not all efforts to changes were successful [ 56 , 57 , 58 ]. An evidence-based approach causes negative attitudes and feelings. Negative emotions in participants have also been reported due to changes, such as discomfort with a new working style [ 59 ]. Another study reported inconvenience in using a new intervention and its potential risks for patient confidentiality. Sometimes making changes is more time consuming than continuing with current practice [ 60 ]. These findings may partially explain why new interventions or program do not always fully achieve their goals. On the other hand, Dubose et al. [ 61 ] state that, if prepared with knowledge of resistance, nurse leaders could minimize the potential negative consequences and capitalize on a powerful impact of change adaptation.
We found that only six studies used a specific model or theory to understand the mechanism of change that could guide leadership practices. Participants’ reactions to new approaches may be an important factor in predicting how a new intervention will be implemented into clinical practice. Therefore, stronger effort should be put to better understanding the use of evidence, how participants’ reactions and emotions or practice changes could be predicted or supported using appropriate models or theories, and how using these models are linked with leadership outcomes. In this task, nurse leaders have an important role. At the same time, more responsibilities in developing health services have been put on the shoulders of nurse leaders who may already be suffering under pressure and increased burden at work. Working in a leadership position may also lead to role conflict. A study by Lalleman et al. [ 62 ] found that nurses were used to helping other people, often in ad hoc situations. The helping attitude of nurses combined with structured managerial role may cause dilemmas, which may lead to stress. Many nurse leaders opt to leave their positions less than 5 years [ 63 ].To better fulfill the requirements of health services in the future, the role of nurse leaders in evidence-based leadership needs to be developed further to avoid ethical and practical dilemmas in their leadership practices.
It is worth noting that the perceived and measured effects did not offer strong support to each other but rather opened a new venue to understand the evidence-based leadership. Specifically, the perceived effects did not support to measured effects (competence, ability to understand patients’ needs, use of resources, team effort, and specific clinical outcomes) while the measured effects could not support to perceived effects (nurse’s performance satisfaction, changes in practices, and clinical outcomes satisfaction). These findings may indicate that different outcomes appear if the effects of evidence-based leadership are looked at using different methodological approach. Future study is encouraged using well-designed study method including mixed-method study to examine the consistency between perceived and measured effects of evidence-based leadership in health care.
There is a potential in nursing to support change by demonstrating conceptual and operational commitment to research-based practices [ 64 ]. Nurse leaders are well positioned to influence and lead professional governance, quality improvement, service transformation, change and shared governance [ 65 ]. In this task, evidence-based leadership could be a key in solving deficiencies in the quality, safety of care [ 14 ] and inefficiencies in healthcare delivery [ 12 , 13 ]. As WHO has revealed, there are about 28 million nurses worldwide, and the demand of nurses will put nurse resources into the specific spotlight [ 1 ]. Indeed, evidence could be used to find solutions for how to solve economic deficits or other problems using leadership skills. This is important as, when nurses are able to show leadership and control in their own work, they are less likely to leave their jobs [ 66 ]. On the other hand, based on our discussions with stakeholders, nurse leaders are not used to using evidence in their own work. Further, evidence-based leadership is not possible if nurse leaders do not have access to a relevant, robust body of evidence, adequate funding, resources, and organizational support, and evidence-informed decision making may only offer short-term solutions [ 55 ]. We still believe that implementing evidence-based strategies into the work of nurse leaders may create opportunities to protect this critical workforce from burnout or leaving the field [ 67 ]. However, the role of the evidence-based approach for nurse leaders in solving these problems is still a key question.
Limitations
This study aimed to use a broad search strategy to ensure a comprehensive review but, nevertheless, limitations exist: we may have missed studies not included in the major international databases. To keep search results manageable, we did not use specific databases to systematically search grey literature although it is a rich source of evidence used in systematic reviews and meta-analysis [ 68 ]. We still included published conference abstract/proceedings, which appeared in our scientific databases. It has been stated that conference abstracts and proceedings with empirical study results make up a great part of studies cited in systematic reviews [ 69 ]. At the same time, a limited space reserved for published conference publications can lead to methodological issues reducing the validity of the review results [ 68 ]. We also found that the great number of studies were carried out in western countries, restricting the generalizability of the results outside of English language countries. The study interventions and outcomes were too different across studies to be meaningfully pooled using statistical methods. Thus, our narrative synthesis could hypothetically be biased. To increase transparency of the data and all decisions made, the data, its categorization and conclusions are based on original studies and presented in separate tables and can be found in Additional files. Regarding a methodological approach [ 34 ], we used a mixed methods systematic review, with the core intention of combining quantitative and qualitative data from primary studies. The aim was to create a breadth and depth of understanding that could confirm to or dispute evidence and ultimately answer the review question posed [ 34 , 70 ]. Although the method is gaining traction due to its usefulness and practicality, guidance in combining quantitative and qualitative data in mixed methods systematic reviews is still limited at the theoretical stage [ 40 ]. As an outcome, it could be argued that other methodologies, for example, an integrative review, could have been used in our review to combine diverse methodologies [ 71 ]. We still believe that the results of this mixed method review may have an added value when compared with previous systematic reviews concerning leadership and an evidence-based approach.
