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How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

Published on January 2, 2023 by Shona McCombes . Revised on September 11, 2023.

What is a literature review? A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research that you can later apply to your paper, thesis, or dissertation topic .

There are five key steps to writing a literature review:

Search for relevant literature
Evaluate sources
Identify themes, debates, and gaps
Outline the structure
Write your literature review

A good literature review doesn’t just summarize sources—it analyzes, synthesizes , and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

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What is the purpose of a literature review, examples of literature reviews, step 1 – search for relevant literature, step 2 – evaluate and select sources, step 3 – identify themes, debates, and gaps, step 4 – outline your literature review’s structure, step 5 – write your literature review, free lecture slides, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions, introduction.

Quick Run-through
Step 1 & 2

When you write a thesis , dissertation , or research paper , you will likely have to conduct a literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to:

Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and its scholarly context
Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
Position your work in relation to other researchers and theorists
Show how your research addresses a gap or contributes to a debate
Evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of the scholarly debates around your topic.

Writing literature reviews is a particularly important skill if you want to apply for graduate school or pursue a career in research. We’ve written a step-by-step guide that you can follow below.

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See an example

Writing literature reviews can be quite challenging! A good starting point could be to look at some examples, depending on what kind of literature review you’d like to write.

Example literature review #1: “Why Do People Migrate? A Review of the Theoretical Literature” ( Theoretical literature review about the development of economic migration theory from the 1950s to today.)
Example literature review #2: “Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines” ( Methodological literature review about interdisciplinary knowledge acquisition and production.)
Example literature review #3: “The Use of Technology in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Thematic literature review about the effects of technology on language acquisition.)
Example literature review #4: “Learners’ Listening Comprehension Difficulties in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Chronological literature review about how the concept of listening skills has changed over time.)

You can also check out our templates with literature review examples and sample outlines at the links below.

Download Word doc Download Google doc

Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic .

If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature related to your research problem and questions .

Make a list of keywords

Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research question. Include each of the key concepts or variables you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list as you discover new keywords in the process of your literature search.

Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok
Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth

Search for relevant sources

Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some useful databases to search for journals and articles include:

Your university’s library catalogue
Google Scholar
Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
EconLit (economics)
Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)

You can also use boolean operators to help narrow down your search.

Make sure to read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.

You likely won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on your topic, so it will be necessary to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your research question.

For each publication, ask yourself:

What question or problem is the author addressing?
What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
What are the key theories, models, and methods?
Does the research use established frameworks or take an innovative approach?
What are the results and conclusions of the study?
How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to, or challenge established knowledge?
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?

Make sure the sources you use are credible , and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of research.

You can use our template to summarize and evaluate sources you’re thinking about using. Click on either button below to download.

Take notes and cite your sources

As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into the text of your literature review.

It is important to keep track of your sources with citations to avoid plagiarism . It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography , where you compile full citation information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process.

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To begin organizing your literature review’s argument and structure, be sure you understand the connections and relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:

Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less popular over time?
Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the field?
Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed?

This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.

Most research has focused on young women.
There is an increasing interest in the visual aspects of social media.
But there is still a lack of robust research on highly visual platforms like Instagram and Snapchat—this is a gap that you could address in your own research.

There are various approaches to organizing the body of a literature review. Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically).

Chronological

The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order.

Try to analyze patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.

If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic.

For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access.

Methodological

If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods , you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example:

Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research
Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship
Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources

Theoretical

A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework . You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.

You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.

Like any other academic text , your literature review should have an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion . What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.

The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.

Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach.

As you write, you can follow these tips:

Summarize and synthesize: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole
Analyze and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers — add your own interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole
Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transition words and topic sentences to draw connections, comparisons and contrasts

In the conclusion, you should summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance.

When you’ve finished writing and revising your literature review, don’t forget to proofread thoroughly before submitting. Not a language expert? Check out Scribbr’s professional proofreading services !

This article has been adapted into lecture slides that you can use to teach your students about writing a literature review.

Scribbr slides are free to use, customize, and distribute for educational purposes.

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If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Sampling methods
Simple random sampling
Stratified sampling
Cluster sampling
Likert scales
Reproducibility

Statistics

Null hypothesis
Statistical power
Probability distribution
Effect size
Poisson distribution

Research bias

Optimism bias
Cognitive bias
Implicit bias
Hawthorne effect
Anchoring bias
Explicit bias

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a thesis, dissertation , or research paper , in order to situate your work in relation to existing knowledge.

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:

To familiarize yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.

The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your thesis or dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology .

A literature review is a survey of credible sources on a topic, often used in dissertations , theses, and research papers . Literature reviews give an overview of knowledge on a subject, helping you identify relevant theories and methods, as well as gaps in existing research. Literature reviews are set up similarly to other academic texts , with an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion .

An annotated bibliography is a list of source references that has a short description (called an annotation ) for each of the sources. It is often assigned as part of the research process for a paper .

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, September 11). How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates. Scribbr. Retrieved July 2, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/literature-review/

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Common Assignments: Literature Review Matrix

Literature review matrix.

As you read and evaluate your literature there are several different ways to organize your research. Courtesy of Dr. Gary Burkholder in the School of Psychology, these sample matrices are one option to help organize your articles. These documents allow you to compile details about your sources, such as the foundational theories, methodologies, and conclusions; begin to note similarities among the authors; and retrieve citation information for easy insertion within a document.

You can review the sample matrixes to see a completed form or download the blank matrix for your own use.

Literature Review Matrix 1 This PDF file provides a sample literature review matrix.
Literature Review Matrix 2 This PDF file provides a sample literature review matrix.
Literature Review Matrix Template (Word)
Literature Review Matrix Template (Excel)

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Didn't find what you need? Email us at [email protected] .

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Citation and Attribution

What Is a Literature Review?

Review the literature, write the literature review, further reading, learning objectives, attribution.

This guide is designed to:

Identify the sections and purpose of a literature review in academic writing
Review practical strategies and organizational methods for preparing a literature review

A literature review is a summary and synthesis of scholarly research on a specific topic. It should answer questions such as:

What research has been done on the topic?
Who are the key researchers and experts in the field?
What are the common theories and methodologies?
Are there challenges, controversies, and contradictions?
Are there gaps in the research that your approach addresses?

The process of reviewing existing research allows you to fine-tune your research question and contextualize your own work. Preparing a literature review is a cyclical process. You may find that the research question you begin with evolves as you learn more about the topic.

Once you have defined your research question , focus on learning what other scholars have written on the topic.

In order to do a thorough search of the literature on the topic, define the basic criteria:

Databases and journals: Look at the subject guide related to your topic for recommended databases. Review the tutorial on finding articles for tips.
Books: Search BruKnow, the Library's catalog. Steps to searching ebooks are covered in the Finding Ebooks tutorial .
What time period should it cover? Is currency important?
Do I know of primary and secondary sources that I can use as a way to find other information?
What should I be aware of when looking at popular, trade, and scholarly resources ?

One strategy is to review bibliographies for sources that relate to your interest. For more on this technique, look at the tutorial on finding articles when you have a citation .

Tip: Use a Synthesis Matrix

As you read sources, themes will emerge that will help you to organize the review. You can use a simple Synthesis Matrix to track your notes as you read. From this work, a concept map emerges that provides an overview of the literature and ways in which it connects. Working with Zotero to capture the citations, you build the structure for writing your literature review.

Citation	Concept/Theme	Main Idea	Notes 1	Notes 2	Gaps in the Research	Quotation	Page

How do I know when I am done?

A key indicator for knowing when you are done is running into the same articles and materials. With no new information being uncovered, you are likely exhausting your current search and should modify search terms or search different catalogs or databases. It is also possible that you have reached a point when you can start writing the literature review.

Tip: Manage Your Citations

These citation management tools also create citations, footnotes, and bibliographies with just a few clicks:

Zotero Tutorial

Endnote Tutorial

Your literature review should be focused on the topic defined in your research question. It should be written in a logical, structured way and maintain an objective perspective and use a formal voice.

Review the Summary Table you created for themes and connecting ideas. Use the following guidelines to prepare an outline of the main points you want to make.

Synthesize previous research on the topic.
Aim to include both summary and synthesis.
Include literature that supports your research question as well as that which offers a different perspective.
Avoid relying on one author or publication too heavily.
Select an organizational structure, such as chronological, methodological, and thematic.

The three elements of a literature review are introduction, body, and conclusion.

Introduction

Define the topic of the literature review, including any terminology.
Introduce the central theme and organization of the literature review.
Summarize the state of research on the topic.
Frame the literature review with your research question.
Focus on ways to have the body of literature tell its own story. Do not add your own interpretations at this point.
Look for patterns and find ways to tie the pieces together.
Summarize instead of quote.
Weave the points together rather than list summaries of each source.
Include the most important sources, not everything you have read.
Summarize the review of the literature.
Identify areas of further research on the topic.
Connect the review with your research.
DeCarlo, M. (2018). 4.1 What is a literature review? In Scientific Inquiry in Social Work. Open Social Work Education. https://scientificinquiryinsocialwork.pressbooks.com/chapter/4-1-what-is-a-literature-review/
Literature Reviews (n.d.) https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/literature-reviews/ Accessed Nov. 10, 2021

This guide was designed to:

Identify the sections and purpose of a literature review in academic writing
Review practical strategies and organizational methods for preparing a literature review

Content on this page adapted from:

Frederiksen, L. and Phelps, S. (2017). Literature Reviews for Education and Nursing Graduate Students. Licensed CC BY 4.0

<< Previous: EndNote
Last Updated: Jun 7, 2024 10:15 AM
URL: https://libguides.brown.edu/organize

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Knowledge Base
Dissertation
What is a Literature Review? | Guide, Template, & Examples

What is a Literature Review? | Guide, Template, & Examples

Published on 22 February 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 7 June 2022.

There are five key steps to writing a literature review:

Search for relevant literature
Evaluate sources
Identify themes, debates and gaps
Outline the structure
Write your literature review

A good literature review doesn’t just summarise sources – it analyses, synthesises, and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text

Be assured that you'll submit flawless writing. Upload your document to correct all your mistakes.

Why write a literature review, examples of literature reviews, step 1: search for relevant literature, step 2: evaluate and select sources, step 3: identify themes, debates and gaps, step 4: outline your literature review’s structure, step 5: write your literature review, frequently asked questions about literature reviews, introduction.

Quick Run-through
Step 1 & 2

When you write a dissertation or thesis, you will have to conduct a literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to:

Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and scholarly context
Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
Position yourself in relation to other researchers and theorists
Show how your dissertation addresses a gap or contributes to a debate

You might also have to write a literature review as a stand-alone assignment. In this case, the purpose is to evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of scholarly debates around a topic.

The content will look slightly different in each case, but the process of conducting a literature review follows the same steps. We’ve written a step-by-step guide that you can follow below.

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The academic proofreading tool has been trained on 1000s of academic texts and by native English editors. Making it the most accurate and reliable proofreading tool for students.

Correct my document today

Writing literature reviews can be quite challenging! A good starting point could be to look at some examples, depending on what kind of literature review you’d like to write.

Example literature review #1: “Why Do People Migrate? A Review of the Theoretical Literature” ( Theoretical literature review about the development of economic migration theory from the 1950s to today.)
Example literature review #2: “Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines” ( Methodological literature review about interdisciplinary knowledge acquisition and production.)
Example literature review #3: “The Use of Technology in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Thematic literature review about the effects of technology on language acquisition.)
Example literature review #4: “Learners’ Listening Comprehension Difficulties in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Chronological literature review about how the concept of listening skills has changed over time.)

You can also check out our templates with literature review examples and sample outlines at the links below.

Download Word doc Download Google doc

Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic .

If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature related to your research objectives and questions .

If you are writing a literature review as a stand-alone assignment, you will have to choose a focus and develop a central question to direct your search. Unlike a dissertation research question, this question has to be answerable without collecting original data. You should be able to answer it based only on a review of existing publications.

Make a list of keywords

Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research topic. Include each of the key concepts or variables you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list if you discover new keywords in the process of your literature search.

Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok
Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth

Search for relevant sources

Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some databases to search for journals and articles include:

Your university’s library catalogue
Google Scholar
Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
EconLit (economics)
Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)

You can use boolean operators to help narrow down your search:

Read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.

To identify the most important publications on your topic, take note of recurring citations. If the same authors, books or articles keep appearing in your reading, make sure to seek them out.

You probably won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on the topic – you’ll have to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your questions.

For each publication, ask yourself:

What question or problem is the author addressing?
What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
What are the key theories, models and methods? Does the research use established frameworks or take an innovative approach?
What are the results and conclusions of the study?
How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to, or challenge established knowledge?
How does the publication contribute to your understanding of the topic? What are its key insights and arguments?
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?

Make sure the sources you use are credible, and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of research.

You can find out how many times an article has been cited on Google Scholar – a high citation count means the article has been influential in the field, and should certainly be included in your literature review.

The scope of your review will depend on your topic and discipline: in the sciences you usually only review recent literature, but in the humanities you might take a long historical perspective (for example, to trace how a concept has changed in meaning over time).

Remember that you can use our template to summarise and evaluate sources you’re thinking about using!

Take notes and cite your sources

As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into the text of your literature review.

It’s important to keep track of your sources with references to avoid plagiarism . It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography, where you compile full reference information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process.

You can use our free APA Reference Generator for quick, correct, consistent citations.

To begin organising your literature review’s argument and structure, you need to understand the connections and relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:

Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less popular over time?
Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the field?
Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed?

This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.

Most research has focused on young women.
There is an increasing interest in the visual aspects of social media.
But there is still a lack of robust research on highly-visual platforms like Instagram and Snapchat – this is a gap that you could address in your own research.

There are various approaches to organising the body of a literature review. You should have a rough idea of your strategy before you start writing.

Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically).

Chronological

The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarising sources in order.

Try to analyse patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.

If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organise your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic.

Methodological

Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research
Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship
Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources

Theoretical

A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework . You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.

You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.

Like any other academic text, your literature review should have an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion . What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.

The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.

If you are writing the literature review as part of your dissertation or thesis, reiterate your central problem or research question and give a brief summary of the scholarly context. You can emphasise the timeliness of the topic (“many recent studies have focused on the problem of x”) or highlight a gap in the literature (“while there has been much research on x, few researchers have taken y into consideration”).

Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach.

As you write, make sure to follow these tips:

Summarise and synthesise: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole.
Analyse and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers – add your own interpretations, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole.
Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources.
Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transitions and topic sentences to draw connections, comparisons and contrasts.

In the conclusion, you should summarise the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasise their significance.

If the literature review is part of your dissertation or thesis, reiterate how your research addresses gaps and contributes new knowledge, or discuss how you have drawn on existing theories and methods to build a framework for your research. This can lead directly into your methodology section.

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a dissertation , thesis, research paper , or proposal .

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:

To familiarise yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.

The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology .

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

McCombes, S. (2022, June 07). What is a Literature Review? | Guide, Template, & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 2 July 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/thesis-dissertation/literature-review/

Is this article helpful?

Shona McCombes

Other students also liked, how to write a dissertation proposal | a step-by-step guide, what is a theoretical framework | a step-by-step guide, what is a research methodology | steps & tips.

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CAREER FEATURE
04 December 2020
Correction 09 December 2020

How to write a superb literature review

Andy Tay is a freelance writer based in Singapore.

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Literature reviews are important resources for scientists. They provide historical context for a field while offering opinions on its future trajectory. Creating them can provide inspiration for one’s own research, as well as some practice in writing. But few scientists are trained in how to write a review — or in what constitutes an excellent one. Even picking the appropriate software to use can be an involved decision (see ‘Tools and techniques’). So Nature asked editors and working scientists with well-cited reviews for their tips.

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doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-020-03422-x

Interviews have been edited for length and clarity.

Updates & Corrections

Correction 09 December 2020 : An earlier version of the tables in this article included some incorrect details about the programs Zotero, Endnote and Manubot. These have now been corrected.

Hsing, I.-M., Xu, Y. & Zhao, W. Electroanalysis 19 , 755–768 (2007).

Article Google Scholar

Ledesma, H. A. et al. Nature Nanotechnol. 14 , 645–657 (2019).

Article PubMed Google Scholar

Brahlek, M., Koirala, N., Bansal, N. & Oh, S. Solid State Commun. 215–216 , 54–62 (2015).

Choi, Y. & Lee, S. Y. Nature Rev. Chem . https://doi.org/10.1038/s41570-020-00221-w (2020).

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Literature Review Basics

What is a Literature Review?
Synthesizing Research
Using Research & Synthesis Tables
Additional Resources

About the Research and Synthesis Tables

Research Tables and Synthesis Tables are useful tools for organizing and analyzing your research as you assemble your literature review. They represent two different parts of the review process: assembling relevant information and synthesizing it. Use a Research table to compile the main info you need about the items you find in your research -- it's a great thing to have on hand as you take notes on what you read! Then, once you've assembled your research, use the Synthesis table to start charting the similarities/differences and major themes among your collected items.

We've included an Excel file with templates for you to use below; the examples pictured on this page are snapshots from that file.

Research and Synthesis Table Templates This Excel workbook includes simple templates for creating research tables and synthesis tables. Feel free to download and use!

Using the Research Table

This is an example of a research table, in which you provide a basic description of the most important features of the studies, articles, and other items you discover in your research. The table identifies each item according to its author/date of publication, its purpose or thesis, what type of work it is (systematic review, clinical trial, etc.), the level of evidence it represents (which tells you a lot about its impact on the field of study), and its major findings. Your job, when you assemble this information, is to develop a snapshot of what the research shows about the topic of your research question and assess its value (both for the purpose of your work and for general knowledge in the field).

Think of your work on the research table as the foundational step for your analysis of the literature, in which you assemble the information you'll be analyzing and lay the groundwork for thinking about what it means and how it can be used.

