literature types of stories

The 9 Types of Stories and How to Master Them

by Joe Bunting | 2 comments

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How do you write a best-selling novel or an award-winning screenplay? You might say, great writing or unique characters or thrilling conflict. But so much of writing a great story is knowing  and mastering the type of story you're trying to tell.

What are the types of stories? And how do you use them to tell a great story?

In this article, we're going to cover the nine types of stories, share which tend to become best-sellers, and share the hidden values that help you master each type.

But first, what do I mean by “types of stories”?

Definition of Story Types

As stories have evolved for thousands of years, they began to fall into patterns called story types. These types tend to operate on the same underlying values. They also share similar structures, characters, and what Robert McKee calls obligatory scenes.

But Wait, Do Story Types Really Exist?

First, I want to address some discomfort you might be feeling with this idea. If you think that stories are magical and mystical, and the idea of putting them in a box feels terrible to you, I just want to say, I get that. I feel like that about stories, too!

You see, there are two ways you can figure out the patterns that stories take—the different types of stories.

You can start with stories themselves: looking through hundreds or even thousands until you get to four, seven, twelve, or even thirty-six master plots. This is what Christopher Booker did with his excellent guide  The Seven Basic Plots: Why We Tell Stories , and you can get breakdowns of each of his types here .

And that can be helpful, certainly, but what about stories that are a little strange, genre-breaking, or out of the box?

Do they not have a “type”?

The other way you can figure out the types of stories is by going deeper, to the underlying reasons humans tell stories in the first place, the reason we've been telling stories for thousands of years, all the way back to the campfire stories our ancestors told each other.

Why do we tell stories? The reason humans have always told stories (and always will) is because we want something.

Maybe we want something as simple as to stay alive. This was one reason our long-ago ancestors told stories about surviving attacks from ferocious beasts.

Maybe we want love or belonging, so we tell great love stories about couples destined (or doomed) to be together.

Maybe we want to become the best version of ourselves. We tell stories about how people have overcome adversity, even pushed back against their narrow-minded communities, to fully self-actualize.

Or maybe we want to tell stories about what it's like to transcend, to go beyond yourself and your circumstances and serve the good of the whole community, the whole world, and so we tell stories about sacrifice and great heroism.

In other words, basic story types arise from values, from the things humans want, and the great thing is, there has been a lot of research into the values humans find to be universal.

Story Types Are Defined by 6 Values

Great, bestselling stories are about values.

Value Definition

Value, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, is the regard that something is held to deserve; the importance, worth, or usefulness of something.

In other words, a value is something you admire, something you want. If you value something, it means you  think it’s good .

Values in Stories

Here are some examples of things you might value:

• Organization
• Environment
• Productivity

This could easily become a never-ending list.

But if you think about it, every value can be distilled to six essential human values. Building off of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, these values are as follows (credit to Robert McKee and Shawn Coyne for introducing me to these concepts):

• Survival from Nature. The value of life. Because if you don’t have your life, you don’t have much.
• Survival from Others. Surviving crime, other people, even monsters, you could say.
• Love/Community. The value of human connection.
• Esteem. The value of your status and hierarchy within a community.
• Personal Growth. The value of reaching your potential.
• Transcendence. The value of going beyond yourself to discover a larger purpose.

Once you distill these values, you can turn these values into scales, because these values are usually in conflict with their opposite.

• Survival from Nature > Life vs. Death
• Survival from Others > Life vs. Fate Worse than Death
• Love/Community >  Love vs. Hate
• Esteem >  Accomplishment vs. Failure
• Personal Growth > Maturity vs. Immaturity
• Transcendence > Right vs. Wrong

In fact, it is the conflict between these values that generate the movement and change that makes the story work.

These are the same values that drive good storytelling.

If you take them a step further you can take these value scales and map them to different types of stories—or plot types. Here's how it works:

• Life vs. Death: Adventure, Action Stories
• Life vs. Fate Worse than Death: Thriller, Horror, Mystery Stories
• Love vs. Hate: Romance/Love Stories
• Accomplishment vs. Failure : Performance/Sports Stories
• Maturity vs. Immaturity: Coming of Age stories
• Right vs. Wrong: Temptation/Morality Stories

These plot types transcend literary genre . You can have a sci-fi love story , a historical thriller, a fantasy performance story, a mystery romance story, or even a young adult adventure story. (For more, check out my guide on literary genres here .)

Your story’s plot type will determine much of your story: the scenes you must include, the conventions and tropes you employ, your characters (including protagonists, side characters, and antagonists), and more.