Our mixed methods review fills the gap regarding how nurse leaders themselves use evidence to guide their leadership role and what the measured and perceived impact of evidence-based leadership is in nursing. Although the scarcity of controlled studies on this topic is concerning, the available research data suggest that evidence-based leadership intervention can improve nurse performance, organizational outcomes, and patient outcomes. Leadership problems are also well recognized in healthcare settings. More knowledge and a deeper understanding of the role of nurse leaders, and how they can use evidence in their own managerial leadership decisions, is still needed. Despite the limited number of studies, we assume that this narrative synthesis can provide a good foundation for how to develop evidence-based leadership in the future.
Implications
Based on our review results, several implications can be recommended. First, the future of nursing success depends on knowledgeable, capable, and strong leaders. Therefore, nurse leaders worldwide need to be educated about the best ways to manage challenging situations in healthcare contexts using an evidence-based approach in their decisions. This recommendation was also proposed by nurses and nurse leaders during our discussion meeting with stakeholders.
Second, curriculums in educational organizations and on-the-job training for nurse leaders should be updated to support general understanding how to use evidence in leadership decisions. And third, patients and family members should be more involved in the evidence-based approach. It is therefore important that nurse leaders learn how patients’ and family members’ views as stakeholders are better considered as part of the evidence-based leadership approach.
Future studies should be prioritized as follows: establishment of clear parameters for what constitutes and measures evidence-based leadership; use of theories or models in research to inform mechanisms how to effectively change the practice; conducting robust effectiveness studies using trial designs to evaluate the impact of evidence-based leadership; studying the role of patient and family members in improving the quality of clinical care; and investigating the financial impact of the use of evidence-based leadership approach within respective healthcare systems.
Data availability
The authors obtained all data for this review from published manuscripts.
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Acknowledgements
We want to thank the funding bodies, the Finnish National Agency of Education, Asia Programme, the Department of Nursing Science at the University of Turku, and Xiangya School of Nursing at the Central South University. We also would like to thank the nurses and nurse leaders for their valuable opinions on the topic.
The work was supported by the Finnish National Agency of Education, Asia Programme (grant number 26/270/2020) and the University of Turku (internal fund 26003424). The funders had no role in the study design and will not have any role during its execution, analysis, interpretation of the data, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
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Study design: MV, XL. Literature search and study selection: MV, KH, TL, WC, XL. Quality assessment: YT, SH, XL. Data extraction: JC, MV, JV, WC, YT, SH, GL. Analysis and interpretation: MV, SH. Manuscript writing: MV. Critical revisions for important intellectual content: MV, XL. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
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Differences between the original protocol
We modified criteria for the included studies: we included published conference abstracts/proceedings, which form a relatively broad knowledge base in scientific knowledge. We originally planned to conduct a survey with open-ended questions followed by a face-to-face meeting to discuss the preliminary results of the review. However, to avoid extra burden in nurses due to COVID-19, we decided to limit the validation process to the online discussion only.
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Välimäki, M., Hu, S., Lantta, T. et al. The impact of evidence-based nursing leadership in healthcare settings: a mixed methods systematic review. BMC Nurs 23 , 452 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-024-02096-4
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Google helped make an exquisitely detailed map of a tiny piece of the human brain
A small brain sample was sliced into 5,000 pieces, and machine learning helped stitch it back together.
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A team led by scientists from Harvard and Google has created a 3D, nanoscale-resolution map of a single cubic millimeter of the human brain. Although the map covers just a fraction of the organ—a whole brain is a million times larger—that piece contains roughly 57,000 cells, about 230 millimeters of blood vessels, and nearly 150 million synapses. It is currently the highest-resolution picture of the human brain ever created.
To make a map this finely detailed, the team had to cut the tissue sample into 5,000 slices and scan them with a high-speed electron microscope. Then they used a machine-learning model to help electronically stitch the slices back together and label the features. The raw data set alone took up 1.4 petabytes. “It’s probably the most computer-intensive work in all of neuroscience,” says Michael Hawrylycz, a computational neuroscientist at the Allen Institute for Brain Science, who was not involved in the research. “There is a Herculean amount of work involved.”
Many other brain atlases exist, but most provide much lower-resolution data. At the nanoscale, researchers can trace the brain’s wiring one neuron at a time to the synapses, the places where they connect. “To really understand how the human brain works, how it processes information, how it stores memories, we will ultimately need a map that’s at that resolution,” says Viren Jain, a senior research scientist at Google and coauthor on the paper, published in Science on May 9 . The data set itself and a preprint version of this paper were released in 2021 .
Brain atlases come in many forms. Some reveal how the cells are organized. Others cover gene expression. This one focuses on connections between cells, a field called “connectomics.” The outermost layer of the brain contains roughly 16 billion neurons that link up with each other to form trillions of connections. A single neuron might receive information from hundreds or even thousands of other neurons and send information to a similar number. That makes tracing these connections an exceedingly complex task, even in just a small piece of the brain..