Using the Synthesis Table

This is an example of a synthesis table or synthesis matrix , in which you organize and analyze your research by listing each source and indicating whether a given finding or result occurred in a particular study or article ( each row lists an individual source, and each finding has its own column, in which X = yes, blank = no). You can also add or alter the columns to look for shared study populations, sort by level of evidence or source type, etc. The key here is to use the table to provide a simple representation of what the research has found (or not found, as the case may be). Think of a synthesis table as a tool for making comparisons, identifying trends, and locating gaps in the literature.

How do I know which findings to use, or how many to include? Your research question tells you which findings are of interest in your research, so work from your research question to decide what needs to go in each Finding header, and how many findings are necessary. The number is up to you; again, you can alter this table by adding or deleting columns to match what you're actually looking for in your analysis. You should also, of course, be guided by what's actually present in the material your research turns up!

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Last Updated: Sep 26, 2023 12:06 PM
URL: https://usi.libguides.com/literature-review-basics

Research Guides
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Literature Reviews

Literature review table.

Steps to Success: The Literature Review Process
Literature Reviews Webinar Recording
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Literature Review Table Template Peabody Librarians have created a sample literature review table to use to organize your research. Feel free to download this file and use or adapt as needed.
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USC Libraries
Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

5. The Literature Review
Purpose of Guide
Design Flaws to Avoid
Independent and Dependent Variables
Glossary of Research Terms
Reading Research Effectively
Narrowing a Topic Idea
Broadening a Topic Idea
Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
Academic Writing Style
Applying Critical Thinking
Choosing a Title
Making an Outline
Paragraph Development
Research Process Video Series
Executive Summary
The C.A.R.S. Model
Background Information
The Research Problem/Question
Theoretical Framework
Citation Tracking
Content Alert Services
Evaluating Sources
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Tiertiary Sources
Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
Qualitative Methods
Quantitative Methods
Insiderness
Using Non-Textual Elements
Limitations of the Study
Common Grammar Mistakes
Writing Concisely
Avoiding Plagiarism
Footnotes or Endnotes?
Further Readings
Generative AI and Writing
USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
Bibliography

A literature review surveys prior research published in books, scholarly articles, and any other sources relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or theory, and by so doing, provides a description, summary, and critical evaluation of these works in relation to the research problem being investigated. Literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of sources you have used in researching a particular topic and to demonstrate to your readers how your research fits within existing scholarship about the topic.

Fink, Arlene. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper . Fourth edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2014.

Importance of a Good Literature Review

A literature review may consist of simply a summary of key sources, but in the social sciences, a literature review usually has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis, often within specific conceptual categories . A summary is a recap of the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling, of that information in a way that informs how you are planning to investigate a research problem. The analytical features of a literature review might:

Give a new interpretation of old material or combine new with old interpretations,
Trace the intellectual progression of the field, including major debates,
Depending on the situation, evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most pertinent or relevant research, or
Usually in the conclusion of a literature review, identify where gaps exist in how a problem has been researched to date.

Given this, the purpose of a literature review is to:

Place each work in the context of its contribution to understanding the research problem being studied.
Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration.
Identify new ways to interpret prior research.
Reveal any gaps that exist in the literature.
Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies.
Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort.
Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research.
Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important].

Fink, Arlene. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005; Hart, Chris. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1998; Jesson, Jill. Doing Your Literature Review: Traditional and Systematic Techniques . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2011; Knopf, Jeffrey W. "Doing a Literature Review." PS: Political Science and Politics 39 (January 2006): 127-132; Ridley, Diana. The Literature Review: A Step-by-Step Guide for Students . 2nd ed. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2012.

Types of Literature Reviews

It is important to think of knowledge in a given field as consisting of three layers. First, there are the primary studies that researchers conduct and publish. Second are the reviews of those studies that summarize and offer new interpretations built from and often extending beyond the primary studies. Third, there are the perceptions, conclusions, opinion, and interpretations that are shared informally among scholars that become part of the body of epistemological traditions within the field.

In composing a literature review, it is important to note that it is often this third layer of knowledge that is cited as "true" even though it often has only a loose relationship to the primary studies and secondary literature reviews. Given this, while literature reviews are designed to provide an overview and synthesis of pertinent sources you have explored, there are a number of approaches you could adopt depending upon the type of analysis underpinning your study.

Argumentative Review This form examines literature selectively in order to support or refute an argument, deeply embedded assumption, or philosophical problem already established in the literature. The purpose is to develop a body of literature that establishes a contrarian viewpoint. Given the value-laden nature of some social science research [e.g., educational reform; immigration control], argumentative approaches to analyzing the literature can be a legitimate and important form of discourse. However, note that they can also introduce problems of bias when they are used to make summary claims of the sort found in systematic reviews [see below].

Integrative Review Considered a form of research that reviews, critiques, and synthesizes representative literature on a topic in an integrated way such that new frameworks and perspectives on the topic are generated. The body of literature includes all studies that address related or identical hypotheses or research problems. A well-done integrative review meets the same standards as primary research in regard to clarity, rigor, and replication. This is the most common form of review in the social sciences.

Historical Review Few things rest in isolation from historical precedent. Historical literature reviews focus on examining research throughout a period of time, often starting with the first time an issue, concept, theory, phenomena emerged in the literature, then tracing its evolution within the scholarship of a discipline. The purpose is to place research in a historical context to show familiarity with state-of-the-art developments and to identify the likely directions for future research.

Methodological Review A review does not always focus on what someone said [findings], but how they came about saying what they say [method of analysis]. Reviewing methods of analysis provides a framework of understanding at different levels [i.e. those of theory, substantive fields, research approaches, and data collection and analysis techniques], how researchers draw upon a wide variety of knowledge ranging from the conceptual level to practical documents for use in fieldwork in the areas of ontological and epistemological consideration, quantitative and qualitative integration, sampling, interviewing, data collection, and data analysis. This approach helps highlight ethical issues which you should be aware of and consider as you go through your own study.

Systematic Review This form consists of an overview of existing evidence pertinent to a clearly formulated research question, which uses pre-specified and standardized methods to identify and critically appraise relevant research, and to collect, report, and analyze data from the studies that are included in the review. The goal is to deliberately document, critically evaluate, and summarize scientifically all of the research about a clearly defined research problem . Typically it focuses on a very specific empirical question, often posed in a cause-and-effect form, such as "To what extent does A contribute to B?" This type of literature review is primarily applied to examining prior research studies in clinical medicine and allied health fields, but it is increasingly being used in the social sciences.

Theoretical Review The purpose of this form is to examine the corpus of theory that has accumulated in regard to an issue, concept, theory, phenomena. The theoretical literature review helps to establish what theories already exist, the relationships between them, to what degree the existing theories have been investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be tested. Often this form is used to help establish a lack of appropriate theories or reveal that current theories are inadequate for explaining new or emerging research problems. The unit of analysis can focus on a theoretical concept or a whole theory or framework.

NOTE: Most often the literature review will incorporate some combination of types. For example, a review that examines literature supporting or refuting an argument, assumption, or philosophical problem related to the research problem will also need to include writing supported by sources that establish the history of these arguments in the literature.

Baumeister, Roy F. and Mark R. Leary. "Writing Narrative Literature Reviews." Review of General Psychology 1 (September 1997): 311-320; Mark R. Fink, Arlene. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper . 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005; Hart, Chris. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1998; Kennedy, Mary M. "Defining a Literature." Educational Researcher 36 (April 2007): 139-147; Petticrew, Mark and Helen Roberts. Systematic Reviews in the Social Sciences: A Practical Guide . Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 2006; Torracro, Richard. "Writing Integrative Literature Reviews: Guidelines and Examples." Human Resource Development Review 4 (September 2005): 356-367; Rocco, Tonette S. and Maria S. Plakhotnik. "Literature Reviews, Conceptual Frameworks, and Theoretical Frameworks: Terms, Functions, and Distinctions." Human Ressource Development Review 8 (March 2008): 120-130; Sutton, Anthea. Systematic Approaches to a Successful Literature Review . Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2016.

Structure and Writing Style

I. Thinking About Your Literature Review

The structure of a literature review should include the following in support of understanding the research problem :

An overview of the subject, issue, or theory under consideration, along with the objectives of the literature review,
Division of works under review into themes or categories [e.g. works that support a particular position, those against, and those offering alternative approaches entirely],
An explanation of how each work is similar to and how it varies from the others,
Conclusions as to which pieces are best considered in their argument, are most convincing of their opinions, and make the greatest contribution to the understanding and development of their area of research.

The critical evaluation of each work should consider :

Provenance -- what are the author's credentials? Are the author's arguments supported by evidence [e.g. primary historical material, case studies, narratives, statistics, recent scientific findings]?
Methodology -- were the techniques used to identify, gather, and analyze the data appropriate to addressing the research problem? Was the sample size appropriate? Were the results effectively interpreted and reported?
Objectivity -- is the author's perspective even-handed or prejudicial? Is contrary data considered or is certain pertinent information ignored to prove the author's point?
Persuasiveness -- which of the author's theses are most convincing or least convincing?
Validity -- are the author's arguments and conclusions convincing? Does the work ultimately contribute in any significant way to an understanding of the subject?

II. Development of the Literature Review

Four Basic Stages of Writing 1. Problem formulation -- which topic or field is being examined and what are its component issues? 2. Literature search -- finding materials relevant to the subject being explored. 3. Data evaluation -- determining which literature makes a significant contribution to the understanding of the topic. 4. Analysis and interpretation -- discussing the findings and conclusions of pertinent literature.

Consider the following issues before writing the literature review: Clarify If your assignment is not specific about what form your literature review should take, seek clarification from your professor by asking these questions: 1. Roughly how many sources would be appropriate to include? 2. What types of sources should I review (books, journal articles, websites; scholarly versus popular sources)? 3. Should I summarize, synthesize, or critique sources by discussing a common theme or issue? 4. Should I evaluate the sources in any way beyond evaluating how they relate to understanding the research problem? 5. Should I provide subheadings and other background information, such as definitions and/or a history? Find Models Use the exercise of reviewing the literature to examine how authors in your discipline or area of interest have composed their literature review sections. Read them to get a sense of the types of themes you might want to look for in your own research or to identify ways to organize your final review. The bibliography or reference section of sources you've already read, such as required readings in the course syllabus, are also excellent entry points into your own research. Narrow the Topic The narrower your topic, the easier it will be to limit the number of sources you need to read in order to obtain a good survey of relevant resources. Your professor will probably not expect you to read everything that's available about the topic, but you'll make the act of reviewing easier if you first limit scope of the research problem. A good strategy is to begin by searching the USC Libraries Catalog for recent books about the topic and review the table of contents for chapters that focuses on specific issues. You can also review the indexes of books to find references to specific issues that can serve as the focus of your research. For example, a book surveying the history of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict may include a chapter on the role Egypt has played in mediating the conflict, or look in the index for the pages where Egypt is mentioned in the text. Consider Whether Your Sources are Current Some disciplines require that you use information that is as current as possible. This is particularly true in disciplines in medicine and the sciences where research conducted becomes obsolete very quickly as new discoveries are made. However, when writing a review in the social sciences, a survey of the history of the literature may be required. In other words, a complete understanding the research problem requires you to deliberately examine how knowledge and perspectives have changed over time. Sort through other current bibliographies or literature reviews in the field to get a sense of what your discipline expects. You can also use this method to explore what is considered by scholars to be a "hot topic" and what is not.

III. Ways to Organize Your Literature Review

Chronology of Events If your review follows the chronological method, you could write about the materials according to when they were published. This approach should only be followed if a clear path of research building on previous research can be identified and that these trends follow a clear chronological order of development. For example, a literature review that focuses on continuing research about the emergence of German economic power after the fall of the Soviet Union. By Publication Order your sources by publication chronology, then, only if the order demonstrates a more important trend. For instance, you could order a review of literature on environmental studies of brown fields if the progression revealed, for example, a change in the soil collection practices of the researchers who wrote and/or conducted the studies. Thematic [“conceptual categories”] A thematic literature review is the most common approach to summarizing prior research in the social and behavioral sciences. Thematic reviews are organized around a topic or issue, rather than the progression of time, although the progression of time may still be incorporated into a thematic review. For example, a review of the Internet’s impact on American presidential politics could focus on the development of online political satire. While the study focuses on one topic, the Internet’s impact on American presidential politics, it would still be organized chronologically reflecting technological developments in media. The difference in this example between a "chronological" and a "thematic" approach is what is emphasized the most: themes related to the role of the Internet in presidential politics. Note that more authentic thematic reviews tend to break away from chronological order. A review organized in this manner would shift between time periods within each section according to the point being made. Methodological A methodological approach focuses on the methods utilized by the researcher. For the Internet in American presidential politics project, one methodological approach would be to look at cultural differences between the portrayal of American presidents on American, British, and French websites. Or the review might focus on the fundraising impact of the Internet on a particular political party. A methodological scope will influence either the types of documents in the review or the way in which these documents are discussed.

Other Sections of Your Literature Review Once you've decided on the organizational method for your literature review, the sections you need to include in the paper should be easy to figure out because they arise from your organizational strategy. In other words, a chronological review would have subsections for each vital time period; a thematic review would have subtopics based upon factors that relate to the theme or issue. However, sometimes you may need to add additional sections that are necessary for your study, but do not fit in the organizational strategy of the body. What other sections you include in the body is up to you. However, only include what is necessary for the reader to locate your study within the larger scholarship about the research problem.

Here are examples of other sections, usually in the form of a single paragraph, you may need to include depending on the type of review you write:

Current Situation : Information necessary to understand the current topic or focus of the literature review.
Sources Used : Describes the methods and resources [e.g., databases] you used to identify the literature you reviewed.
History : The chronological progression of the field, the research literature, or an idea that is necessary to understand the literature review, if the body of the literature review is not already a chronology.
Selection Methods : Criteria you used to select (and perhaps exclude) sources in your literature review. For instance, you might explain that your review includes only peer-reviewed [i.e., scholarly] sources.
Standards : Description of the way in which you present your information.
Questions for Further Research : What questions about the field has the review sparked? How will you further your research as a result of the review?

IV. Writing Your Literature Review

Once you've settled on how to organize your literature review, you're ready to write each section. When writing your review, keep in mind these issues.

Use Evidence A literature review section is, in this sense, just like any other academic research paper. Your interpretation of the available sources must be backed up with evidence [citations] that demonstrates that what you are saying is valid. Be Selective Select only the most important points in each source to highlight in the review. The type of information you choose to mention should relate directly to the research problem, whether it is thematic, methodological, or chronological. Related items that provide additional information, but that are not key to understanding the research problem, can be included in a list of further readings . Use Quotes Sparingly Some short quotes are appropriate if you want to emphasize a point, or if what an author stated cannot be easily paraphrased. Sometimes you may need to quote certain terminology that was coined by the author, is not common knowledge, or taken directly from the study. Do not use extensive quotes as a substitute for using your own words in reviewing the literature. Summarize and Synthesize Remember to summarize and synthesize your sources within each thematic paragraph as well as throughout the review. Recapitulate important features of a research study, but then synthesize it by rephrasing the study's significance and relating it to your own work and the work of others. Keep Your Own Voice While the literature review presents others' ideas, your voice [the writer's] should remain front and center. For example, weave references to other sources into what you are writing but maintain your own voice by starting and ending the paragraph with your own ideas and wording. Use Caution When Paraphrasing When paraphrasing a source that is not your own, be sure to represent the author's information or opinions accurately and in your own words. Even when paraphrasing an author’s work, you still must provide a citation to that work.

V. Common Mistakes to Avoid

These are the most common mistakes made in reviewing social science research literature.

Sources in your literature review do not clearly relate to the research problem;
You do not take sufficient time to define and identify the most relevant sources to use in the literature review related to the research problem;
Relies exclusively on secondary analytical sources rather than including relevant primary research studies or data;
Uncritically accepts another researcher's findings and interpretations as valid, rather than examining critically all aspects of the research design and analysis;
Does not describe the search procedures that were used in identifying the literature to review;
Reports isolated statistical results rather than synthesizing them in chi-squared or meta-analytic methods; and,
Only includes research that validates assumptions and does not consider contrary findings and alternative interpretations found in the literature.

Cook, Kathleen E. and Elise Murowchick. “Do Literature Review Skills Transfer from One Course to Another?” Psychology Learning and Teaching 13 (March 2014): 3-11; Fink, Arlene. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper . 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005; Hart, Chris. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1998; Jesson, Jill. Doing Your Literature Review: Traditional and Systematic Techniques . London: SAGE, 2011; Literature Review Handout. Online Writing Center. Liberty University; Literature Reviews. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Onwuegbuzie, Anthony J. and Rebecca Frels. Seven Steps to a Comprehensive Literature Review: A Multimodal and Cultural Approach . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2016; Ridley, Diana. The Literature Review: A Step-by-Step Guide for Students . 2nd ed. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2012; Randolph, Justus J. “A Guide to Writing the Dissertation Literature Review." Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation. vol. 14, June 2009; Sutton, Anthea. Systematic Approaches to a Successful Literature Review . Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2016; Taylor, Dena. The Literature Review: A Few Tips On Conducting It. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Writing a Literature Review. Academic Skills Centre. University of Canberra.

Writing Tip

Break Out of Your Disciplinary Box!

Thinking interdisciplinarily about a research problem can be a rewarding exercise in applying new ideas, theories, or concepts to an old problem. For example, what might cultural anthropologists say about the continuing conflict in the Middle East? In what ways might geographers view the need for better distribution of social service agencies in large cities than how social workers might study the issue? You don’t want to substitute a thorough review of core research literature in your discipline for studies conducted in other fields of study. However, particularly in the social sciences, thinking about research problems from multiple vectors is a key strategy for finding new solutions to a problem or gaining a new perspective. Consult with a librarian about identifying research databases in other disciplines; almost every field of study has at least one comprehensive database devoted to indexing its research literature.