To create this map, the team faced a number of hurdles. The first problem was finding a sample of brain tissue. The brain deteriorates quickly after death, so cadaver tissue doesn’t work. Instead, the team used a piece of tissue removed from a woman with epilepsy during brain surgery that was meant to help control her seizures.
Once the researchers had the sample, they had to carefully preserve it in resin so that it could be cut into slices, each about a thousandth the thickness of a human hair. Then they imaged the sections using a high-speed electron microscope designed specifically for this project.
Next came the computational challenge. “You have all of these wires traversing everywhere in three dimensions, making all kinds of different connections,” Jain says. The team at Google used a machine-learning model to stitch the slices back together, align each one with the next, color-code the wiring, and find the connections. This is harder than it might seem. “If you make a single mistake, then all of the connections attached to that wire are now incorrect,” Jain says.
“The ability to get this deep a reconstruction of any human brain sample is an important advance,” says Seth Ament, a neuroscientist at the University of Maryland. The map is “the closest to the ground truth that we can get right now.” But he also cautions that it’s a single brain specimen taken from a single individual.
The map, which is freely available at a web platform called Neuroglancer , is meant to be a resource other researchers can use to make their own discoveries. “Now anybody who’s interested in studying the human cortex in this level of detail can go into the data themselves. They can proofread certain structures to make sure everything is correct, and then publish their own findings,” Jain says. (The preprint has already been cited at least 136 times .)
The team has already identified some surprises. For example, some of the long tendrils that carry signals from one neuron to the next formed “whorls,” spots where they twirled around themselves. Axons typically form a single synapse to transmit information to the next cell. The team identified single axons that formed repeated connections—in some cases, 50 separate synapses. Why that might be isn’t yet clear, but the strong bonds could help facilitate very quick or strong reactions to certain stimuli, Jain says. “It’s a very simple finding about the organization of the human cortex,” he says. But “we didn’t know this before because we didn’t have maps at this resolution.”
The data set was full of surprises, says Jeff Lichtman, a neuroscientist at Harvard University who helped lead the research. “There were just so many things in it that were incompatible with what you would read in a textbook.” The researchers may not have explanations for what they’re seeing, but they have plenty of new questions: “That’s the way science moves forward.”
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Cognitive Maps in UX | IxDF
Cognitive maps in UX show how users think about a product or service. Designers use these visual representations to understand the user's mental model. This helps them create intuitive designs that match the user's expectations and improve their overall experience.
Think about the last time you used a confusing app or website. You probably became frustrated and maybe even gave up. As UX designers , we want to avoid that experience—our users should be able to easily navigate our products and achieve their goals.
Cognitive maps help us understand how users think about our designs. Imagine having a map of your user's mind, you could see how they connect different ideas and what they expect to find. This knowledge will allow you to create designs that feel intuitive and natural.
Let's explore cognitive maps in UX and learn how to use them to improve our designs.
What are Cognitive Maps?
Cognitive maps are visualizations of user mental models . They describe how they perceive things and their expectations of them. They typically contain concepts, ideas or facets of the product that users connect with and how they relate to them.
Cognitive map is a broad term that embraces many types of visualizations of mental models. They are incredibly versatile as there are no rules or rigid formats. Designers and researchers create and analyze cognitive maps to understand user’s line of thinking, to uncover frustration points, confusion and spots for potential optimization. If you design in line with the user’s mental model, you can make your products more intuitive for them.
User research is crucial for product and service success. Watch Frank Spillers, CEO at Experience Dynamics, speak about target users understanding and implementation of research methods to design appropriate products and services.
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Take the example of Apple, they might use a cognitive map to understand how users perceive their products. The map would likely include concepts like " innovation ," "design," "premium" and "user-friendly" and show how these concepts connect.
For instance, some might link "innovation" to "new features" and "design" to "sleek aesthetics ." Apple recognizes these connections. So, it tailors its marketing messages and product features to match its audience's preferences.
Another way Apple might use a cognitive map is to identify potential areas for improvement. If the map reveals that users find a particular feature confusing, Apple can redesign it to make it more intuitive. You can create successful products if you understand the user's mental model and adapt the design.
Types of Cognitive Maps
Let's talk about the two types of cognitive maps: mind maps and concept maps .
Mind maps are the simplest form of cognitive maps. They have a structure like a tree, with a central topic that branches into subtopics. This clear hierarchy makes them easy to create and understand. Mind maps can organize information and brainstorm ideas around a single topic.
Concept maps are more complex than mind maps. They emphasize the relationships between concepts and allow nodes to have multiple parents. This makes them ideal to visualize complex ideas with interconnected relationships. Concept maps help understand complex systems, processes or problems from multiple perspectives.
Why Are Cognitive Maps Important?
Cognitive maps are crucial in UX design because of several reasons:
1. Knowledge Externalization
Cognitive maps help you visualize and understand complex systems or processes. It enables you to gather and enhance your thoughts to better communicate your knowledge with other team members. That is particularly useful when you onboard new team members or explain complex features to stakeholders .