Frodeman, Robert. The Oxford Handbook of Interdisciplinarity . New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.

Another Writing Tip

Don't Just Review for Content!

While conducting a review of the literature, maximize the time you devote to writing this part of your paper by thinking broadly about what you should be looking for and evaluating. Review not just what scholars are saying, but how are they saying it. Some questions to ask:

How are they organizing their ideas?
What methods have they used to study the problem?
What theories have been used to explain, predict, or understand their research problem?
What sources have they cited to support their conclusions?
How have they used non-textual elements [e.g., charts, graphs, figures, etc.] to illustrate key points?

When you begin to write your literature review section, you'll be glad you dug deeper into how the research was designed and constructed because it establishes a means for developing more substantial analysis and interpretation of the research problem.

Hart, Chris. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1 998.

Yet Another Writing Tip

When Do I Know I Can Stop Looking and Move On?

Here are several strategies you can utilize to assess whether you've thoroughly reviewed the literature:

Look for repeating patterns in the research findings . If the same thing is being said, just by different people, then this likely demonstrates that the research problem has hit a conceptual dead end. At this point consider: Does your study extend current research? Does it forge a new path? Or, does is merely add more of the same thing being said?
Look at sources the authors cite to in their work . If you begin to see the same researchers cited again and again, then this is often an indication that no new ideas have been generated to address the research problem.
Search Google Scholar to identify who has subsequently cited leading scholars already identified in your literature review [see next sub-tab]. This is called citation tracking and there are a number of sources that can help you identify who has cited whom, particularly scholars from outside of your discipline. Here again, if the same authors are being cited again and again, this may indicate no new literature has been written on the topic.

Onwuegbuzie, Anthony J. and Rebecca Frels. Seven Steps to a Comprehensive Literature Review: A Multimodal and Cultural Approach . Los Angeles, CA: Sage, 2016; Sutton, Anthea. Systematic Approaches to a Successful Literature Review . Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2016.

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Last Updated: Jun 18, 2024 10:45 AM
URL: https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide

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What is a Literature Review? How to Write It (with Examples)

A literature review is a critical analysis and synthesis of existing research on a particular topic. It provides an overview of the current state of knowledge, identifies gaps, and highlights key findings in the literature. 1 The purpose of a literature review is to situate your own research within the context of existing scholarship, demonstrating your understanding of the topic and showing how your work contributes to the ongoing conversation in the field. Learning how to write a literature review is a critical tool for successful research. Your ability to summarize and synthesize prior research pertaining to a certain topic demonstrates your grasp on the topic of study, and assists in the learning process.

What is the purpose of literature review?
a. Habitat Loss and Species Extinction:
b. Range Shifts and Phenological Changes:
c. Ocean Acidification and Coral Reefs:
d. Adaptive Strategies and Conservation Efforts:

How to write a good literature review

Choose a Topic and Define the Research Question:
Decide on the Scope of Your Review:
Select Databases for Searches:
Conduct Searches and Keep Track:
Review the Literature:
Organize and Write Your Literature Review:
How to write a literature review faster with Paperpal?
Frequently asked questions

What is a literature review?

A well-conducted literature review demonstrates the researcher’s familiarity with the existing literature, establishes the context for their own research, and contributes to scholarly conversations on the topic. One of the purposes of a literature review is also to help researchers avoid duplicating previous work and ensure that their research is informed by and builds upon the existing body of knowledge.

What is the purpose of literature review?

A literature review serves several important purposes within academic and research contexts. Here are some key objectives and functions of a literature review: 2

1. Contextualizing the Research Problem: The literature review provides a background and context for the research problem under investigation. It helps to situate the study within the existing body of knowledge.

2. Identifying Gaps in Knowledge: By identifying gaps, contradictions, or areas requiring further research, the researcher can shape the research question and justify the significance of the study. This is crucial for ensuring that the new research contributes something novel to the field.

Find academic papers related to your research topic faster. Try Research on Paperpal

3. Understanding Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks: Literature reviews help researchers gain an understanding of the theoretical and conceptual frameworks used in previous studies. This aids in the development of a theoretical framework for the current research.

4. Providing Methodological Insights: Another purpose of literature reviews is that it allows researchers to learn about the methodologies employed in previous studies. This can help in choosing appropriate research methods for the current study and avoiding pitfalls that others may have encountered.

5. Establishing Credibility: A well-conducted literature review demonstrates the researcher’s familiarity with existing scholarship, establishing their credibility and expertise in the field. It also helps in building a solid foundation for the new research.

6. Informing Hypotheses or Research Questions: The literature review guides the formulation of hypotheses or research questions by highlighting relevant findings and areas of uncertainty in existing literature.

Literature review example

Let’s delve deeper with a literature review example: Let’s say your literature review is about the impact of climate change on biodiversity. You might format your literature review into sections such as the effects of climate change on habitat loss and species extinction, phenological changes, and marine biodiversity. Each section would then summarize and analyze relevant studies in those areas, highlighting key findings and identifying gaps in the research. The review would conclude by emphasizing the need for further research on specific aspects of the relationship between climate change and biodiversity. The following literature review template provides a glimpse into the recommended literature review structure and content, demonstrating how research findings are organized around specific themes within a broader topic.

Literature Review on Climate Change Impacts on Biodiversity:

Climate change is a global phenomenon with far-reaching consequences, including significant impacts on biodiversity. This literature review synthesizes key findings from various studies:

a. Habitat Loss and Species Extinction:

Climate change-induced alterations in temperature and precipitation patterns contribute to habitat loss, affecting numerous species (Thomas et al., 2004). The review discusses how these changes increase the risk of extinction, particularly for species with specific habitat requirements.

b. Range Shifts and Phenological Changes:

Observations of range shifts and changes in the timing of biological events (phenology) are documented in response to changing climatic conditions (Parmesan & Yohe, 2003). These shifts affect ecosystems and may lead to mismatches between species and their resources.

c. Ocean Acidification and Coral Reefs:

The review explores the impact of climate change on marine biodiversity, emphasizing ocean acidification’s threat to coral reefs (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007). Changes in pH levels negatively affect coral calcification, disrupting the delicate balance of marine ecosystems.

d. Adaptive Strategies and Conservation Efforts:

Recognizing the urgency of the situation, the literature review discusses various adaptive strategies adopted by species and conservation efforts aimed at mitigating the impacts of climate change on biodiversity (Hannah et al., 2007). It emphasizes the importance of interdisciplinary approaches for effective conservation planning.

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Writing a literature review involves summarizing and synthesizing existing research on a particular topic. A good literature review format should include the following elements.

Introduction: The introduction sets the stage for your literature review, providing context and introducing the main focus of your review.

Opening Statement: Begin with a general statement about the broader topic and its significance in the field.
Scope and Purpose: Clearly define the scope of your literature review. Explain the specific research question or objective you aim to address.
Organizational Framework: Briefly outline the structure of your literature review, indicating how you will categorize and discuss the existing research.
Significance of the Study: Highlight why your literature review is important and how it contributes to the understanding of the chosen topic.
Thesis Statement: Conclude the introduction with a concise thesis statement that outlines the main argument or perspective you will develop in the body of the literature review.

Body: The body of the literature review is where you provide a comprehensive analysis of existing literature, grouping studies based on themes, methodologies, or other relevant criteria.

Organize by Theme or Concept: Group studies that share common themes, concepts, or methodologies. Discuss each theme or concept in detail, summarizing key findings and identifying gaps or areas of disagreement.
Critical Analysis: Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each study. Discuss the methodologies used, the quality of evidence, and the overall contribution of each work to the understanding of the topic.
Synthesis of Findings: Synthesize the information from different studies to highlight trends, patterns, or areas of consensus in the literature.
Identification of Gaps: Discuss any gaps or limitations in the existing research and explain how your review contributes to filling these gaps.
Transition between Sections: Provide smooth transitions between different themes or concepts to maintain the flow of your literature review.

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Conclusion: The conclusion of your literature review should summarize the main findings, highlight the contributions of the review, and suggest avenues for future research.

Summary of Key Findings: Recap the main findings from the literature and restate how they contribute to your research question or objective.
Contributions to the Field: Discuss the overall contribution of your literature review to the existing knowledge in the field.
Implications and Applications: Explore the practical implications of the findings and suggest how they might impact future research or practice.
Recommendations for Future Research: Identify areas that require further investigation and propose potential directions for future research in the field.
Final Thoughts: Conclude with a final reflection on the importance of your literature review and its relevance to the broader academic community.

Conducting a literature review

Conducting a literature review is an essential step in research that involves reviewing and analyzing existing literature on a specific topic. It’s important to know how to do a literature review effectively, so here are the steps to follow: 1

Choose a Topic and Define the Research Question:

Select a topic that is relevant to your field of study.
Clearly define your research question or objective. Determine what specific aspect of the topic do you want to explore?

Decide on the Scope of Your Review:

Determine the timeframe for your literature review. Are you focusing on recent developments, or do you want a historical overview?
Consider the geographical scope. Is your review global, or are you focusing on a specific region?
Define the inclusion and exclusion criteria. What types of sources will you include? Are there specific types of studies or publications you will exclude?

Select Databases for Searches:

Identify relevant databases for your field. Examples include PubMed, IEEE Xplore, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar.
Consider searching in library catalogs, institutional repositories, and specialized databases related to your topic.

Conduct Searches and Keep Track:

Develop a systematic search strategy using keywords, Boolean operators (AND, OR, NOT), and other search techniques.
Record and document your search strategy for transparency and replicability.
Keep track of the articles, including publication details, abstracts, and links. Use citation management tools like EndNote, Zotero, or Mendeley to organize your references.

Review the Literature:

Evaluate the relevance and quality of each source. Consider the methodology, sample size, and results of studies.
Organize the literature by themes or key concepts. Identify patterns, trends, and gaps in the existing research.
Summarize key findings and arguments from each source. Compare and contrast different perspectives.
Identify areas where there is a consensus in the literature and where there are conflicting opinions.
Provide critical analysis and synthesis of the literature. What are the strengths and weaknesses of existing research?

Organize and Write Your Literature Review:

Literature review outline should be based on themes, chronological order, or methodological approaches.
Write a clear and coherent narrative that synthesizes the information gathered.
Use proper citations for each source and ensure consistency in your citation style (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.).
Conclude your literature review by summarizing key findings, identifying gaps, and suggesting areas for future research.

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How to write a literature review faster with Paperpal?

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Review and Save: Paperpal summarizes the information, while citing sources and listing relevant reads. You can quickly scan the results to identify relevant references and save these directly to your built-in citations library for later access.
Cite with Confidence: Paperpal makes it easy to incorporate relevant citations and references into your writing, ensuring your arguments are well-supported by credible sources. This translates to a polished, well-researched literature review.

The literature review sample and detailed advice on writing and conducting a review will help you produce a well-structured report. But remember that a good literature review is an ongoing process, and it may be necessary to revisit and update it as your research progresses. By combining effortless research with an easy citation process, Paperpal Research streamlines the literature review process and empowers you to write faster and with more confidence. Try Paperpal Research now and see for yourself.

Frequently asked questions

A literature review is a critical and comprehensive analysis of existing literature (published and unpublished works) on a specific topic or research question and provides a synthesis of the current state of knowledge in a particular field. A well-conducted literature review is crucial for researchers to build upon existing knowledge, avoid duplication of efforts, and contribute to the advancement of their field. It also helps researchers situate their work within a broader context and facilitates the development of a sound theoretical and conceptual framework for their studies.

Literature review is a crucial component of research writing, providing a solid background for a research paper’s investigation. The aim is to keep professionals up to date by providing an understanding of ongoing developments within a specific field, including research methods, and experimental techniques used in that field, and present that knowledge in the form of a written report. Also, the depth and breadth of the literature review emphasizes the credibility of the scholar in his or her field.

Before writing a literature review, it’s essential to undertake several preparatory steps to ensure that your review is well-researched, organized, and focused. This includes choosing a topic of general interest to you and doing exploratory research on that topic, writing an annotated bibliography, and noting major points, especially those that relate to the position you have taken on the topic.

Literature reviews and academic research papers are essential components of scholarly work but serve different purposes within the academic realm. 3 A literature review aims to provide a foundation for understanding the current state of research on a particular topic, identify gaps or controversies, and lay the groundwork for future research. Therefore, it draws heavily from existing academic sources, including books, journal articles, and other scholarly publications. In contrast, an academic research paper aims to present new knowledge, contribute to the academic discourse, and advance the understanding of a specific research question. Therefore, it involves a mix of existing literature (in the introduction and literature review sections) and original data or findings obtained through research methods.

Literature reviews are essential components of academic and research papers, and various strategies can be employed to conduct them effectively. If you want to know how to write a literature review for a research paper, here are four common approaches that are often used by researchers. Chronological Review: This strategy involves organizing the literature based on the chronological order of publication. It helps to trace the development of a topic over time, showing how ideas, theories, and research have evolved. Thematic Review: Thematic reviews focus on identifying and analyzing themes or topics that cut across different studies. Instead of organizing the literature chronologically, it is grouped by key themes or concepts, allowing for a comprehensive exploration of various aspects of the topic. Methodological Review: This strategy involves organizing the literature based on the research methods employed in different studies. It helps to highlight the strengths and weaknesses of various methodologies and allows the reader to evaluate the reliability and validity of the research findings. Theoretical Review: A theoretical review examines the literature based on the theoretical frameworks used in different studies. This approach helps to identify the key theories that have been applied to the topic and assess their contributions to the understanding of the subject. It’s important to note that these strategies are not mutually exclusive, and a literature review may combine elements of more than one approach. The choice of strategy depends on the research question, the nature of the literature available, and the goals of the review. Additionally, other strategies, such as integrative reviews or systematic reviews, may be employed depending on the specific requirements of the research.

The literature review format can vary depending on the specific publication guidelines. However, there are some common elements and structures that are often followed. Here is a general guideline for the format of a literature review: Introduction: Provide an overview of the topic. Define the scope and purpose of the literature review. State the research question or objective. Body: Organize the literature by themes, concepts, or chronology. Critically analyze and evaluate each source. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the studies. Highlight any methodological limitations or biases. Identify patterns, connections, or contradictions in the existing research. Conclusion: Summarize the key points discussed in the literature review. Highlight the research gap. Address the research question or objective stated in the introduction. Highlight the contributions of the review and suggest directions for future research.

Both annotated bibliographies and literature reviews involve the examination of scholarly sources. While annotated bibliographies focus on individual sources with brief annotations, literature reviews provide a more in-depth, integrated, and comprehensive analysis of existing literature on a specific topic. The key differences are as follows:

	Annotated Bibliography	Literature Review
Purpose	List of citations of books, articles, and other sources with a brief description (annotation) of each source.	Comprehensive and critical analysis of existing literature on a specific topic.
Focus	Summary and evaluation of each source, including its relevance, methodology, and key findings.	Provides an overview of the current state of knowledge on a particular subject and identifies gaps, trends, and patterns in existing literature.
Structure	Each citation is followed by a concise paragraph (annotation) that describes the source’s content, methodology, and its contribution to the topic.	The literature review is organized thematically or chronologically and involves a synthesis of the findings from different sources to build a narrative or argument.
Length	Typically 100-200 words	Length of literature review ranges from a few pages to several chapters
Independence	Each source is treated separately, with less emphasis on synthesizing the information across sources.	The writer synthesizes information from multiple sources to present a cohesive overview of the topic.

References

Denney, A. S., & Tewksbury, R. (2013). How to write a literature review.  Journal of criminal justice education ,  24 (2), 218-234.
Pan, M. L. (2016).  Preparing literature reviews: Qualitative and quantitative approaches . Taylor & Francis.
Cantero, C. (2019). How to write a literature review.  San José State University Writing Center .

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How to Conduct a Literature Review (Health Sciences and Beyond)

What is a Literature Review?
Developing a Research Question
Selection Criteria
Database Search
Documenting Your Search

Review Matrix

Reference Management

Using a spreadsheet or table to organize the key elements (e.g. subjects, methodologies, results) of articles/books you plan to use in your literature review can be helpful. This is called a review matrix.

When you create a review matrix, the first few columns should include (1) the authors, title, journal, (2) publication year, and (3) purpose of the paper. The remaining columns should identify important aspects of each study such as methodology and findings.

Click on the image below to view a sample review matrix.

You can also download this template as a Microsoft Excel file .

The information on this page is from the book below. The 5th edition is available online through VCU Libraries.

<< Previous: Documenting Your Search
Next: Reference Management >>
Last Updated: Mar 15, 2024 12:22 PM
URL: https://guides.library.vcu.edu/health-sciences-lit-review

Literature Review Example/Sample

Detailed Walkthrough + Free Literature Review Template

If you’re working on a dissertation or thesis and are looking for an example of a strong literature review chapter , you’ve come to the right place.

In this video, we walk you through an A-grade literature review from a dissertation that earned full distinction . We start off by discussing the five core sections of a literature review chapter by unpacking our free literature review template . This includes:

The literature review opening/ introduction section
The theoretical framework (or foundation of theory)
The empirical research
The research gap
The closing section

We then progress to the sample literature review (from an A-grade Master’s-level dissertation) to show how these concepts are applied in the literature review chapter. You can access the free resources mentioned in this video below.

PS – If you’re working on a dissertation, be sure to also check out our collection of dissertation and thesis examples here .

FAQ: Literature Review Example

Literature review example: frequently asked questions, is the sample literature review real.

Yes. The literature review example is an extract from a Master’s-level dissertation for an MBA program. It has not been edited in any way.

Can I replicate this literature review for my dissertation?

As we discuss in the video, every literature review will be slightly different, depending on the university’s unique requirements, as well as the nature of the research itself. Therefore, you’ll need to tailor your literature review to suit your specific context.

You can learn more about the basics of writing a literature review here .

Where can I find more examples of literature reviews?

The best place to find more examples of literature review chapters would be within dissertation/thesis databases. These databases include dissertations, theses and research projects that have successfully passed the assessment criteria for the respective university, meaning that you have at least some sort of quality assurance.

The Open Access Thesis Database (OATD) is a good starting point.

How do I get the literature review template?

You can access our free literature review chapter template here .

Is the template really free?

Yes. There is no cost for the template and you are free to use it as you wish.

Psst… there’s more!

This post is an extract from our bestselling short course, Literature Review Bootcamp . If you want to work smart, you don't want to miss this .

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Communication Sciences & Disorders: Researching the Literature

1. Terms to Know: The Basics
Practice: Identifying Information Sources (Opens Word Doc) This link opens in a new window
3: Browsing Key Journals
4: Author Searching
5: Reference Mining & Citation Searching
6. PICO: To Refine the Research Question
7: Database Searching
8. Finding Full Text Articles
Sample Annotation
Sample Annotation 2

Literature Review Matrices and Organizers

11. APA Style Citation

A literature review matrix is a tool used by researchers to analyze and synthesize information from various sources relevant to their research topic. It typically takes the form of a table or chart, where rows represent different studies or articles, and columns display key information such as research methodologies, findings, and key themes.

The primary purpose of a literature review matrix is to help you analyze and compare existing literature, to identify patterns, gaps, and contradictions in the body of knowledge related to your research question.

Literature Rewiew Matrix Template (example) You will be prompted to make a copy in your Google Drive. You are the sole owner, viewer and editor of the template until you choose to share it.
<< Previous: Sample Annotation 2
Next: 11. APA Style Citation >>
Last Updated: Jul 2, 2024 9:46 AM
URL: https://libguides.uww.edu/comdis-lit-review

The Sheridan Libraries

Write a Literature Review
Sheridan Libraries
Find This link opens in a new window
Evaluate This link opens in a new window

Get Organized

Lit Review Prep Use this template to help you evaluate your sources, create article summaries for an annotated bibliography, and a synthesis matrix for your lit review outline.

Synthesize your Information

Synthesize: combine separate elements to form a whole.

Synthesis Matrix

A synthesis matrix helps you record the main points of each source and document how sources relate to each other.

After summarizing and evaluating your sources, arrange them in a matrix or use a citation manager to help you see how they relate to each other and apply to each of your themes or variables.

By arranging your sources by theme or variable, you can see how your sources relate to each other, and can start thinking about how you weave them together to create a narrative.

Step-by-Step Approach
Example Matrix from NSCU
Matrix Template
<< Previous: Summarize
Next: Integrate >>
Last Updated: Sep 26, 2023 10:25 AM
URL: https://guides.library.jhu.edu/lit-review

More Resources

Literature Review Chart

Mikaila Mariel Lemonik Arthur + −

How to Cite

Download citation.

Download this resource to see full details. Download this resource to see full details.

Usage Notes

Learning goals and assessments.

Learning Goal(s):

Students will be able to articulate the themes or concepts shared in common across a body of scholarly literature and use these ideas to draft a competent mini-literature review.

Goal Assessment(s):

After completing the template included in this resource, students should be asked to draft a 2-3 page literature review. A rubric for evaluating literature review drafts is included.

When using resources from TRAILS, please include a clear and legible citation.

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Redesigning Continuing Education in the Health Professions (2010)

Chapter: appendix a: literature review tables, appendix a literature review tables.

E vidence on the effectiveness of continuing education (CE) and CE methods was identified through a literature review. Although nonexhaustive, the review included a comprehensive search of the Research and Development Resource Base (RDRB), a bibliographic database of more than 18,000 articles from fields including CE, knowledge translation, interprofessional literature, and faculty development. Articles in the RDRB are culled from Medline, the Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), Excerpta Medica Database (EMBASE), Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), Sociological Abstracts, PsychoInfo, Library Information and Science Abstracts (LISA), and business databases, as well as automatic retrieval of articles from journals dedicated to medical education (e.g., Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions , Medical Education , Studies in Continuing Education ).

The RDRB was searched using keywords, 1 and the results of the searches were culled by two independent reviewers using an iterative approach. Studies collected were from 1989 to April 2009.

Keywords used to search the RDRB included “patient participation,” “patient initiated,” “patient mediated,” “physician prompt,” “audit,” “feedback,” “checklist,” “checklists,” “protocol,” “protocols,” “reminder,” “reminders,” “academic detailing,” “simulation,” “simulations,” “lifelong learning,” “experiential,” “self-directed,” “reflection,” “problem based,” “model,” and “modeling.” These keywords were used alone or in combination.

Abstracts of search results were reviewed to eliminate articles that clearly did not pertain to CE methods, cost-effectiveness, or educational theory and to categorize the studies as informative, equivocal, or not informative of CE effectiveness. A wide range of designs were classified as informative, including randomized controlled trials, prospective cohort studies, observational studies, and studies with pre- and post-intervention assessment methodologies. Quantitative and qualitative approaches were included, and inclusion was not limited to studies with positive results. The most common reasons articles were classified as not informative were absence of a trial design, small sample size, and high likelihood of confounding factors in the design that could affect outcomes. The two reviewers independently classified abstracts and full texts of the articles and then compared their classification results. Interreviewer reliability was greater than 80 percent, and discrepancies were resolved by a consensus process. A third reviewer verified the results classified as informative or equivocal in a final round of detailed assessment of the study design, populations, intervention, type of outcome, and conclusions for each article. Systematic reviews and metaanalyses are included in Table A-1 ; studies and articles are included in Table A-2 .

Table A-1 begins on the next page.

TABLE A-1 Summary of Systematic Reviews on Effectiveness of CE Methods

Reference	Purpose	Number of Studies, Inclusion Criteria, and Databases Searched

Ruth-Sahd, L. A. 2003. Reflective practice: A critical analysis of data-based studies and implications for nursing education. 42(11):488-497.	* Identify common themes that emerge from data-based studies * Identify implications for reflective practice in the field of nursing education	20 articles, 12 doctoral dissertations, and 6 books Delineated methodology section; emphasis on reflective practice in an education setting; publication between 1992 and 2002; English language CINAHL, Dissertation Abstracts International, ERIC, PsychInfo

Issenberg, S. B., W. C. McGaghie, E. R. Petrusa, D. L. Gordon, and R. J. Scalese. 2005. Features and uses of high-fidelity medical simulations that lead to effective learning: A BEME systematic review. 27:10-28.	Determine the features and uses of high-fidelity medical simulators that lead to the most effective learning (high-fidelity simulators are models, mannequins, or virtual packages that utilize realistic materials and equipment and incorporate feedback, computerized control, or other advanced technology)	109 articles Empirical study; use of a simulator as an education assessment or intervention; learner outcomes measured quantitatively; experimental or quasi-experimental design ERIC, Medline, PsychInfo, Web of Science, Timelit

Main Results

Limitations

* Conditions necessary for reflection to be successful:

* Students require guidance about how to practice reflection

* No research on how unconscious knowledge is affected by reflective practice

* Lack of hypothesis testing in reviewed studies

High fidelity simulators facilitate learning under certain conditions:

Heterogeneity of research designs, educational interventions, outcome measures, and time frame precluded data synthesis using meta-analysis

Reference	Purpose	Number of Studies, Inclusion Criteria, and Databases Searched
Sutherland, L. M., P. F. Middleton, A. Anthony, J. Hamdorf, P. Cregan, D. Scott, and G. J. Maddern. 2006. Surgical simulation: A systematic review. 243(3):291-300.	Evaluate the effectiveness of surgical simulation compared with other methods of surgical training	30 trials with 760 participants Randomized controlled trial; assessing surgical simulation; measures of surgical task performance Medline, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, PsycINFO, CINAHL, Science Citation Index

Balas, E. A., S. M. Austin, J. A. Mitchell, B. G. Ewigman, K. D. Bopp, and G. D. Brown. 1996. The clinical value of computerized information services. A review of 98 randomized clinical trials. 5(5):271-278.	Determine the clinical settings, types of interventions, and effects of studies in randomized clinical trials addressing the efficacy of clinical information systems	98 articles reporting on 100 trials Randomized controlled trial (RCT); computerized information intervention in the experimental group; effect measured on the process or outcome of care Medline
Shea, S., W. DuMouchel, and L. Bahamonde. 1996. A meta-analysis of 16 randomized controlled trials to evaluate computer-based clinical reminder systems for preventive care in the ambulatory setting. 3(6):399-409.	Assess the overall effectiveness of computer-based reminder systems in ambulatory settings directed at preventive care	16 trials Randomized controlled trial; computer-based reminder; control group received no intervention Medline, Nursing and Allied Health database, Health Planning and Administration database

Main Results	Limitations
Computer simulation generally showed better results than no training at all but was not superior to standard training (e.g., surgical drills) or video simulation	Insufficient evidence to evaluate types of simulation because outcomes were often not comparable across studies
Patient and physician reminders, computerized treatment planners, and interactive patient education can make a significant difference in managing care ( < 0.05)	Many trials evaluate the effect of information services on care processes as opposed to patient outcomes
* Computer reminders improved preventive practices for vaccinations, breast cancer screening, colorectal cancer screening, and cardiovascular screening * Computerized reminders did not improve preventive practices for cervical cancer screening	Heterogeneity in study designs and the ways in which results were presented

Reference	Purpose	Number of Studies, Inclusion Criteria, and Databases Searched

Jamtvedt, G., J. M. Young, D. T. Kristoffersen, M. A. O’Brien, and A. D. Oxman. 2006. Does telling people what they have been doing change what they do? A systematic review of the effects of audit and feedback. 15(6):433-436.	Review the effects of audit and feedback on improving professional practice	118 trials Randomized controlled trials; utilized audit and feedback; objective measures of provider performance Cochrane Library

Cheraghi-Sohi, S., and P. Bower. 2008. Can the feedback of patient assessments, brief training, or their combination, improve the interpersonal skills of primary care physicians? A systematic review. 8.	* Review the efficacy of patient feedback on the interpersonal care skills of primary care physicians * Review the efficacy of brief training (up to one working week in length) focused on the improvement of interpersonal care	9 studies Randomized controlled trials; published in English; based on primary care practitioners and their patients; utilized patient feedback or brief training or a combination of these methods; outcome measure was a patient-based assessment in change CENTRAL, Medline, EMBASE

Main Results

Limitations

* Effects of audit and feedback on improving professional practice are generally small to moderate

* Effects of audit and feedback are likely to be larger when baseline adherence to recommended practice is low and audit and feedback are delivered more frequently and over longer periods of time

* Lack of a process evaluation embedded in trials

* Few studies compare audit and feedback to other interventions

Brief training as currently delivered is not effective

* Limited evidence on the effects of patient-based feedback for changes in primary care physician behavior

* Evidence is not definitive due to the small number of trials

* Variation in training methods and goals

* Lack of theory linking feedback to behavior change

Reference	Purpose	Number of Studies, Inclusion Criteria, and Databases Searched
Davis, D., M. A. O’Brien, N. Freemantle, F. M. Wolf, P. Mazmanian, and A. Taylor-Vaisey. 1999. Impact of formal continuing medical education: Do conferences, workshops, rounds, and other traditional continuing education activities change physician behavior or health care outcomes? 282(9):867-874.	Review, collate, and interpret the effect of formal continuing medical education (CME) interventions on physician performance and health care outcomes	14 studies Randomized controlled trial of formal didactic and/or interactive CME; >50% physicians RDRB, Cochrane Library, Medline
Forsetlund, L., A. Bjørndal, A. Rashidian, G. Jamtvedt, M. A. O’Brien, F. Wolf, D. Davis, J. Odgaard-Jensen, and A. D. Oxman. 2009. Continuing education meetings and workshops: Effects on professional practice and health care outcomes. (2):CD003030.	To assess the effects of educational meetings on professional practice and health care outcomes	81 trials involving more than 11,000 health professionals Randomized controlled trial of educational meetings that reported an objective measure of professional practice or health care outcomes Cochrane Library
Grimshaw, J., L. Shirran, R. Thomas, G. Mowatt, C. Fraser, L. Bero, R. Grilli, E. Harvey, A. Oxman, and M. A. O’Brien. 2001. Changing provider behavior: An overview of systematic reviews of interventions. 39(8 Suppl 2):II2-II45.	Identify, appraise, and synthesize systematic reviews of professional education or quality assurance interventions to improve quality of care	41 reviews Interventions targeted at health professionals; reported measures of professional performance and/or patient outcomes; study design included explicit selection criteria Medline, Healthstar, Cochrane Library

Main Results

Limitations

* Interactive CME sessions that enhance participant activity and provide the opportunity to practice skills can effect change in professional practice and, on occasion, health outcomes

* Didactic sessions did not appear to be effective in changing physician performance

* Limited number of randomized controlled trials and settings limits generalizability of findings

* The comparability of CME interventions is debatable due to the lack of comparability of reviewed interventions

* Educational meetings alone are not likely to be effective for changing behaviors

* The effect of educational meetings combined with other interventions is most likely to be small and similar to other types of CE, such as audit and feedback, and educational outreach visits

* Heterogeneity in study designs and the ways in which results were presented

* Observed differences in changing behaviors cannot be explained with confidence

* Passive approaches generally ineffective

* Active approaches effective under some circumstances

* Multifaceted interventions more likely to be effective than interventions with one method

Lack of agreement within the research community on a theoretical or empirical framework for classifying interventions

Reference	Purpose	Number of Studies, Inclusion Criteria, and Databases Searched
Gross, P. A., and D. Pujat. 2001. Implementing practice guidelines for appropriate antimicrobial usage: A systematic review. 39(8 Suppl 2):II55-II69.	* Conduct a systematic review of guideline implementation studies for improving appropriate use of antimicrobial agents * Determine which implementation methods appear to improve the outcome of appropriate antimicrobial use	40 studies Comparative study; quantitative data; English language; between 1966 and 2000 Medline
Lam-Antoniades, M., S. Ratnapalan, and G. Tait. 2009. Electronic continuing education in the health professions: An update on evidence from RCTs. 29:44-51.	Update evidence from RCTs assessing the effectiveness of electronic CE (e-CE)	15 studies Evaluated a CE intervention for any group of health professionals; intervention included a computer interface (CD-ROM or Internet); randomized controlled trial; published between 2004 and 2007 Medline, EMBASE, CINAHL
Marinopoulos, S. S., T. Dorman, N. Ratanawongsa, L. M. Wilson, B. H. Ashar, J. L. Magaziner, R. G. Miller, P. A. Thomas, G. P. Prokopowicz, R. Qayyum, and E. B. Bass. 2007. Evidence report/technology assessment no. 149. AHRQ Publication No. 07-E006. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality.	Synthesize evidence regarding the effectiveness of CME and differing instructional designs in terms of knowledge, attitudes, skills, practice behavior, and clinical practice outcomes	136 articles and 9 systematic reviews Reporting on the effects of CME or simulation; written in English; contained original human data; included at least 15 fully trained physicians; evaluated an educational activity; published between 1981 and 2006; conducted in the United States or Canada; included data from a comparison group Medline, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, PsycINFO, ERIC

Main Results

Limitations

* Multifaceted implementation methods most successful

* Individual implementation methods determined to be useful:

* Multimethod approaches make it difficult to determine which method(s) were critical for appropriate antimicrobial use

* Findings may not be generalizable because study conditions vary

* Positive effects of e-CE on knowledge sustained up to 12 months

* Positive effects of e-CE on practice sustained up to 5 months

* e-CE interventions that only included text via reading passages of limited effectiveness in changing knowledge or practice

None of the studies attempted to identify which components of a multifaceted intervention were responsible for effects

* CME effective in achieving and maintaining knowledge, attitudes, skills, practice behavior, and clinical practice outcomes

* Live media more effective than print; multimedia more effective than single-media interventions; multiple exposures more effective than a single exposure

* Firm conclusions not possible because of overall low quality of the literature

* Heterogeneity in study designs and the ways in which results were presented

* Limited evidence on reliability and validity of the tools used to assess CME effectiveness

Reference	Purpose	Number of Studies, Inclusion Criteria, and Databases Searched
Mansouri, M., and J. Lockyer. 2007. A meta-analysis of continuing medical education effectiveness. 27:6-15.	Examine the effect of moderator variables on physician knowledge, performance, and patient outcomes	31 studies Randomized controlled trial or before-and-after experimental design; participants were practicing physicians; focus on at least 1 of the 3 identified outcomes (physician knowledge, physician performance, patient outcome); adequate description of the intervention; quantitative analyses Medline, ERIC
O’Brien, M. A., N. Freemantle, A. D. Oxman, F. Wolf, D. A. Davis, and J. Herrin. 2001. Continuing education meetings and workshops: Effects on professional practice and health care outcomes. (2).	Assess the effects of educational meetings on professional practice and health care outcomes	32 studies Randomized trials or quasi-experimental studies; effect of lectures, workshops, and/or courses on clinical practice or health care outcomes Cochrane Library, Medline, RDRB
Prior, M., M. Guerin, and K. Grimmer-Somers. 2008. The effectiveness of clinical guideline implementation strategies—A synthesis of systematic review findings. 14(5):888-897.	Synthesize evidence of effectiveness of clinical guideline implementation strategies in terms of improved clinical processes and improved cost-benefit ratios	33 systematic reviews that included 714 primary studies Generic implementation strategies; comparison study; measured clinical practice change and/or compliance; published between 1987 and 2007; English language Medline, Amed, CINAHL, Academic Search Elite, Cochrane Library

Main Results

Limitations

* Larger effect size when the interventions are interactive ( = 0.33 [0.33]) and use multiple methods ( = 0.33 [0.26])