2. Identify Patterns and Connections
When you visualize concepts through cognitive maps, it's easy to reveal hidden patterns and connections you might not have noticed otherwise. This is because cognitive maps visually represent the relationships between different ideas. Thus, you can easily see how they connect and interact. It can lead to new insights and innovative solutions .
3. Understand User's Mental Models
Cognitive maps are excellent for UX research . They help you understand how your user perceives and navigates your product. By exploring their thought patterns and evaluating their mental model, you can identify areas of friction and opportunity and generate ideas that align with user expectations . In turn, you can design and iterate your product so that it’s more intuitive for users.
4. Diverse Nature and Purpose
You can use cognitive maps in many areas. You can use them to brainstorm ideas, plan projects or make decisions. They fit different fields like business, education and design.
In business, cognitive maps help teams understand complex problems and find solutions.
In education, they help students learn and remember information.
In design, they help creators visualize ideas and plans.
Cognitive maps are flexible. They work with any concept or situation. You can use them to solve problems and make decisions in many areas.
5. No Restrictions on Structure or Form
Unlike other visualization methods, cognitive maps do not have to follow a specific format. This allows for greater creativity and flexibility to represent complex ideas. You can tailor the structure and form of the map to best suit your needs and goals.
When to Use Cognitive Mapping?
You can find cognitive mapping valuable for certain research scenarios :
1. Exploratory Research
Cognitive mapping can be a great starting point when you're in the early stages of research and want to explore a topic without a clear hypothesis. It allows participants to share their thoughts freely. This way, you uncover unexpected insights and new avenues to explore.
The open-ended nature of cognitive mapping encourages participants to think aloud. It reveals their natural thought processes and uncovers hidden connections between concepts.
2. Complex Topics
You can use cognitive mapping to tackle complex topics with intricate relationships or process components. You may have to deal with ambiguous aspects that users may find difficult to articulate. If users visualize these concepts through cognitive maps, you can understand their connections and make them easier to understand.
For example, cognitive mapping can help you map out the different components and their interactions to research a complex system like healthcare or finance.
3. Participatory Action Research
In participatory action research (PAR) , researchers and participants collaborate to identify and solve problems. The visual nature of cognitive maps makes it easier for participants to contribute their knowledge and perspectives. It creates a sense of ownership over the research process. This can lead to more relevant and actionable findings.
How Do You Create a Cognitive Map?
You create cognitive maps through a structured interview process. Here's a breakdown of the steps involved:
1. Prepare and Communicate with Participants
We always suggest that before the interview, you should inform participants about the purpose of the study and how you will be using the data. You should explain that you'll ask them to write, draw, and arrange sticky notes, but avoid using the term "cognitive mapping" to prevent them from researching the topic beforehand.
2. Plan and Practice the Interview
Cognitive mapping interviews are less structured than traditional ones, so it's important to practice. Decide whether to use a free-form approach (participants create their maps) or a structured approach (participants fill in a given template). Plan an introduction, like a word association exercise, to get the ideas flowing.
Practice the interview with colleagues. This helps you refine your approach and identify potential challenges.
The right interview setting sets the tone for the whole interview. Watch Educator Ditte Hvas Mortensen and Ann Blandford, Professor of HCI at University College London, discuss the right interview settings.
3. Assign Roles and Coordinate Logistics
An observer can help you record, take notes and set up tech. If you plan to involve multiple team members, assign clear roles. The facilitator guides the interview, while the note-taker focuses on documenting the participant's words, their non-verbal cues and the placement of items on the map.
Choose a room with ample space to help participants create the cognitive map. It's ideal to have a large table and a whiteboard. Limit the number of people in the room to the facilitator and participant. Observers and note-takers can participate remotely to avoid crowding the space.
4. Involve Remote Observers
If more than two team members participate, use a live stream for remote observation. This allows them to take notes alongside the in-room note-taker. One remote observer can handle logistics like they can welcome participants and prepare materials.
5. Choose the Right Environment and Materials
Select a location with ample table space and a whiteboard if possible. Gather materials like multicolored sticky notes, markers, large-format paper and dry-erase markers. Set them up to subtly encourage the participant to use them as intended.
6. Record the Session
It's better to video record the session. It helps you review insights later, clarify any ambiguities and educate others on the method. The closing phase will help you get final insights and feedback. The facilitator should ensure the participant shares everything they can offer. This helps create a comprehensive understanding of their mental model. You might ask, "Is there anything else you want to share or add to your map?"
Additionally, use this time to seek feedback on the cognitive mapping method. You can ask, "What did you think of our current approach?" Their input can help you refine the process for future interviews. This makes it more effective and comfortable for participants.
7. Streamline Note-Taking and Documentation
Create a shared document where everyone watching can take notes simultaneously. They can even use a shared system to label their observations as they happen. This way, you can spot patterns early and guess what they mean.
Things to Keep in Mind When You Conduct a Cognitive Mapping Interview
You must plan carefully and pay attention to detail when you conduct a successful cognitive mapping interview. Here are some key points to keep in mind:
1. Open the Interview Well
How you start sets the tone for the whole interview. Introduce yourself and your team. Mention the purpose of the research and the participant's value to it. Assure them of confidentiality and emphasize that there are no right or wrong answers. Introduce the cognitive mapping method. Explain the duration, activities and materials. Allow time for questions to ease any concerns.