* Larger effect size for longer interventions ( = 0.33) and multiple interventions over time ( = 0.36)

* Smaller effect size for programs with multiple professions ( = −0.18) and a geater number of participants ( = −0.13

Studies did not always provide

* Interactive workshops can result in changes in professional practice

* Didactic sessions alone unlikely to change professional practice

* Study design generally poorly reported, making it difficult to judge the degree to which results may be biased

* Substantial variation in the complexity of targeted behaviors, baseline compliance, and the characteristics of interventions

* Heterogeneity in study designs and the ways in which results were presented

* Implementation strategies where there was strong evidence of guideline compliance included

* Didactic education and passive dissemination strategies (e.g., conferences, websites) ineffective

* Implementation strategies varied and rarely comparable

* Cost-effectiveness analyses rare

Reference	Purpose	Number of Studies, Inclusion Criteria, and Databases Searched
Robertson, M. A., K. E. Umble, and R. M. Cervero. 2003. Impact studies in continuing education for health professions: Update. 23:146-156.	* Determine if CE is effective and for what outcomes * Determine what kinds of CE are effective	15 syntheses Primary CE study; professionals’ performance and/or patient health outcomes considered; published since 1993 RDRB, Medline, ERIC, Digital Dissertation Abstracts
Steinman, M. A., S. R. Ranji, K. G. Shojania, and R. Gonzales. 2006. Improving antibiotic selection: A systematic review and quantitative analysis of quality improvement strategies. 44(7):617-628.	Assess which interventions are most effective at improving the prescribing of recommended antibiotics for acute outpatient infections	26 studies reporting on 33 trials Clinical trial; reports on antibiotic selection in acute outpatient infections; randomized trials, controlled before-and-after and interrupted time-series designs with at least 3 data points; English language Cochrane Library, Medline
Tian, J., N. L. Atkinson, B. Portnoy, and R. S. Gold. 2007. A systematic review of evaluation in formal continuing medical education. 27:16-27.	Improve CME evaluation study design by determining	32 studies Randomized controlled trial or quasi-experimental trial; published between 1993 and 1999; primary studies; >50% physicians; CME intervention was didactic, interactive, or both Medline, EBSCOhost

Main Results	Limitations
* CE can improve knowledge, skills, attitudes, behavior, and patient health outcomes * Effective CE is ongoing, interactive, contextually relevant, and based on needs assessment	* Few primary studies addressed the impact of CE on patient health outcomes (and instead measured patient satisfaction) * Focus on how CE affects individuals as opposed to teams or organizations
Multidimensional interventions using audit and feedback less effective than interventions using clinician education alone	* Sample size too small to conduct detailed analysis of all potential confounders and effect modifiers * Heterogeneity in study designs and the ways in which results were presented
* Valid and reliable questionnaire addressing variables necessary to allow comparison of effectiveness across interventions * Minimum 1-year post-intervention period necessary to investigate sustainability of outcomes	Variation across study designs prevents comparing the effectiveness of CME programs

Reference

Purpose

Number of Studies, Inclusion Criteria, and Databases Searched

Tu, K., and D. A. Davis. 2002. Can we alter physician behavior by educational methods? Lessons learned from studies of the management and follow-up of hypertension. 22(1):11-22.

Review the literature on the effectiveness of physician educational interventions in the management and follow-up of hypertension

12 studies

Use of replicable educational interventions; >50% physician involvement; objective measures of physician behavior change or patient outcomes; dropout rate of <30%; outcomes assessed for >30 days

PubMed, RDRB

Wensing, M., H. Wollersheim, and R. Grol. 2006. Organizational interventions to implement improvements in patient care: A structured review of reviews. 1(1).

Provide an overview of the research evidence on the effects of organizational strategies to implement improvements in patient care

36 reviews

Evaluated organizational strategies; published in 1995 or later; rigorous evaluations (e.g., randomized trials, interrupted time-series, controlled before-and-after, and prospective comparative observational studies)

PubMed, Cochrane Library

Main Results

Limitations

* Studies included 7 different educational interventions: reminders, formal CME, computerized decision support, printed materials, academic detailing, continuous quality improvement, and prompts

* Relatively small number of trials in each of the types of interventions

* Randomized trials using quantitative outcomes do not capture processes and dimensions of learning

* Professional performance was generally improved by revision of professional roles and utilization of computer systems for knowledge management

* Multidisciplinary teams, integrated care services, and computer systems generally improved patient outcomes

Heterogeneity in study designs and the ways in which results were presented

TABLE A-2 Literature Review on the Effectiveness of CE Methods

Reference	Study Purpose	Sample, Method, Outcome Measures, and Duration

East, D., and K. Jacoby. 2005. The effect of a nursing staff education program on compliance with central line care policy in the cardiac intensive care unit. 31(3):182-184.	Demonstrate the effectiveness of a self-study education module on nurse compliance with central line care policy	20 registered nurses (RNs) in a 12-bed pediatric cardiovascular intensive care unit Quasi-experimental cohort study with pre- and post-test design Compliance with 10 central line policies; intravenous (IV) line audit tool used to collect data on 47 patients pre-and post-intervention 7 months
Hewson, M. G., H. L. Copeland, E. Mascha, S. Arrigain, E. Topol, and J. E. Fox. 2006. Integrative medicine: Implementation and evaluation of a professional development program using experiential learning and conceptual change teaching approaches. 62(1):5-12.	Raise physicians’ awareness of, and initiate attitudinal changes toward, integrative medicine through a professional development program involving experiential learning	48 cardiologists at an academic medical center Randomized controlled trial Self-reported knowledge, attitudes, likelihood of changing practice, and satisfaction 8 hours

Description of Educational Method

Findings

Self-study module included a fact sheet and poster outlining proper care

Self-study had a statistically significant impact on staff compliance with central line policy ( < 0.001, 95% CI)

Professional development session in which participants participated in integrative medicine modalities (e.g., yoga, Reiki)

* Participant group had significant positive changes in their conceptions about and attitudes to complementary and alternative medicine after the program

* Physicians significantly increased their willingness to integrate CAM into their practice

Reference

Study Purpose

Sample, Method, Outcome Measures, and Duration

Karner, K. J., D. C. Rheinheimer, A. M. DeLisi, and C. Due. 1998. The impact of a hospital-wide experiential learning educational program on staff’s knowledge and misconceptions about aging. 29(3):100-104.

Examine the impact on the knowledge and attitudes of hospital personnel of their participation in an experiential learning program to increase knowledge about aging

95 hospital employees (administrative, nursing, social work, occupational therapy, physical therapy, dietary, maintenance, and pastoral care)

Cohort study with pre- and post-test design

Knowledge gains as evidenced by improvement on a 25-question exam about the feelings of older people; bias as determined by responses on the exam

2 hours

Love, B., C. McAdams, D. M. Patton, E. J. Rankin, and J. Roberts. 1989. Teaching psychomotor skills in nursing: A randomized control trial. 14(11):970-975.

Compare the effectiveness of teaching psychomotor skills in a structured laboratory setting with self-directed, self-taught modules

77 second-year students in a baccalaureate nursing program in Ontario, Canada

Randomized controlled trial

Achievement as measured by the Objective Structured Clinical Examination (OSCE)

One clinical term

Description of Educational Method

Findings

One-hour role-play game designed for participants to experience and then reflect on their feelings toward older people

* Significant increase in scores between pre-test and post-test ( = 64.08, < 0.0001)

* Negative bias scores decreased significantly from pre- to post-test ( = 23.86, < 0.0001)

* Packets containing information on specific skills, definitions, resources, problem-solving scenarios were distributed

* Learners watched expert clinicians

No difference between psychomotor skill performance of students who learned in a self-directed manner and those taught in a structured clinical laboratory

Reference	Study Purpose	Sample, Method, Outcome Measures, and Duration
Russell, J. M. 1990. Relationships among preference for educational structure, self-directed learning, instructional methods, and achievement. 6(2):86-93.	Analyze nurses’ preference for educational structure, self-directed learning, instructional method, and achievement on a written exam	40 RNs in 8 community hospitals Randomized controlled trial Scores on a 50-item post-test; scores on the Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale 1 week
Suggs, P. K., M. B. Mittelmark, R. Krissak, K. Oles, C. Lane, Jr., and B. Richards. 1998. Efficacy of a self-instruction package when compared with a traditional continuing education offering for nurses. 18(4):220-226.	Determine whether a multimedia, self-instructional education package can provide similar learning results as received from a conventional CE conference	63 RNs and licensed practical nurses (LPNs) in 2 rural regions in North and South Carolina Ecologic study Knowledge gains evaluated by a pre- and post-multiple-choice test NA

Forneris, S. G., and C. Peden-McAlpine. 2007. Evaluation of a reflective learning intervention to improve critical thinking in novice nurses. 57(4):410-421.	Determine if a reflective contextual learning intervention would improve novice nurses’ critical thinking skills during their first 6 months of practice	6 novice nurse-nurse preceptor dyads at an urban acute care facility Qualitative case study Self-reported anxiety, influence of power, use of questioning, use of sequential thinking, use of contextual thinking 6 months

Description of Educational Method

Findings

Self-directed group received reading materials, audio tapes, self-evaluation tests, case study analyses, and an instruction session for clarification

* No significant relationships found between exam scores and self-directed learning readiness ( = 0.24)

* No participant in the self-directed group chose to participate in an instructor clarification session

* 5-hour CE workshop delivered by a pharmacist

* Self-paced 6- to 10-hour instructional education package with videotapes, a workbook with case histories, and a textbook

* Both control and experimental groups had statistically significant improvement ( = 4.86, < 0.0001 and = −2.54, < 0.18, respectively)

* Knowledge gains were not significantly higher for the control group

* Narrative journals

* Daily coaching to help incorporate critical thinking into practice

* Leader-facilitated discussion groups

* Lack of trust in one’s knowledge base influenced how an individual used critical thinking

* Thinking out loud allowed nurses to verbalize sources of knowledge and plan actions

* Contextual learning assisted in the development of critical thinking

* Sustainability of critical thinking skills post-intervention unknown

Reference	Study Purpose	Sample, Method, Outcome Measures, and Duration
Mathers, N. J., M. C. Challis, A. C. Howe, and N. J. Field. 1999. Portfolios in continuing medical education—Effective and efficient? 33(7):521-530.	Evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of portfolios for the continuing professional development of general practitioners (GPs)	32 general practitioners in Sheffield, UK Qualitative cohort study comparing traditional CME activities and portfolio-based learning Presence of defined learning objectives; hours of participation in CME activity 12 months
Ranson, S. L., J. Boothby, P. E. Mazmanian, and A. Alvanzo. 2007. Use of personal digital assistants (PDAs) in reflection on learning and practice. 27:227-233.	Describe the use of (1) personal digital assistants (PDAs) in patient care and (2) a PDA version of a learning portfolio intended to encourage documentation of reflection on practice and medical education	10 physicians Case study PDA usage data; written comments in learning portfolios; self-reported PDA use information 6 months

Doyne, E. O., M. P. Alfaro, R. M. Siegel, H. D. Atherton, P. J. Schoettker, J. Bernier, and U. R. Kotagal. 2004. A randomized controlled trial to change antibiotic prescribing patterns in a community. 158(6):577-583.	Examine the effects of academic detailing on community pediatricians’ prescription of antibiotics for children	12 pediatric practice groups in the greater Cincinnati area Cluster randomized controlled trial Antibiotic prescription rate pre- and post-academic detailing 24 months

Description of Educational Method	Findings
3 small-group sessions with a CME tutor to use a portfolio-based learning route to	Portfolio learners developed individual learning objectives and had flexibility in methods and timing
Physicians received a PDA preloaded with learning portfolio software and were individually trained in its use	* Use of the PDA associated with the value of information for making clinical decisions * Use of the learning portfolio prompted physicians to reflect on changes in clinical practice
* Each group practice in the experimental group identified 1 leader to present academic detailing sessions to the practice on a monthly basis * Quarterly report cards detailing antibiotic-prescribing data from each practice	* Academic detailing no more effective in reducing antibiotic use than the practice-specific report cards * Antibiotic prescription rate decreased to 0.82 of the baseline rate for the experimental group (95% CI: 0.71-0.95) and to 0.86 of the baseline for the control group (95% CI: 0.77-0.95)

Reference

Study Purpose

Sample, Method, Outcome Measures, and Duration

Goldberg, H. I., E. H. Wagner, S. D. Fihn, D. P. Martin, C. R. Horowitz, D. B. Christensen, A. D. Cheadle, P. Diehr, and G. Simon. 1998. A randomized controlled trial of CQI teams and academic detailing: Can they alter compliance with guidelines? 24(3):130-142.

Determine the effectiveness of academic detailing techniques and continuous quality improvement teams in increasing compliance with national guidelines for the care of hypertension and depression

15 small group practices at 4 Seattle primary care clinics

Randomized controlled trial

Changes in hypertension prescribing; changes in blood pressure control; changes in depression recognition; changes in use of older tricyclics; changes in scores on the Hopkins Symptom Checklist depression scale

29 months

Goldstein, M. G., R. Niaura, C. Willey, A. Kazura, W. Rakowski, J. DePue, and E. Park. 2003. An academic detailing intervention to disseminate physician-delivered smoking cessation counseling: Smoking cessation outcomes of the Physicians Counseling Smokers Project. 36(2):185-196.

Determine the effect of a community-based academic detailing intervention on the quit rates of a population-based sample of smokers

259 primary care physicians and 4,295 adult smokers in Rhode Island

Quasi-experimental trial

Measures of smoking behavior assessed at baseline and at 6, 12, 19, and 24 months

24 months

Description of Educational Method

Findings

* 2 opinion leaders at each site conducted 15-minute academic detailing sessions

* On-site pharmacists conducted 2 sessions to discuss physician-specific prescribing patterns in comparison to peer prescribing patterns

* A CQI facilitator trained practice leaders in “plan, do, study, act” and the use of real-time data collection

* Academic detailing alone and CQI alone were generally ineffective in improving clinical outcomes

* Academic detailing was associated with decreased use of older tricyclics

* Use of CQI teams and academic detailing in combination increased percentage of adequately controlled hypertensives

* Resources provided to offices, including patient education resources, pocket cards, and desk prompts

* Practice consultants conducted 4-5 visits to offices in the intervention counties

Smokers who resided in intervention areas were more likely to report they had quit smoking than smokers who resided in control areas (OR = 1.35; 95% CI: 0.99-1.83; = 0.057)

Reference

Study Purpose

Sample, Method, Outcome Measures, and Duration

Ilett, K. F., S. Johnson, G. Greenhill, L. Mullen, J. Brockis, C. L. Golledge, and D. B. Reid. 2000. Modification of general practitioner prescribing of antibiotics by use of a therapeutics adviser (academic detailer). 49(2):168-173.

Evaluate the use of a clinical pharmacist as an academic detailer to modify antibiotic prescribing by GPs

112 GPs in Perth, Western Australia

Randomized controlled trial

Total prescriptions; prescriptions for individual antibiotics before and after the intervention

7 months

Kim, C. S., R. J. Kristopaitis, E. Stone, M. Pelter, M. Sandhu, and S. R. Weingarten. 1999. Physician education and report cards: Do they make the grade? Results from a randomized controlled trial. 107(6):556-560.

Determine whether tailored educational interventions can improve the quality of care and lead to better patient satisfaction

41 primary care physicians who cared for 1,810 patients at a large health maintenance organization

Randomized controlled trial

Provision of preventive care reported by patients and in medical records; patient satisfaction

2.5 years

Description of Educational Method

Findings

* A panel of experts prepared a best-practice chart of recommended drugs for various infections

* A pharmacist visited each prescriber in the experimental group to disseminate the chart and discuss its recommendations

* Academic detailing decreased prescription numbers and costs

* Total cost of antibiotics prescribed by doctors in the control group increased by 48% from the pre- to post-intervention periods

* Costs for the experimental group increased by only 35%

* All physicians received mailed educational materials that contained overviews of preventive care services

* The experimental group received peer-comparison feedback and academic detailing from a pharmacist at 3 separate sessions

* Patient-reported preventive care measures did not align with medical records review data, resulting in an ambiguous effect of education, peer comparison, and academic detailing on preventive services

* Education, peer comparison, and academic detailing had modest effects on patient satisfaction

Reference	Study Purpose	Sample, Method, Outcome Measures, and Duration
Mol, P. G. M., J. E. Wieringa, P. V. NannanPanday, R. O. B. Gans, J. E. Degener, M. Laseur, and F. M. Haaijer-Ruskamp. 2005. Improving compliance with hospital antibiotic guidelines: A time-series intervention analysis. 55(4): 550-557.	Investigated impact of a 2-phase intervention strategy to improve antimicrobial prescribing compliance with treatment guidelines	2,869 patients treated with an antimicrobial agent at a teaching hospital in the Netherlands Interrupted time-series study Prescribing data collected at baseline, after update of guidelines, and at the conclusion of academic detailing 25 months
Reeve, J. F., G. M. Peterson, R. H. Rumble, and R. Jaffrey. 1999. Programme to improve the use of drugs in older people and involve general practitioners in community education. 24(4): 289-297.	Determine the effect of educational materials and academic detailing sessions on GP prescribing patterns for older patients	13 GPs in Australia Cohort study Scores on pre- and post-multiple choice tests; number of prescribed “indicator” medications NA
Siegel, D., J. Lopez, J. Meier, M. K. Goldstein, S. Lee, B. J. Brazill, and M. S. Matalka. 2003. Academic detailing to improve antihypertensive prescribing patterns. 16(6): 508-511.	Determine whether using academic detailing increased practitioner compliance with antihypertensive treatment guidelines	5 Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) medical facilities Quasi-experimental design Antihypertensive prescribing patterns; blood pressures 17 months

Description of Educational Method

Findings

* Sessions with users conducted to improve guidelines

* Antimicrobial guidelines were updated and disseminated in paper and electronic formats

* Academic detailing was used to improve compliance with the guidelines

* Updating guidelines in collaboration with specialists followed by active dissemination resulted in a significant change in the level of compliance

* Academic detailing did not lead to statistically significant changes in already high levels of guideline compliance

* Pharmacist-developed prescribing guidelines discussed at academic detailing sessions

* GP-conducted education sessions to interdisciplinary groups of practitioners

* Patient-held medication record distributed to elderly patients

* Significant decline in prescribing of psychoactive drugs (χ = 4.1, df = 1, < 0.05) and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) (χ = 4.8, df = 1, < 0.05)

* Patient-held medication records were useful in cueing discussions but time-consuming and infrequently used

* 1 pharmacist per VA facility was trained as an academic detailer

* Academic detailing included lectures, educational materials, provider profiling (one-on-one meetings), and group meetings

* Prescribing patterns more closely followed national recommendations with use of academic detailing

* Changes in prescribing patterns may have resulted from factors other than the intervention

Reference

Study Purpose

Sample, Method, Outcome Measures, and Duration

Simon, S. R., S. R. Majumdar, L. A. Prosser, S. Salem-Schatz, C. Warner, K. Kleinman, I. Miroshnik, and S. B. Soumerai. 2005. Group versus individual academic detailing to improve the use of antihypertensive medications in primary care: A cluster-randomized controlled trial. 118(5): 521-528.