2. Facilitate the Session
Start with a warm-up question, such as a word-association exercise, to get the participant thinking. As they build their map, ask open-ended questions to encourage them to elaborate and make connections between concepts.
Use prompts like "How would you group these terms?" or "What comes to mind when you say...?" Prepare a list of topics and probing questions in advance, but be flexible and adapt to the participant's flow.
3. Close the Interview
Give the participant a chance to add any final thoughts or ideas. Thank them for their time and emphasize the value of their contribution. Ask for feedback on the cognitive mapping method to inform future sessions if appropriate.
4. Analyze the Data
Cognitive mapping creates three main things: what the person said in the interview, the map they made and notes from observers. These are qualitative data . It means they are not numbers. We need to look at this data to find themes and patterns. Coding and sorting the data will show the person's thoughts and help us make design choices.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Cognitive Mapping in User Research
Cognitive mapping is valuable for understanding how users perceive and interact with products, services or systems. It provides several advantages in user research:
Advantages of Cognitive Mapping
Flexibility: Unlike other research methods, cognitive mapping is less structured. This lets people share their thoughts freely. It reveals their natural thinking patterns and may help unexpected insights.
Visual aid: Participants write down ideas on a paper. It creates a visual reference throughout the interview. This allows the participant and researcher to refer to previous points for better understanding.
Participant value: Participants understand the topic more clearly as they visually organize their thoughts. Connecting ideas can lead to new insights and a greater sense of ownership over the research.
Rich data: Cognitive mapping produces various data types. It may include transcripts, recordings, the map itself and a video of its creation. This rich dataset offers multiple perspectives for analysis.
Disadvantages of Cognitive Mapping
Not a standalone tool: Cognitive maps should not replace other research methods. They offer valuable insights. But, you should use them with other data for a complete picture.
Facilitator's skill: The data collection quality depends on the facilitator's skill. Good facilitation requires practice and adaptability to guide participants while maintaining a comfortable environment.
Potential for wandering: Because of the open-ended nature of cognitive mapping, participants may stray from the topic. The facilitator needs to guide them back to the main focus.
Participant discomfort: Some people might feel unsure about the writing and drawing involved in cognitive mapping. The facilitator should tell them there are no right or wrong ways to make the map. The focus is on their ideas, not their artistic ability.
The Take Away
Cognitive maps offer a unique window into the minds of users. They visually represent how people think, feel and interact with products, services and systems. These mental models allow you to create more intuitive, user-friendly and successful experiences.
Cognitive mapping may have some challenges, but its benefits far outweigh the drawbacks. It gives you the flexibility, actionable insights and potential to uncover hidden patterns making it a valuable tool in any UX researcher 's toolkit. You can include cognitive mapping into your research process to better understand your users. It'll help you create products that resonate with their needs and expectations.
References and Where to Learn More
Read our topic definition of mind maps .
Learn how to make compelling and user-friendly visuals in our comprehensive course on Information Visualization .
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Operational forest-fire spread forecasting using the wrf-sfire model.
1. Introduction
2. study area, 3. materials and methods, 3.1. fuel sampling, 3.2. surface area-to-volume ratio (savr) estimation, 3.3. localized fuel model development, 3.4. meteorological conditions, 3.5. fire spread forecast validation, 3.6. operationalization of forest-fire spread forecasting, operational fire spread forecasting system, 5. discussion, 6. conclusions, supplementary materials, author contributions, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.
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Kale, M.P.; Meher, S.S.; Chavan, M.; Kumar, V.; Sultan, M.A.; Dongre, P.; Narkhede, K.; Mhatre, J.; Sharma, N.; Luitel, B.; et al. Operational Forest-Fire Spread Forecasting Using the WRF-SFIRE Model. Remote Sens. 2024 , 16 , 2480. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16132480
Kale MP, Meher SS, Chavan M, Kumar V, Sultan MA, Dongre P, Narkhede K, Mhatre J, Sharma N, Luitel B, et al. Operational Forest-Fire Spread Forecasting Using the WRF-SFIRE Model. Remote Sensing . 2024; 16(13):2480. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16132480
Kale, Manish P., Sri Sai Meher, Manoj Chavan, Vikas Kumar, Md. Asif Sultan, Priyanka Dongre, Karan Narkhede, Jitendra Mhatre, Narpati Sharma, Bayvesh Luitel, and et al. 2024. "Operational Forest-Fire Spread Forecasting Using the WRF-SFIRE Model" Remote Sensing 16, no. 13: 2480. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16132480
Using a Literature Review Map. This blog explores how two members from
6 Literature map for researching the qualitative, quantitative
Literature Map Template
How to Master at Literature Mapping: 5 Most Recommended Tools to Use
Literature Review Map Template
VIDEO
The importance of literature review in research
What is Literature Review Purpose of Literature Review and Concept with Example in Urdu
Movie & Literature Map Tubi Loom 20 May 2024
Related Literature and Related Studies
Literature Map, Types of Variables & Theoretical Framework in RD . 5th January 2021 Lecture
How to Use Literature-Map.com
COMMENTS
How to Master at Literature Mapping: 5 Most Recommended Tools ...
Here are the most recommended literature mapping tools to choose from: 1. Connected Papers. a. Connected Papers is a simple, yet powerful, one-stop visualization tool that uses a single starter article. b. It is easy to use tool that quickly identifies similar papers with just one "Seed paper" (a relevant paper). c.
Overview
Literature mapping is a way of discovering scholarly articles by exploring connections between publications. Similar articles are often linked by citations, authors, funders, keywords, and other metadata. These connections can be explored manually in a database such as Scopus or by the use of free browser-based tools such as Connected Papers, L ...
Literature Mapping in Scientific Research: A Comprehensive Review
06/06/2023. Literature mapping is a process that involves analyzing and visualizing the scientific literature on a particular topic to identify research gaps, improve collaboration, and inform decision-making. In this article, we list five benefits of literature mapping for scientists and researchers and show you types and tools to save your ...
Structuring your ideas: Creating a literature map
A literature map (Cresswell, 2011) is a two dimensional diagrammatic representation of information where links are made between concepts by drawing arrows (which could be annotated to define the nature of these links). Constructing a literature map helps you to: develop your understanding of the key issues and research findings in the literature
Creating a Comprehensive Literature Review Map: A Step-by-Step Example
Step 1: Define Your Research Topic. The first step in creating a literature review map is to clearly define your research topic. Be specific and narrow down your focus to ensure that you have a manageable scope for your literature review. Take into consideration the research objectives or guiding questions that will shape your review.
How to Create a Literature Map
Dr Jonathan Drane. In the method there is also an X-Y axis to allow for key concept themes to be pinned to the axis. From there each card is positioned based on its alignment to the theme. In the chart below this method is applied to City Growth Dynamics themes from Dr Drane's doctorate. Literature Map City Growth dynamics, Dr Jonathan Drane ...
Litmaps
The Seed Maps and Discover features of Litmaps have transformed my literature review process, streamlining the identification of key citations while revealing previously overlooked relevant literature, ensuring no crucial connection goes unnoticed. A true game-changer indeed! Ritwik Pandey.
Subject Guides: How to Construct Literature Maps: Home
Resources for Creating Literature Maps. This resource provides an overview of stasis theory and what you can do with it to help you conduct research, compose documents, and work in teams. This resource provides suggestions for books, articles, videos and more for designing literature maps.
Research Guides: Literature Mapping Tools: Home
A literature review is a methodical or organized review of the published literature on a specific topic or research question designed to analyze--not just summarize--scholarly writings that are related directly to your research question. That is, it represents the literature that provides the context for your research and shows a correspondence ...
Guide to Litmaps Visualisations
With all these settings, you can now visualise your literature maps in 6 × 2 × 2 × 4 × 3 = 288 different ways. We hope you find these features fun and valuable.
Research Guides: Literature Reviews: Concept Mapping
Concept Maps are a way to graphically represent ideas and how they relate to each other. Concept maps may be simple designs illustrating a central theme and a few associated topics or complex structures that delineate hierarchical or multiple relationships. J.D. Novak developed concept maps in the 1970's to help facilitate the research process ...
A methodological quest for systematic literature mapping
However, maps are generally reported in the form of diagrams simply showing the stages of reducing the initially large sample of retrieved literature to a much smaller and relevant subset (e.g., see figures in Daly, Citation 2017, ... while systematic literature mapping tends to be a research project in itself. This article reported in detail ...
Open Knowledge Maps
Open Knowledge Maps is a considerable reinforcement in the areas of open science & open access, which are central to our research services. Dr. Andrea Hacker, Open Access and Bern Open Publishing (BOP), University Library Bern. Now that science gets more and more open, we need ways to visualize it in a relevant way. That's why I support OKMaps.
Powerful Tools for Mapping a Research Literature
Open Knowledge Maps. Calling themselves a "visual interface to the world's scientific community," their tool allows you to start with a few keywords to search for literature on a topic. Results display the main areas at a glance, and papers related to each area. In addition to giving you an overview of the area, it helps you identify ...
3 Innovative Literature Mapping Tools for Citation Maps
Inciteful. Inciteful is an innovative literature mapping tool that stands out in the field of academic research for its unique approach to visualizing citation networks. This tool is designed to make the process of literature review more intuitive and insightful, especially for researchers and scholars delving into new or complex fields.
Using Concept Maps
Concept maps or mind maps visually represent relationships of different concepts. In research, they can help you make connections between ideas. You can use them as you are formulating your research question, as you are reading a complex text, and when you are creating a literature review. See the video and examples below.
LitMaps
An overview of tools for mapping scholarly literature. Litmaps creates interactive literature maps: collections of articles that make up your different research topics. Create maps for your research by searching our literature database; linking your reference manager; or through automatic generation from seed articles.
Research Guides: Literature Reviews: Concept Mapping
Concept Mapping - Literature Reviews - Research Guides at University of Michigan Library. A concept map or mind map is a visual representation of knowledge that illustrates relationships between concepts or ideas. It is a tool for organizing and representing information in a hierarchical and interconnected manner.