Compare group vs. individual academic detailing to increase diuretic and β-blocker use in hypertension

9,820 patients with newly treated hypertension in a large health maintenance organization

Cluster randomized controlled trial

Rates of diuretic or β-blocker use 1- and 2-years post-intervention; average per-patient cost of antihypertensive medications; rates of hospitalization; per-patient cost of the intervention

3 years

Solomon, D. H., L. Van Houten, R. J. Glynn, L. Baden, K. Curtis, H. Schrager, and J. Avorn. 2001. Academic detailing to improve use of broad-spectrum antibiotics at an academic medical center. 161(15):1897-1902.

Test the efficacy of academic detailing designed to improve the appropriateness of broad-spectrum antibiotic use

51 interns and residents in 17 general medicine, oncology, and cardiology services at a teaching hospital

Randomized controlled trial

Number of days that unnecessary levofloxacin or ceftazidime was administered; rate of unnecessary use of levofloxacin or ceftazidime

18 weeks

Description of Educational Method

Findings

* Individual academic detailing entailed a single meeting of a physician-educator with a clinician to address barriers implementing guidelines

* Small-group academic detailing with physician “idea champions”

* After 1 year, both individual and group academic detailing improved prescribing compliance by 13% over usual care

* By the second year following the interventions, effects had decayed

* Group detailing intervention ($3,500) cost less than individual detailing ($5,000); these intervention costs were of similar magnitude to the medication costs savings

* Peer leaders were trained in academic detailing through practice sessions using role play

* Academic detailing targeted to interns and residents who wrote an unnecessary order

* Length of stay, intensive care unit transfers, readmission rates, and in-hospital death rates were similar in both groups

* 37% reduction in days of unnecessary antibiotic use ( < 0.001)

* Rate of unnecessary use of the 2 target antibiotics reduced by 41% (95% CI: 44-78%, < 0.001)

Reference

Study Purpose

Sample, Method, Outcome Measures, and Duration

Van Eijk, M. E. C., J. Avorn, A. J. Porsius, and A. De Boer. 2001. Reducing prescribing of highly anticholinergic antidepressants for elderly people: Randomised trial of group versus individual academic detailing. 322(7287):654-657.

Compare effect of individual vs. group academic detailing on prescribing of highly anticholinergic antidepressants in elderly people

190 GPs and 37 pharmacists in 21 peer-review groups in the Netherlands

Randomized controlled trial

Incidence rates calculated as the number of elderly people with new prescriptions of highly anticholinergic antidepressants

Wong, R. Y., and P. E. Lee. 2004. Teaching physicians geriatric principles: A randomized control trial on academic detailing plus printed materials versus printed materials only. 59(10):1036-1040.

Compare the effectiveness of academic detailing with printed materials on promoting geriatric knowledge among physicians

19 post-graduate trainees (residents and fellows) in British Columbia, Canada

Randomized controlled trial

Scores on pre and post multiple choice tests

12 months

Description of Educational Method

Findings

* A peer educator met individually with GPs to discuss guidelines and prescribing patterns from the past year

* Group academic detailing sessions were similar to the individual sessions and included group and individual performance data

* Individual and group academic detailing improved the clinical appropriateness of prescribing behavior

* Patients in both groups more likely to receive drugs that were less anticholinergic

15-minute face-to-face educational outreach with a specialist in geriatric medicine

Academic detailing plus printed educational materials demonstrated a trend toward increased knowledge retention (1.1 ± 1.3) compared with printed materials alone (0.0 ± 1.1, = 0.053)

Reference	Study Purpose	Sample, Method, Outcome Measures, and Duration

Crofts, J. F., C. Bartlett, D. Ellis, L. P. Hunt, R. Fox, and T. J. Draycott. 2006. Training for shoulder dystocia: A trial of simulation using low-fidelity and high-fidelity mannequins. 108(6):1477-1485.	* Evaluate the effectiveness of simulation training for shoulder dystocia management * Compare training using a high-fidelity mannequin with training using a traditional mannequin	45 physicians and 95 midwives Randomized controlled trial Pre-and post-training delivery, head-to-body delivery time, use of appropriate actions, force applied, and communication NA
Gerson, L. B., and J. Van Dam. 2003. A prospective randomized trial comparing a virtual reality simulator to bedside teaching for training in sigmoidoscopy. 35(7):569-575.	Compare the exclusive use of a virtual reality endoscopy simulator with bedside teaching for training in sigmoidoscopy	16 internal medicine residents at an academic medical center Prospective randomized controlled trial Score on 5 endoscopic evaluations based on procedure duration, completion, ability to perform retroflexion, and level of patient comfort or discomfort 10 months

Description of Educational Method

Findings

* High-fidelity mannequin training incorporated force perception and occurred at a simulation center

* Low-fidelity mannequin training occurred at local hospitals

* Both high- and low-fidelity simulation were associated with improved successful deliveries pre-and post-training (42.9% vs. 83.3%, < 0.001)

* Training with high-fidelity mannequins was associated with a higher successful delivery rate than the control (94% vs. 72%; OR: 6.53; 95% CI: 2.05-20.81; = 0.02)

Residents had unlimited use of a virtual reality simulator that included

* Simulator group had more difficulty with initial endoscope insertion and endoscope negotiation than control group residents

* Simulator group less likely to be able to perform retroflexion (mean score = 2.9) than the control group residents (mean score = 3.8) ( < 0.001)

Reference	Study Purpose	Sample, Method, Outcome Measures, and Duration
Gordon, D. L., S. B. Issenberg, M. S. Gordon, D. Lacombe, W. C. McGaghie, and E. R. Petrusa. 2005. Stroke training of prehospital providers: An example of simulation-enhanced blended learning and evaluation. 27(2):114-121.	Assess the effectiveness of a stroke course that incorporates didactic lectures, tabletop exercises, small-group sessions, and standardized patients (a type of simulation used to develop communication, interpersonal, and psychomotor skills)	73 pre-hospital paraprofessionals participating in a stroke class Cohort study with a pre- and post-intervention design Scores on a pre- and post-multiple choice test; scores on 4 case scenarios as determined by clinician raters 9 months
Grantcharov, T. P., V. B. Kristiansen, J. Bendix, L. Bardram, J. Rosenberg, and P. Funch-Jensen. 2004. Randomized clinical trial of virtual reality simulation for laparoscopic skills training. 91(2):146-150.	Examine the impact of virtual reality simulation on improvement of psychomotor skills relevant to the performance of laparoscopic cholecystectomy	16 surgical trainees Randomized controlled trial Baseline and post-intervention time to complete the procedure, error score, and economy-of-movement score 2 years
Quinn, F., P. Keogh, A. McDonald, and D. Hussey. 2003. A study comparing the effectiveness of conventional training and virtual reality simulation in the skills acquisition of junior dental students. 7(4):164-169.	Measure the effectiveness of exclusive use of a virtual reality simulator in the training of operative dentistry	20 second-year dental undergraduate students in Dublin, Ireland Randomized controlled trial Assessment on 2 class-1 cavities NA

Description of Educational Method	Findings
Participants evaluated 2 standardized patients before the stroke course and 2 different standardized patients after the stroke course	Mean scores on case scenarios improved significantly (85.4%) from the pre-test (53.9%) ( < 0.0001)
Experimental group participated in 10 repetitions of each of 6 tasks on a virtual reality surgical simulator	* Experimental group performed laparoscopic surgery significantly faster than control group ( = 0.021) * Experimental group showed significantly greater improvement in economy-of-movement scores ( = 0.003)
* Both groups carried out procedures on virtual reality-based training units * The control group received feedback and evaluation from a clinical instructor * The experimental group received real-time feedback and software evaluation from the virtual reality simulator	* Group trained exclusively on the virtual reality simulator scored worse on cavity assessment * 84% of participants did not believe exclusive virtual reality training could replace conventional training

Reference

Study Purpose

Sample, Method, Outcome Measures, and Duration

Schwid, H. A., G. A. Rooke, P. Michalowski, and B. K. Ross. 2001. Screen-based anesthesia simulation with debriefing improves performance in a mannequin-based anesthesia simulator. 13(2):92-96.

Measure the effectiveness of screen-based simulator training with debriefing on the response to simulated anesthetic critical incidents

21 first-year clinical anesthesia residents

Randomized controlled trial

Quantitative scoring on residents’ management of 4 standardized scenarios in a mannequin-based simulator

2 years

Triola, M., H. Feldman, A. L. Kalet, S. Zabar, E. K. Kachur, C. Gillespie, M. Anderson, C. Griesser, and M. Lipkin. 2006.2006. A randomized trial of teaching clinical skills using virtual and live standardized patients. 21(5):424-429.

Assess the educational effectiveness of computer-based virtual patients compared to standardized patients

55 health care providers (RNs and physicians)

Randomized controlled trial

Knowledge and diagnostic scores assessed through clinical vignettes

1 day

Description of Educational Method

Findings

* The simulator used a graphical interface and an automated record system to produce a detailed record of the simulated case

* The program included learning objectives and diagnostic and treatment suggestions

Residents who managed anesthetic problems using a screen-based simulator handled emergencies in a mannequin-based simulator (52.6 ± 9.9) better than residents who studied a handout (43.4 ± 5.9, = 0.004)

* Virtual (web-based) standardized cases were conducted individually at a computer

* Live, standardized patient cases were faculty-facilitated, small-group sessions

* Experimental and control groups scored the same in preparedness to respond ( = 0.61), to screen ( = 0.79), and to care ( = 0.055) for patients

* Improvement in diagnostic abilities were equivalent in both groups ( = 0.054)

Reference	Study Purpose	Sample, Method, Outcome Measures, and Duration

Cannon, D. S., and S. N. Allen. 2000. A comparison of the effects of computer and manual reminders on compliance with a mental health clinical practice guideline. 7(2):196-203.	Evaluate the relative effectiveness of computer and manual reminder systems on the implementation of clinical practice guidelines	78 outpatients and 4 senior clinicians at an urban VA Medical Center Randomized controlled trial Screening rates for mood disorder; completeness of the documentation of diagnostic criteria for patients with a major depressive disorder 9 months
Chen, P., M. J. Tanasijevic, R. A. Schoenenberger, J. Fiskio, G. J. Kuperman, and D. W. Bates. 2003. A computer-based intervention for improving the appropriateness of antiepileptic drug level monitoring. 119(3):432-438.	* Evaluate an automated, activity-based reminder designed to reduce inappropriate ordering behavior * Determine the long-term benefit of continuous implementation of the reminder system	1,646 serum antiepileptic drug (AED) test orders placed at a teaching hospital 2-phase randomized controlled trial Total number of AED orders; proportion of inappropriate orders; proportion of redundant orders 4 years

Description of Educational Method

Findings

* The CaseWalker computer reminder system generated reminders to screen patients for mood disorders

* The CaseWalker system presented and scored diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorders and created progress notes

* Computerized reminders, compared with the paper checklist, resulted in a higher screening rate for mood disorder (86.5% vs. 61%, = 0.008)

* Computerized reminders resulted in a higher rate of complete documentation of diagnostic criteria (100% vs. 5.6%, < 0.001)

Educational messages reminded physicians of clinical guidelines when test orders may have been inappropriate or redundant

* During a 3-month period after implementation, 13% of ordered tests were canceled following computerized reminders; for orders appearing redundant, 27% cancellation rate

* Cancellation rate sustained after 4 years

* 19.5% decrease in AED testing volume despite a 19.3% increase in overall chemistry test volume

Reference

Study Purpose

Sample, Method, Outcome Measures, and Duration

Demakis, J. G., C. Beauchamp, W. L. Cull, R. Denwood, S. A. Eisen, R. Lofgren, K. Nichol, J. Woolliscroft, and W. G. Henderson. 2000. Improving residents’ compliance with standards of ambulatory care: Results from the VA cooperative study on computerized reminders. 284(11):1411-1416.

Examine whether a computerized reminder system operating in multiple VA ambulatory care clinics improves resident physician compliance with standards of ambulatory care

275 resident physicians caring for 12,989 patients at 12 VA medical centers

Clinical trial

Compliance with 13 standards of care, tracked using hospital databases and encounter forms

17 months

Dexter, P. R., S. Perkins, J. Marc Overhage, K. Maharry, R. B. Kohler, and C. J. McDonald. 2001. A computerized reminder system to increase the use of preventive care for hospitalized patients. 345(13):965-970.

Determine the effects of computerized reminders on the rates at which 4 preventive therapies were ordered for inpatients

8 independent staff teams on the general medicine ward and 6,371 patients at an urban hospital

Randomized controlled trial

Ordering rates for pneumococcal vaccination, influenza vaccination, prophylactic heparin, and prophylactic aspirin

18 months

Description of Educational Method

Findings

* All residents attended a 1-hour session to discuss standards of care

* Residents in the experimental group had a training session to introduce them to the reminder system

* Experimental group had statistically significant higher rates of compliance than the control group for all care standards combined (58.8% vs. 53.5%; OR = 1.24; 95% CI)

* Percentage of compliance in the experimental group declined over the course of the study, even though the reminders remained active

* Computer-based order-entry work stations provided clinical decision support through rule-based reminders

* Physicians could accept or reject the reminders

Computerized reminders resulted in higher adjusted ordering rates for

< 0.001)

Reference

Study Purpose

Sample, Method, Outcome Measures, and Duration

Dexter, P. R., F. D. Wolinsky, G. P. Gramelspacher, X. H. Zhou, G. J. Eckert, M. Waisburd, and W. M. Tierney. 1998. Effectiveness of computer-generated reminders for increasing discussions about advance directives and completion of advance directive forms: A randomized, controlled trial. 128(2): 102-110.

* Determine the effects of computer-generated reminders to physicians on the frequency of advanced directive discussions between patients and their primary caregivers

* Determine the effects of computer-generated reminders to physicians on consequent establishment of advanced directives

1,009 patients and 147 primary care physicians at an outpatient general medicine practice

Randomized controlled trial

Discussion about advanced directives determined by patient interview; completed advanced directive forms

9 months

Gill, J. M., and A. M. Saldarriaga. 2000. The impact of a computerized physician reminder and a mailed patient reminder on influenza immunizations for older patients. 72(10):425-430.

Examine the impact of a computer physician reminder in combination with a mailed patient reminder on the rate of influenza vaccinations for older adults

344 patients 65 years and older in a large family medicine office

Retrospective cohort study

Rates of receipt of influenza immunization compared to the year before and after the interventions were implemented

2 years

Description of Educational Method

Findings

* Advanced directive forms placed in the offices of all participating physicians

* Physician-investigators presented the concepts of advanced directives at grand rounds and face-to-face meetings with all physicians

* Experimental group physicians received reminders regarding advanced directive discussions

* Physicians who received reminders discussed advanced directives with more patients (24%) than control group physicians (4%) (OR = 7.7, 95% CI: 3.4-18, < 0.001)

* Experimental group completed advanced directives with 15% of patients compared to 4% completion in control group (OR = 7.0, 95% CI: 2.9-17, < 0.001)

* An electronic patient record system generated automatic reminders to the physician if the immunization had not been completed

* A mailed patient reminder was sent to encourage patients to schedule appointments for the immunization

Influenza immunization rates increase from 50.4% before the interventions to 61.6% after the intervention ( < 0.001)

Reference

Study Purpose

Sample, Method, Outcome Measures, and Duration

Hung, C. S., J. W. Lin, J. J. Hwang, R. Y. Tsai, and A. T. Li. 2008. Using paper chart based clinical reminders to improve guideline adherence to lipid management. 14(5):861-866.

Apply a paper-based clinical reminder to improve the adherence to lipid guidelines

198 patients with coronary heart diseases at a university hospital in Taiwan

Randomized controlled trial

New lipid-lowering therapy subscription; composite result of lipid-lowering therapy or lipid profile checkup

6 months

Iliadis, E. A., L. W. Klein, B. J. Vandenberg, D. Spokas, T. Hursey, J. E. Parrillo, and J. E. Calvin. 1999. Clinical practice guidelines in unstable angina improve clinical outcomes by assuring early intensive medical treatment. 34(6): 1689-1695.