Literature Review Map Template
Editable literature review map template to visualize the connections and associations between things. Organize your ideas. You can easily edit this template using Creately's mind mapping software.You can export it in multiple formats like JPEG, PNG and SVG and easily add it to Word documents, Powerpoint (PPT) presentations, Excel or any other documents.
AuthorAID
Develop a literature map on a topic of your choice. Prepare a literature matrix based on one research article selected for the literature map developed as part of activity No 1. Share your 3 significant challenges encountered while preparing your literature map. Share your 3 significant challenges in preparing the literature matrix of activity ...
How to Create a Literature Map
Literature maps use graphic techniques of shaping and grouping written information into categories for a research project, presentation or learning exercise. The process of mapping **helps the mind visualize** relationships and connections from any type of literature such as works with artistic merit or a body of ...
2 Literature map sample research
Download scientific diagram | 2 Literature map sample research from publication: Internet Research Analytics (Theories and Methods) | This chapter introduces the theories and methods for exploring ...
Full article: Investigating the characteristics of skills and
2. Systematic literature review on MET for autonomous and unmanned ships. In order to reveal studies which, highlight the essential characteristics of skills and competency frameworks and/or map the characteristics to the STCW Code, the authors of this paper sampled the population of published peer-reviewed papers that mentioned the key terms and Boolean operators.
The impact of evidence-based nursing leadership in healthcare settings
The central component in impactful healthcare decisions is evidence. Understanding how nurse leaders use evidence in their own managerial decision making is still limited. This mixed methods systematic review aimed to examine how evidence is used to solve leadership problems and to describe the measured and perceived effects of evidence-based leadership on nurse leaders and their performance ...
Manual Mapping
Manual literature mapping is a method of locating an article that is highly relevant to your topic and using it as a starting point to connect you to other relevant literature. Below are the steps for manually mapping literature in the multidisciplinary database Scopus . Step 1: Find a highly relevant article on your topic.
Google helped make an exquisitely detailed map of a tiny piece of the
To create this map, the team faced a number of hurdles. The first problem was finding a sample of brain tissue. The brain deteriorates quickly after death, so cadaver tissue doesn't work.
Cognitive Maps in UX
Take the example of Apple, they might use a cognitive map to understand how users perceive their products. The map would likely include concepts like "innovation," "design," "premium" and "user-friendly" and show how these concepts connect.For instance, some might link "innovation" to "new features" and "design" to "sleek aesthetics."Apple recognizes these connections.
Article ML Updates for OpenStreetMap: Analysis of Research Gaps and
automating map updates, there are still opportunities for further research and develop-ment in this field. For example, research is still needed to refine the change detection and re-vectorization mechanisms to continuously improve the accuracy and efficiency of the mapping process.
Operational Forest-Fire Spread Forecasting Using the WRF-SFIRE Model
In the present research, the open-source WRF-SFIRE model has been used to carry out surface forest fire spread forecasting in the North Sikkim region of the Indian Himalayas. Global forecast system (GFS)-based hourly forecasted weather model data obtained through the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) at 0.25 degree resolution were used to provide the initial conditions for ...
IMAGES
VIDEO
COMMENTS
Here are the most recommended literature mapping tools to choose from: 1. Connected Papers. a. Connected Papers is a simple, yet powerful, one-stop visualization tool that uses a single starter article. b. It is easy to use tool that quickly identifies similar papers with just one "Seed paper" (a relevant paper). c.
Literature mapping is a way of discovering scholarly articles by exploring connections between publications. Similar articles are often linked by citations, authors, funders, keywords, and other metadata. These connections can be explored manually in a database such as Scopus or by the use of free browser-based tools such as Connected Papers, L ...
06/06/2023. Literature mapping is a process that involves analyzing and visualizing the scientific literature on a particular topic to identify research gaps, improve collaboration, and inform decision-making. In this article, we list five benefits of literature mapping for scientists and researchers and show you types and tools to save your ...
A literature map (Cresswell, 2011) is a two dimensional diagrammatic representation of information where links are made between concepts by drawing arrows (which could be annotated to define the nature of these links). Constructing a literature map helps you to: develop your understanding of the key issues and research findings in the literature
Step 1: Define Your Research Topic. The first step in creating a literature review map is to clearly define your research topic. Be specific and narrow down your focus to ensure that you have a manageable scope for your literature review. Take into consideration the research objectives or guiding questions that will shape your review.
Dr Jonathan Drane. In the method there is also an X-Y axis to allow for key concept themes to be pinned to the axis. From there each card is positioned based on its alignment to the theme. In the chart below this method is applied to City Growth Dynamics themes from Dr Drane's doctorate. Literature Map City Growth dynamics, Dr Jonathan Drane ...
The Seed Maps and Discover features of Litmaps have transformed my literature review process, streamlining the identification of key citations while revealing previously overlooked relevant literature, ensuring no crucial connection goes unnoticed. A true game-changer indeed! Ritwik Pandey.
Resources for Creating Literature Maps. This resource provides an overview of stasis theory and what you can do with it to help you conduct research, compose documents, and work in teams. This resource provides suggestions for books, articles, videos and more for designing literature maps.
A literature review is a methodical or organized review of the published literature on a specific topic or research question designed to analyze--not just summarize--scholarly writings that are related directly to your research question. That is, it represents the literature that provides the context for your research and shows a correspondence ...
With all these settings, you can now visualise your literature maps in 6 × 2 × 2 × 4 × 3 = 288 different ways. We hope you find these features fun and valuable.
Concept Maps are a way to graphically represent ideas and how they relate to each other. Concept maps may be simple designs illustrating a central theme and a few associated topics or complex structures that delineate hierarchical or multiple relationships. J.D. Novak developed concept maps in the 1970's to help facilitate the research process ...
However, maps are generally reported in the form of diagrams simply showing the stages of reducing the initially large sample of retrieved literature to a much smaller and relevant subset (e.g., see figures in Daly, Citation 2017, ... while systematic literature mapping tends to be a research project in itself. This article reported in detail ...
Open Knowledge Maps is a considerable reinforcement in the areas of open science & open access, which are central to our research services. Dr. Andrea Hacker, Open Access and Bern Open Publishing (BOP), University Library Bern. Now that science gets more and more open, we need ways to visualize it in a relevant way. That's why I support OKMaps.
Open Knowledge Maps. Calling themselves a "visual interface to the world's scientific community," their tool allows you to start with a few keywords to search for literature on a topic. Results display the main areas at a glance, and papers related to each area. In addition to giving you an overview of the area, it helps you identify ...
Inciteful. Inciteful is an innovative literature mapping tool that stands out in the field of academic research for its unique approach to visualizing citation networks. This tool is designed to make the process of literature review more intuitive and insightful, especially for researchers and scholars delving into new or complex fields.
Concept maps or mind maps visually represent relationships of different concepts. In research, they can help you make connections between ideas. You can use them as you are formulating your research question, as you are reading a complex text, and when you are creating a literature review. See the video and examples below.
An overview of tools for mapping scholarly literature. Litmaps creates interactive literature maps: collections of articles that make up your different research topics. Create maps for your research by searching our literature database; linking your reference manager; or through automatic generation from seed articles.
Concept Mapping - Literature Reviews - Research Guides at University of Michigan Library. A concept map or mind map is a visual representation of knowledge that illustrates relationships between concepts or ideas. It is a tool for organizing and representing information in a hierarchical and interconnected manner.
Editable literature review map template to visualize the connections and associations between things. Organize your ideas. You can easily edit this template using Creately's mind mapping software.You can export it in multiple formats like JPEG, PNG and SVG and easily add it to Word documents, Powerpoint (PPT) presentations, Excel or any other documents.
Develop a literature map on a topic of your choice. Prepare a literature matrix based on one research article selected for the literature map developed as part of activity No 1. Share your 3 significant challenges encountered while preparing your literature map. Share your 3 significant challenges in preparing the literature matrix of activity ...
Literature maps use graphic techniques of shaping and grouping written information into categories for a research project, presentation or learning exercise. The process of mapping **helps the mind visualize** relationships and connections from any type of literature such as works with artistic merit or a body of ...
Download scientific diagram | 2 Literature map sample research from publication: Internet Research Analytics (Theories and Methods) | This chapter introduces the theories and methods for exploring ...
2. Systematic literature review on MET for autonomous and unmanned ships. In order to reveal studies which, highlight the essential characteristics of skills and competency frameworks and/or map the characteristics to the STCW Code, the authors of this paper sampled the population of published peer-reviewed papers that mentioned the key terms and Boolean operators.
The central component in impactful healthcare decisions is evidence. Understanding how nurse leaders use evidence in their own managerial decision making is still limited. This mixed methods systematic review aimed to examine how evidence is used to solve leadership problems and to describe the measured and perceived effects of evidence-based leadership on nurse leaders and their performance ...
Manual literature mapping is a method of locating an article that is highly relevant to your topic and using it as a starting point to connect you to other relevant literature. Below are the steps for manually mapping literature in the multidisciplinary database Scopus . Step 1: Find a highly relevant article on your topic.
To create this map, the team faced a number of hurdles. The first problem was finding a sample of brain tissue. The brain deteriorates quickly after death, so cadaver tissue doesn't work.
Take the example of Apple, they might use a cognitive map to understand how users perceive their products. The map would likely include concepts like "innovation," "design," "premium" and "user-friendly" and show how these concepts connect.For instance, some might link "innovation" to "new features" and "design" to "sleek aesthetics."Apple recognizes these connections.
automating map updates, there are still opportunities for further research and develop-ment in this field. For example, research is still needed to refine the change detection and re-vectorization mechanisms to continuously improve the accuracy and efficiency of the mapping process.
In the present research, the open-source WRF-SFIRE model has been used to carry out surface forest fire spread forecasting in the North Sikkim region of the Indian Himalayas. Global forecast system (GFS)-based hourly forecasted weather model data obtained through the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) at 0.25 degree resolution were used to provide the initial conditions for ...