* Determine the influence of clinical practice guidelines on treatment patterns and clinical outcomes in unstable angina

* Determine the effectiveness of guideline reminders on implementing practice guidelines

519 patients with unstable angina at an academic medical center

Interrupted time-series design

Pharmaceutical treatments rendered; diagnostic or therapeutic procedures performed; major cardiac complications

3.5 years

Description of Educational Method

Findings

* In the experimental group, a reminder was stamped in each medical chart

* The reminder indicated the current policy of statin reimbursement

* No difference at the end of 6 months regarding lipid-lowering therapy subscription (OR = 1.70, = 0.248, 95% CI: 0.69-4.19)

* Composite result of lipid-lowering therapy or lipid profile checkup significantly higher in the experimental group (OR = 2.81, = 0.001, 95% CI: 1.57-5.04)

Dissemination of guidelines was ensured by a grand rounds lecture and by posting guideline reminders on all of the experimental group’s charts

* Experimental group patients received β-blockers ( = 0.008), aspirin, and coronary angiography ( = 0.001) earlier than control group patients

* Experimental group patients experienced recurrent angina (29% vs. 54%) and myocardial infarction or death less frequently (3% vs. 9%, = 0.028) than control group patients

Reference

Study Purpose

Sample, Method, Outcome Measures, and Duration

Kitahata, M. M., P. W. Dillingham, N. Chaiyakunapruk, S. E. Buskin, J. L. Jones, R. D. Harrington, T. M. Hooton, and K. K. Holmes. 2003. Electronic human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) clinical reminder system improves adherence to practice guidelines among the University of Washington HIV study cohort. 36(6):803-811.

Examine adherence to HIV practice guidelines before and after implementation of an electronic clinical reminder system

1,204 HIV-infected patients and 41 clinicians (physicians, nurse practitioners, and physician assistants) at an HIV clinic in an academic medical center

Prospective before-and-after study

Proportion of patients in care who undergo (1) monitoring of CD4 cell count, (2) HIV-1 RNA level, (3) prophylaxis for pneumocystis pneumonia, (4) MAC prophylaxis, (5) tuberculin skin testing, (6) cervical Pap smears, and (7) serological screening

5 years

Koide, D., K. Ohe, D. Ross-Degnan, and S. Kaihara. 2000. Computerized reminders to monitor liver function to improve the use of etretinate. 57(1):11-19.

Determine whether computerized reminders during the process of prescribing can improve the use of drugs requiring prior laboratory testing

1,024 prescriptions prescribed for 111 patients at a teaching hospital in Tokyo, Japan

Interrupted time-series design to compare a pre-intervention period and a post-intervention period

Change in proportion of appropriate prescribing; frequency of severe hepatotoxicity between pre- and post-intervention

2 years

Description of Educational Method

Findings

An HIV disease-specific electronic medical record (EMR) enhancement provided clinicians with access to patient-specific information and a clinical reminder system

* More than 90% of patients received CD4 cell count and HIV-1 RNA level monitoring both before and after the intervention

* Patients were significantly more likely to receive prophylaxis (hazard ratio = 3.84; 95% CI, 1.58-9.31; = 0.03), to undergo cervical cancer screening (OR = 2.09; 95% CI, 1.04-4.16; = 0.04), and to undergo serological screening (OR = 1.86; 95% CI, 1.05-3.27; = 0.03) after the reminders were implemented

* Computer alerts when physicians submit inappropriate prescriptions

* The physician can choose to proceed despite the alert or to cancel the prescription

* Appropriate prescriptions increased from 25.9% (127/491) in the pre-intervention period to 66.2% (353/533) in the post-intervention period ( < 0.0001)

Reference

Study Purpose

Sample, Method, Outcome Measures, and Duration

Morgan, M. M., J. Goodson, and G. O. Barnett. 1998. Long-term changes in compliance with clinical guidelines through computer-based reminders. 493-497.

* Evaluate the effectiveness of computer-based reminders in improving compliance with preventive medicine screening guidelines

* Examine the long-term impact of these reminders

24,200 patients and 20 primary care physicians

Ecologic study with a 12-month period prior to introduction of reminders, a 12-month period after the reminders were in place, and 5 years later

Changes in compliance rates for preventive screenings

6 years

Nilasena, D. S., and M. J. Lincoln. 1995. A computer-generated reminder system improves physician compliance with diabetes preventive care guidelines. 640-645.

Evaluate the use of computerized reminders for preventive care in diabetes

35 internal medicine residents

Randomized controlled trial

Average compliance score of all patients seen by a resident (compliance score based on the number of items completed in accordance with the guidelines divided by the total number of items recommended for the patient)

6 months

Description of Educational Method

Findings

* Physicians were given a health maintenance report of preventive screening items at each patient visit

* EMR system was programmed to integrate 13 clinical guidelines

* Mean performance on 10 out of 13 health maintenance measures improved in the year following the integrated guideline report

* 5 years after introduction, improvement in mean performance persisted on 7 out of 13 measures and compliance improved for 1 additional measure

* Diabetes guidelines and encounter forms were incorporated in a computer program that served as a longitudinal patient database for storing clinical information

* The computer program outputs a health maintenance report for the physician, and the report is placed on the patient’s chart

* Clinical alerts about high-risk aspects of the patient’s profile are presented

Compliance with recommended care significantly improved in both the experimental group (38% at baseline, 54.9% at follow-up) and the control group (34.6% at baseline, 51% at follow-up)

Reference

Study Purpose

Sample, Method, Outcome Measures, and Duration

Rhew, D. C., P. A. Glassman, and M. B. Goetz. 1999. Improving pneumococcal vaccine rates. Nurse protocols versus clinical reminders. 14(6):351-356.

Compare the effectiveness of 3 interventions designed to improve the pneumococcal vaccination rate by nurses

3,502 outpatients and 3 nursing teams at a VA ambulatory care clinic

Prospective controlled trial

Vaccination rates

12 weeks

Sarasin, F. P., M. L. Maschiangelo, M. D. Schaller, C. Heliot, S. Mischler, and J. M. Gaspoz. 1999. Successful implementation of guidelines for encouraging the use of beta blockers in patients after acute myocardial infarction. 106(5):499-505.

Assess whether implementation of guidelines increases the prescription of β-blockers recommended for secondary prevention after acute myocardial infarction

355 patients discharged after recovery from myocardial infarction from a teaching hospital in Geneva, Switzerland

Ecologic study with 12-month control period and a 6-month guideline implementation period; a neighboring public teaching hospital was used as a comparison

Prescription patterns for nitrates, β-blockers, combined β-blockers and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, and ACE inhibitors alone; physician attitude survey

18 months

Description of Educational Method

Findings

* Team A nurses received comparative feedback information on their vaccine rates relative to those of Team B nurses

* Team B nurses received reminders to vaccinate but no information on vaccination rates

* Nurses in all groups received clinician reminders

Vaccination rates for comparative feedback group and compliance reminder group were significantly higher than the 5% vaccination rate for the control group ( < 0.001)

* Short advisory statements regarding drug therapies were presented and distributed to all internal medicine and cardiology physicians

* Adherence was encouraged during large group meetings

* Guidelines were placed in the charts of all patients diagnosed with acute myocardial infarction

Implementation of guidelines significantly associated with prescription of β-blockers at discharge (OR = 10; 95% CI: 3.2-33; < 0.001)

Reference

Study Purpose

Sample, Method, Outcome Measures, and Duration

Tang, P. C., M. P. Larosa, C. Newcomb, and S. M. Gorden. 1999. Measuring the effects of reminders for outpatient influenza immunizations at the point of clinical opportunity. 6(2):115-121.

Evaluate the influence of computer-based reminders about influenza vaccination on the behavior of individual clinicians at each clinical opportunity

23 physicians and 629 patients at an internal medicine clinic at an academic medical center

Cohort study

Compliance with a guideline for influenza vaccination behavior for eligible patients as evidenced by ordering of the vaccine, patient counseling, or verification that the patient had received the vaccine elsewhere

4 years

Walker, N. M., K. L. Mandell, and J. Tsevat. 1999. Use of chart reminders for physicians to promote discussion of advance directives in patients with AIDS. 11(3):345-353.

Determine if use of a physician chart reminder improves the rate of physician-initiated discussion and subsequent completion of advanced directives in patients with AIDS

74 patients with AIDS and 10 primary care physicians at a university-based hospital clinic

Controlled trial

Rate of documentation of discussion of advanced directives and rate of completion of an advanced directive

6 months

Description of Educational Method

Findings

Rule-based clinical reminders appeared on the electronic chart of a patient eligible for a recommended intervention

Compliance rates for computer-based record users increased 78% from baseline ( < 0.001) whereas rates for paper record users did not change significantly ( = 0.18)

Chart reminders were placed on medical records of experimental group patients at each clinic visit

* 12 out of 39 (31%) experimental group patients and 3 out of 35 (9%, = 0.02) control group patients discussed advanced directives with physicians

* More subjects in experimental group completed advanced directives (28% vs. 9%, = 0.03)

Reference	Study Purpose	Sample, Method, Outcome Measures, and Duration
Weingarten, S. R., M. S. Riedinger, L. Conner, T. H. Lee, I. Hoffman, B. Johnson, and A. G. Ellrodt. 1994.1994. Practice guidelines and reminders to reduce duration of hospital stay for patients with chest pain: An interventional trial. 120(4):257-263.	Evaluate the acceptability, safety, and efficacy of practice guidelines for patients admitted to coronary care and intermediate care units	375 patients with chest pain and 155 primary physicians at an academic medical center Prospective, controlled clinical trial Patient instability at discharge; patient survival, hospital readmission, and other problems 1-month post-discharge; patient health perceptions; patient rating of the quality of information received at discharge; total costs (direct and indirect) 12 months

Dexter, P. R., S. M. Perkins, K. S. Maharry, K. Jones, and C. J. McDonald. 2004. Inpatient computer-based standing orders vs. physician reminders to increase influenza and pneumococcal vaccination rates: A randomized trial. 292(19):2366-2371.	Determine the effects of computerized physician standing orders compared with physician reminders on inpatient vaccination rates	3,777 general medicine patients discharged during a 14-month period from an urban teaching hospital Randomized controlled trial Vaccine administration 14 months

Description of Educational Method

Findings

Physicians received concurrent, personalized written and verbal reminders regarding a guideline that recommended a 2-day hospital stay for patients with chest pain who were at low risk for complications

* Use of practice guidelines with concurrent reminders was associated with a 50-69% increase in guideline compliance ( < 0.001) and a decrease in length of stay from 3.54 ± 4.1 to 2.63 ± 3.0 days (95% CI)

* Intervention associated with a total cost reduction of $1,397 per patient (CI: $176-$2,618; = 0.03)

* No significant difference found in complication rates, patient health status, or patient satisfaction

* For eligible patients in the standing order group, a computer system automatically produced a vaccine order at the time of discharge; nurses were authorized to administer vaccines in response to standing orders

* For eligible patients in the reminder group, a computer system produced a pop-up message with orders each time a physician began a daily order entry session

* Patients with standing orders received an influenza vaccine significantly more often (42%) than those with reminders (30%) ( < 0.001)

* Patients with standing orders received a pneumococcal vaccine significantly more often (51%) than those with reminders (31%) ( < 0.001)

Reference	Study Purpose	Sample, Method, Outcome Measures, and Duration
Fakhry, S. M., A. L. Trask, M. A. Waller, and D. D. Watts. 2004. Management of brain-injured patients by an evidence-based medicine protocol improves outcomes and decreases hospital charges. 56(3):492-499.	Determine whether management of traumatic brain injury (TBI) patients according to established guidelines would reduce mortality, length of stay, charges, and disability	830 patients with TBI Time trend analysis Mortality; intensive care unit days; total hospital days; total charges; Rancho Los Amigos Scores; Glasgow Outcome Scale scores 9 years

Lobach, D. F. 1996. Electronically distributed, computer-generated, individualized feedback enhances the use of a computerized practice guideline. 493-497.	Test the hypothesis that computer-generated, individualized feedback regarding adherence to care guidelines will significantly improve clinician compliance with guideline recommendations	45 primary care clinicians at a clinic affiliated with an academic medical center Randomized controlled trial Compliance with guideline recommendations for diabetic patients 12 weeks

Description of Educational Method

Findings

* Standard orders were developed based on established guidelines

* Guidelines were implemented by trauma service team leaders

* From the pre-guideline period to the period of high compliance, ICU stay was reduced by 1.8 days ( = 0.021) and hospital stay by 5.4 days ( < 0.001)

* Overall mortality rate was reduced from pre-guideline period (17.8%) to period of high compliance (13.8%), but the result was not statistically significant ( > 0.05)

* On Glasgow Outcome Scale score, 61.5% of patients in high compliance period had a “good recovery” or “moderate disability” compared with 43.3% in pre-guideline period ( < 0.001)

* The study site used a computer-based patient record that runs a computer-assisted management protocol, which incorporates guidelines for diabetes mellitus on paper encounter forms

* E-mail was used to transmit clinical information

Experimental group had significantly higher guideline compliance (35%) than control group (6.1%) ( < 0.01)

Reference	Study Purpose	Sample, Method, Outcome Measures, and Duration

Baker, R., A. Farooqi, C. Tait, and S. Walsh. 1997. Randomised controlled trial of reminders to enhance the impact of audit in general practice on management of patients who use benzodiazepines. 6(1):14-18.	Determine whether reminder cards in medical records enhance the effectiveness of audit and feedback in improving the care of patients with long-term benzodiazepine drugs	742 patients taking a benzodiazepine in 18 general practices in Leicestershire, UK Randomized controlled trial Number of patients whose care complies with each of 5 criteria NA
Cleland, J. A., J. M. Fritz, G. P. Brennan, and J. Magel. 2009. Does continuing education improve physical therapists’ effectiveness in treating neck pain? A randomized clinical trial. 89(1):38-47.	Investigate the effectiveness of an ongoing educational intervention for improving the outcomes for patients with neck pain	19 physical therapists from 11 clinical sites in an integrated health system Randomized controlled trial All patients treated by the physical therapists completed the Neck Disability Index and a pain rating scale before and after the ongoing intervention 7 weeks

Description of Educational Method

Findings

* All practices received a copy of audit criteria justifying “must do” and “should do” priorities

* All practices received feedback comparing their performance to the criteria and to other practices

* The group receiving reminders had the reminders placed in the records of long-term benzodiazepine users

* Number of patients whose care complied with criteria rose after the interventions (OR: 1.46, 95% CI: 1.32-5.21)

* The increase was not statistically greater in practices receiving feedback plus reminders than in those receiving only feedback

* 2-day course on management of neck pain (for both control and experimental groups)

* 2 1.5-hour meetings to review the 2-day course, discuss management of specific cases, and co-treat a patient with neck pain in the therapist’s own setting (experimental group only)

* Patients treated by experimental group therapists experienced significantly greater reduction in disability during study period than those treated by therapists who did not receive ongoing training (mean difference = 4.2 points)

* Pain ratings did not differ for patients treated by the 2 groups

Reference	Study Purpose	Sample, Method, Outcome Measures, and Duration
Fjortoft, N. F., and A. H. Schwartz. 2003. Evaluation of a pharmacy continuing education program: Long-term learning outcomes and changes in practice behaviors. 67(2).	Assess the long-term outcomes from a 3-month, curriculum-based pharmacy CE program on lipid management and hypertension services	46 participants in a pharmacy continuing education course Cohort study with a pre- and post-test design Survey responses assessing participant knowledge on cognitive and psychomotor concepts; time spent providing clinical services 3 months
Gonzales, R., J. F. Steiner, A. Lum, and P. H. Barrett, Jr. 1999. Decreasing antibiotic use in ambulatory practice: Impact of a multidimensional intervention on the treatment of uncomplicated acute bronchitis in adults. 281(16):1512-1519.	Decrease total antibiotic use for uncomplicated acute bronchitis in adults	93 clinicians (physicians, physician assistants, nurse practitioners, RNs) and 4,489 patients in 6 primary care practices Prospective, nonrandomized controlled trial with baseline and study periods Antibiotic prescriptions for uncomplicated acute bronchitis during baseline and study periods 15 months
Hobma, S. O., P. M. Ram, F. van Merode, C. P. M. van der Vleuten, and R. P. T. M. Grol. 2004. Feasibility, appreciation and costs of a tailored continuing professional development approach for general practitioners. 12(4):271-278.	Study the feasibility and appreciation of a tailored continuing professional development (CPD) method in which GPs work in small groups to improve demonstrated deficiencies	43 GPs in the Netherlands Cohort study Participation rates; costs per participant based on time invested by support staff, costs of materials, and time dedicated to the intervention; participant appreciation by self-reported Likert scale 11 months

Description of Educational Method

Findings

* Self-study materials

* 3 live, interactive workshops with case discussion and physical assessment

* Improvements in participant knowledge base and skill were observed between pre- and post-survey administration

* No change in percentage of time spent providing clinical services observed at 6 months or at 12 months

* 2 practices received house- and office-based patient education materials, clinician education, practice-profiling, and academic detailing (full intervention)

* 2 practices received only office-based patient education materials (partial intervention)

* Substantial decline in antibiotic prescription rates at the full intervention site (from 74% to 48%, = 0.003) but no statistically significant change at the control and partial intervention sites

* Compared with control sites, nonantibiotic prescriptions (cough suppressants, analgesics) and return office visits were not significantly different for intervention sites

*Assessment to select aspects of care in need of improvement

* Comparison of assessment scores to standards in a meeting with a trained peer; identification of personal improvement goals

* Program of self-directed learning via 7 small-group meetings with fellow GPs led by trained GP tutors

* Total costs were €117.56 per hour or €2700 per participant

* Video assessment was appreciated more than knowledge tests

* Written feedback was appreciated; oral feedback from trained peer contributed little

* Role of the tutor in group sessions was described as “invaluable”

Reference

Study Purpose

Sample, Method, Outcome Measures, and Duration

Lagerløv, P., M. Loeb, M. Andrew, and P. Hjortdahl. 2000. Improving doctors’ prescribing behaviour through reflection on guidelines and prescription feedback: A randomised controlled study. 9(3):159-165.

Study the effect on the quality of prescribing by a combined intervention of providing individual feedback and deriving quality criteria using guideline recommendations by peer review groups

199 GPs in Norway

Randomized controlled trial

Difference in prescribing behavior between the year before and the year after the intervention; self-report of intent to change disease management approach

21 months

Laprise, R. J., R. Thivierge, G. Gosselin, M. Bujas-Bobanovic, S. Vandal, D. Paquette, M. Luneau, P. Julien, S. Goulet, J. Desaulniers, and P. Maltais. 2009. Improved cardiovascular prevention using best CME practices: A randomized trial. 29(1):16-31.

Determine if after a CME event, practice enablers and reinforcers addressing clinical barriers to preventive care would be more effective in improving adherence to cardiovascular guidelines than a CME event alone

122 GPs

Cluster randomized trial

Proportion of patients undermanaged at baseline who received preventive care action

Description of Educational Method

Findings

* Participation in 2 peer meetings to discuss treatment guidelines and agree on common quality criteria for prescribing

* Prescription feedback provided to each GP

* Improved prescribing behavior in accordance with guideline recommendations

* Group discussion and feedback were well regarded by participants

Nurses visited GPs’ offices once a month to

Practice enablers and reinforcers following CME significantly improved adherence to guidelines compared to CME alone (OR = 1.78; 95% CI: 1.32-2.41)

Reference

Study Purpose

Sample, Method, Outcome Measures, and Duration

Martin, C. M., G. S. Doig, D. K. Heyland, T. Morrison, and W. J. Sibbald. 2004. Multicentre, cluster-randomized clinical trial of algorithms for critical-care enteral and parenteral therapy (ACCEPT). 170(2):197-204.

Test the hypothesis that evidence-based algorithms to improve nutritional support in the intensive care unit (ICU) would improve patient outcomes

499 patients in 14 ICUs over an 11-month period

Cluster randomized controlled trial

Days of enteral nutrition, length of stay in hospital, mortality rates, length of stay in ICU

11 months

Monaghan, M. S., P. D. Turner, M. Z. Skrabal, and R. M. Jones. 2000. Evaluating the format and effectiveness of a disease state management training program for diabetes. 64(2):181-184.

Determine whether a CE approach to disease management training in diabetes mellitus is an effective means of improving both cognitive knowledge and confidence levels of participants

25 pharmacists participating in a training program

Cohort study with pre- and post-intervention design

Scores on a pre- and post-test examination; scores on a 15-item attitudinal questionnaire

14 months

Description of Educational Method

Findings

Evidence-based recommendations were introduced via in-service education sessions, reminders by a local dietitian, posters, and academic detailing

* Patients in intervention ICUs received significantly more days of enteral nutrition (6.7 vs. 5.4 per 10 patient-days; = 0.042), had a significantly shorter mean stay in hospital (25 vs. 35 days; = 0.003), and showed a trend toward reduced mortality (27% vs. 37%; = 0.058) than patients in control ICUs

* Mean stay in the ICU did not differ between control and experimental groups

Traditional lectures and small-group exercises in which participants obtained “hands-on” information related to the pharmacist’s role

* Cognitive post-test scores (68.8%) improved significantly ( < 0.001) over the pre-test scores (49.6%)

* Post-test scores on all 15 attitudinal items significantly improved over pre-test scores ( < 0.012)

Reference

Study Purpose

Sample, Method, Outcome Measures, and Duration

Naunton, M., G. M. Peterson, G. Jones, G. M. Griffin, and M. D. Bleasel. 2004. Multifaceted educational program increases prescribing of preventive medication for corticosteroid induced osteoporosis. 31(3):550-556.

Assess a comprehensive educational program aimed at increasing the use of osteoporosis preventive therapy in patients prescribed long-term oral corticosteroids

All patients admitted to the Royal Hobart Hospital, Australia; all physicians and pharmacists in 2 regions in Australia

Controlled trial

Evaluation feedback from GPs and pharmacists; drug utilization data

17 months

Pronovost, P. J., S. M. Berenholtz, C. Goeschel, I. Thom, S. R. Watson, C. G. Holzmueller, J. S. Lyon, L. H. Lubomski, D. A. Thompson, D. Needham, R. Hyzy, R. Welsh, G. Roth, J. Bander, L. Morlock, and J. B. Sexton. 2008. Improving patient safety in intensive care units in Michigan. 23(2):207-221.

Describe the design and lessons learned from implementing a large-scale patient safety collaborative and the impact of an intervention on teamwork climate in intensive care units

99 ICUs across the state of Michigan over 24 months

Cohort study of ICU teams

Improvements in safety culture scores using a teamwork questionnaire; adherence to evidence-based interventions for ventilated patients

17 months

Description of Educational Method

Findings

All GPs and pharmacies in the study area were sent educational materials and guidelines; received academic detailing visits and reminders; and were provided educational magnets for their patients

* Use of preventive therapy increased from 31% of admitted hospital patients taking corticosteroids to 57% post-intervention ( < 0.0001)

* Significant increase in the use of preventive therapy in the intervention region over the control region ( < 0.01)

* Collaborative project included group meetings and conference calls to share best practices and evaluate performance

* Partnership between hospital leadership, ICU improvement teams, and ICU staff to identify and resolve barriers

* Daily goals communication toolkits for staff education, redesign of work processes, and support of local opinion leaders

* Teamwork climate improved from baseline to post-intervention ( (71) = −2.921, < 0.005)

* Post-intervention: 46% had >60% consensus of good teamwork; pre-intervention: 17% of ICUs had >60% consensus of good teamwork

Reference

Study Purpose

Sample, Method, Outcome Measures, and Duration

Rashotte, J., M. Thomas, D. Grégoire, and S. Ledoux. 2008. Implementation of a two-part unit-based multiple intervention: Moving evidence-based practice into action. 40(2):94-114.

Examine the impact and sustained change of a 2-part, unit-based multiple intervention on the use by pediatric critical care nurses of guidelines for pressure-ulcer prevention

23 pediatric critical care nurses in a Canadian pediatric ICU

Cohort study

Before-and-after measures of frequency of use of interventions as documented in patient records and by observation

6 months

Richards, D., L. Toop, and P. Graham. 2003. Do clinical practice education groups result in sustained change in GP prescribing? 20(2):199-206.

Determine whether a peer-led small-group educational program is an effective tool in changing practice when added to audit and feedback, academic detailing, and educational bulletins

230 GPs in urban New Zealand

Retrospective analysis of a controlled trial

Targeted prescribing for 12 months before and 24 months after education sessions

36 months

Description of Educational Method

Findings

* Part I targeted individuals with independent and group learning activities: laminated pocket guides, bedside decision-making algorithm

* Part II incorporated local and organizational strategies: unit champions, bedside coaching, development of standards

Significant change in implementation of 2 of 11 recommended practices following both interventions ( < 0.001)

* Clinical practice education groups met monthly

* GP-led discussion of evidence-based topics

* Individual prescribing data provided to each GP

* Peer-led small-group discussions had a sustained, positive effect on prescribing behavior that was in addition to any effect of the other educational methods (mean effect size = 1.20)

* Mean duration of significant effect was 14.5 months (CI: 95%)

Reference

Study Purpose

Sample, Method, Outcome Measures, and Duration

Saini, B., L. Smith, C. Armour, and I. Krass. 2006. An educational intervention to train community pharmacists in providing specialized asthma care. 70(5):118-126.

Test the effect of an educational intervention on pharmacist satisfaction and practice behavior as well as patient outcomes

27 pharmacists providing asthma care to 102 patients in Australia

Controlled trial

Participant reactions gauged using a questionnaire; asthma severity; peak flow indices; medication costs per patient

6 months

Schneeweiss, S., and S. Ratnapalan. 2007. Impact of a multifaceted pediatric sedation course: Self-directed learning versus a formal continuing medical education course to improve knowledge of sedation guidelines. 9(2):93-100.

Evaluate the effectiveness of a sedation course in improving physicians’ knowledge of pediatric procedural sedation guidelines, relative to self-directed learning

48 emergency staff physicians, fellows, and residents in a pediatric emergency department

Randomized controlled trial

Scores on multiple choice pre- and post-intervention exam

2 weeks

Description of Educational Method

Findings

Self-directed learning, small-group learning, and workshops with case studies in addition to asthma care training provided in a lecture

* Significant reduction in asthma severity in the experimental group ( < 0.001) vs. the control group

* In the experimental group, peak flow indices improved from 82.7% at baseline to 87.4% ( < 0.0010) at the final visit

* Significant reduction in defined daily dose of albuterol used by patients ( < 0.015)

* The 4-hour course consisted of small-group and didactic instruction with case studies

* The self-directed group received a package with learning objectives, guidelines, a pocket card, and reading materials

Control group’s median exam score (83.3%; range: 75.8-96.5%) was significantly higher ( < 0.0001) than median exam score of the experimental group (73.3%; range: 43.5-86.6%)

Reference	Study Purpose	Sample, Method, Outcome Measures, and Duration
Scholes, D., L. Grothaus, J. McClure, R. Reid, P. Fishman, C. Sisk, J. E. Lindenbaum, B. Green, J. Grafton, and R. S. Thompson. 2006. A randomized trial of strategies to increase screening in young women. 43(4):343-350.	Evaluate an intervention to increase guideline-recommended screening	23 primary care clinics; 3,509 sexually active females ages 14-25 Randomized controlled trial Post-intervention testing rates 27 months
Young, J. M., C. D’Este, and J. E. Ward. 2002. Improving family physicians’ use of evidence-based smoking cessation strategies: A cluster randomization trial. 35(6):572-583.	Evaluate a multifaceted, practice-based intervention involving audit, feedback, and academic detailing to improve family physician smoking cessation advice	60 family physicians in Australia Cluster randomized controlled trial Delivery of smoking cessation advice determined by patient recall, physician report, and medical record audit; utilization of nicotine replacement therapies 6 months
NOTE: NA = Not applicable.

Description of Educational Method

Findings

The enhanced guideline group used clinic-based opinion leaders, individual measurement and feedback, exam room reminders, and chart prompts

* Enhanced intervention did not significantly affect testing (OR = 1.08; 95% CI: 0.92-1.26; = 0.31)

* Testing rates increased among women making preventive care visits in intervention vs. control clinics

* Audit and feedback conducted by a medical peer

* Medical record prompt in the form of Post-it notes on medical records

* Provision of additional resources for physicians and patients

* Significant increase in the experimental group over the control group in the use of nicotine replacement gum ( = 0.0002) and patches ( = 0.0056)

* No significant differences between groups in smokers’ recall or documentation in medical record of specific cessation advice

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Today in the United States, the professional health workforce is not consistently prepared to provide high quality health care and assure patient safety, even as the nation spends more per capita on health care than any other country. The absence of a comprehensive and well-integrated system of continuing education (CE) in the health professions is an important contributing factor to knowledge and performance deficiencies at the individual and system levels.

To be most effective, health professionals at every stage of their careers must continue learning about advances in research and treatment in their fields (and related fields) in order to obtain and maintain up-to-date knowledge and skills in caring for their patients. Many health professionals regularly undertake a variety of efforts to stay up to date, but on a larger scale, the nation's approach to CE for health professionals fails to support the professions in their efforts to achieve and maintain proficiency.

Redesigning Continuing Education in the Health Professions illustrates a vision for a better system through a comprehensive approach of continuing professional development, and posits a framework upon which to develop a new, more effective system. The book also offers principles to guide the creation of a national continuing education institute.

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6. Synthesize
Summary of Literature Review Table

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Literature Review Process (With Example)
ENGLISH LITERATURE CHART|| COMPLETE#HISTORY OF #englishliterature#literatureshortsbyhridyesh#english
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Literature review in research

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Five tips for developing useful literature summary tables for writing
Literature reviews offer a critical synthesis of empirical and theoretical literature to assess the strength of evidence, develop guidelines for practice and policymaking, and identify areas for future research.1 It is often essential and usually the first task in any research endeavour, particularly in masters or doctoral level education. For effective data extraction and rigorous synthesis ...
How to Write a Literature Review
Examples of literature reviews. Step 1 - Search for relevant literature. Step 2 - Evaluate and select sources. Step 3 - Identify themes, debates, and gaps. Step 4 - Outline your literature review's structure. Step 5 - Write your literature review.
Academic Guides: Common Assignments: Literature Review Matrix
Literature Review Matrix. As you read and evaluate your literature there are several different ways to organize your research. Courtesy of Dr. Gary Burkholder in the School of Psychology, these sample matrices are one option to help organize your articles. These documents allow you to compile details about your sources, such as the foundational ...
PDF Writing A Literature Review and Using a Synthesis Matrix
One way that seems particularly helpful in organizing literature reviews is the synthesis matrix. The synthesis matrix is a chart that allows a researcher to sort and categorize the different arguments presented on an issue. Across the top of the chart are the spaces to record sources, and along the side of the chart are the spaces to record ...
How To Structure A Literature Review (Free Template)
Demonstrate your knowledge of the research topic. Identify the gaps in the literature and show how your research links to these. Provide the foundation for your conceptual framework (if you have one) Inform your own methodology and research design. To achieve this, your literature review needs a well-thought-out structure.
Literature Reviews
Structure. The three elements of a literature review are introduction, body, and conclusion. Introduction. Define the topic of the literature review, including any terminology. Introduce the central theme and organization of the literature review. Summarize the state of research on the topic. Frame the literature review with your research question.
(PDF) Five tips for developing useful literature summary tables for
in the summary tables (see ﬁgure 1) demonstrates to. the readers that a robust method of data extraction and. synthesis has been followed. Tip 5: create your person alised template for lit ...
How To Write A Literature Review (+ Free Template)
Okay - with the why out the way, let's move on to the how. As mentioned above, writing your literature review is a process, which I'll break down into three steps: Finding the most suitable literature. Understanding, distilling and organising the literature. Planning and writing up your literature review chapter.
PDF Five tips for developing useful literature summary tables for writing
the needs of the individuals' review. For example, for a review about the effectiveness of healthcare interven-tions, a literature summary table must include infor-mation about the intervention, its type, content timing, duration, setting, effectiveness, negative consequences, and receivers and implementers' experiences of its usage.
What is a Literature Review?
A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research. There are five key steps to writing a literature review: Search for relevant literature. Evaluate sources. Identify themes, debates and gaps.
Free Literature Review Template (Word Doc & PDF)
The literature review template includes the following sections: Before you start - essential groundwork to ensure you're ready. The introduction section. The core/body section. The conclusion /summary. Extra free resources. Each section is explained in plain, straightforward language, followed by an overview of the key elements that you ...
How to write a superb literature review
The best proposals are timely and clearly explain why readers should pay attention to the proposed topic. It is not enough for a review to be a summary of the latest growth in the literature: the ...
Using Research & Synthesis Tables
This is an example of a research table, in which you provide a basic description of the most important features of the studies, articles, and other items you discover in your research.The table identifies each item according to its author/date of publication, its purpose or thesis, what type of work it is (systematic review, clinical trial, etc.), the level of evidence it represents (which ...
Research Guides: Literature Reviews: Literature Review Table
Literature Review Table. Literature Review Table Template. Peabody Librarians have created a sample literature review table to use to organize your research. Feel free to download this file and use or adapt as needed. << Previous: Literature Reviews Webinar Recording; Next: Writing Like an Academic >>
5. The Literature Review
A literature review may consist of simply a summary of key sources, but in the social sciences, a literature review usually has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis, often within specific conceptual categories.A summary is a recap of the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling, of that information in a way that ...
What is a Literature Review? How to Write It (with Examples)
A literature review is a critical analysis and synthesis of existing research on a particular topic. It provides an overview of the current state of knowledge, identifies gaps, and highlights key findings in the literature. 1 The purpose of a literature review is to situate your own research within the context of existing scholarship ...
Organize Key Findings
This is called a review matrix. When you create a review matrix, the first few columns should include (1) the authors, title, journal, (2) publication year, and (3) purpose of the paper. The remaining columns should identify important aspects of each study such as methodology and findings. Click on the image below to view a sample review matrix.
Literature Review Example (PDF + Template)
If you're working on a dissertation or thesis and are looking for an example of a strong literature review chapter, you've come to the right place.. In this video, we walk you through an A-grade literature review from a dissertation that earned full distinction.We start off by discussing the five core sections of a literature review chapter by unpacking our free literature review template.
10. Organizing: Literature Review Matrix
A literature review matrix is a tool used by researchers to analyze and synthesize information from various sources relevant to their research topic. It typically takes the form of a table or chart, where rows represent different studies or articles, and columns display key information such as research methodologies, findings, and key themes.
START HERE
Steps to Completing a Literature Review. Find. Conduct searches for relevant information. Evaluate. Critically review your sources. Summarize. Determine the most important and relevant information from each source, theories, findings, etc. Synthesize. Create a synthesis matrix to find connections between resources, and ensure your sources ...
Synthesize
A synthesis matrix helps you record the main points of each source and document how sources relate to each other. After summarizing and evaluating your sources, arrange them in a matrix or use a citation manager to help you see how they relate to each other and apply to each of your themes or variables. By arranging your sources by theme or ...
Literature Review Chart
This resource includes a Word template for students to organize their research and thoughts in the process of developing a five-source mini-literature review. Students asked to write a literature review for the first time typically struggle to move beyond "book report" style writing and toward literature synthesis. The template builds on a chart developed by the library at California State ...
Literature Review Tables
Evidence on the effectiveness of continuing education (CE) and CE methods was identified through a literature review.Although nonexhaustive, the review included a comprehensive search of the Research and Development Resource Base (RDRB), a bibliographic database of more than 18,000 articles from fields including CE, knowledge translation, interprofessional literature, and faculty development.

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Literature Review on Climate Change Impacts on Biodiversity:

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