How does that work practically? Let's look at a couple of examples:

Adventure Story Type Example

Let's look at a classic example, The Hobbit , one of the best-selling novels of all time, by J.R.R. Tolkien.

When you're trying to understand the type  of story you're trying to tell, the first question to ask is, “What value scale do a majority of the scenes move on?”

The question constantly coming up in The Hobbit is this: “Is Bilbo Baggins going to survive the run-ins with the spiders and trolls and orcs, or is he not going to survive?”

The Hobbit , at its core, is an adventure story, and that means that a majority of the scenes move on the Life vs. Death Scale.

While there are certainly scenes that fall on the Right vs. Wrong and Maturity vs. Naïveté scales, it is the Life vs. Death scale that most of the scenes move on.

Plot Type: The 9 Types of Stories

Now that we've looked at an example, let's break down each of the ten main story types and talk about how they work.

Each of these plot types has typical archetypes for their inciting incidents and main event/climax. While you can certainly tweak or even re-work these archetypes, it's best to understand how they work and ensure that your new version of the event can bring out as much of the conflict as the typical method.

For more on this, check out our respective guides on inciting incidents and climaxes .

These ideas are not new, and I also have to acknowledge a huge debt to the story theorists who have gone before me, especially Blake Snyder, author of Save the Cat ; Robert McKee, author of Story ; and Shawn Coyne, author of Story Grid .

1. Adventure Story Type

Adventure Plot Type Definition: Adventure stories are primarily driven by a MacGuffin, the thing everyone is looking for, whether that is an ancient relic, a kidnapped character, or some other item, and often ends in a final showdown with an antagonist over who can control the MacGuffin.

Value : Life vs. Death

Conflict source: External

Inciting Incident Archetype(s): The Quest for the MacGuffin. A MacGuffin is an object, place, or (sometimes) person of great importance to the characters of the story, and the thing that drives the plot. For example, the ring in Lord of the Rings , the horcruxes in Harry Potter, or the ark of the covenant in Indiana Jones . Most adventure plot types revolve around a MacGuffin, and the inciting incident involves introducing the MacGuffin and its importance.

Main Event: Final showdown with the bad guys (while trying to get the MacGuffin).

Examples: The Odyssey , The Lord of the Rings , The Hobbit ,  Ready Player One , Alice in Wonderland

Note:  Most (but not all) hero's journey stories fit this type, as well as any “voyage and return” type plots.

Need some inspiration? See our full guide on How to Write Adventure Stories and check out our best adventure book ideas here .

2. Action Story Type

Action Plot type definition: Action stories are primarily driven by an antagonist, whether that is a person or some kind of force, and often ends in a final showdown with the antagonist.

Inciting Incident Archetype(s):

• Great Crime Against Me. Many action plots begin with some kind of wrong done to the protagonist, usually but not always by the chief antagonist. This begins the action of the story as the protagonist seeks to right this wrong or, often, get revenge.
• The Emergence of a Great Evil. An alternative inciting incident involves the emergence of some kind of great evil. This may be another character like an antagonist, a natural force or disaster, or some kind of other creature. The emergence of this evil thing creates a need for the protagonist to respond urgently.

Main event: Showdown with the Bad Guy

Examples: The Count of Monte Cristo , Hunger Games

3. Horror Story Type

Horror Plot type definition: Horror stories are primarily driven by some kind of monstrous antagonist. The antagonist sometimes chooses to target the main character(s) after they commit some kind of taboo, and the story often ends in a final showdown, during which the protagonist is, at some point, at the mercy of the antagonist.

Value : Life vs. Fate Worse than Death

• Forbidden Object/Act. Many horror stories begin with the main character doing some kind of forbidden thing, whether stealing a forbidden object or causing the death of someone else, which leads to a reprisal, often in the form of a monstrous creature, being, or person.
• “Monster in the House.” This plot type, coined by Blake Snyder of Save the Cat , begins when the characters are trapped within some kind of space—often a house but potentially any limited amount of space like a city or even the world as a whole—with some kind of monstrous creature, being, or person.

Main Event:  Confrontation of the Monster

Examples:   The Shining ,  The Exorcist ,  The Haunting of Hill House ,  The Grudge, Candyman , Macbeth 

Need some inspiration? Check out our best horror book ideas  or learn how to write an horror story .

4. Mystery Story Type

Mystery Plot type definition: Mystery stories begin with some kind of crime and are driven by the investigation into that crime and the restoration of “justice.” They feature red herrings in which the audience is led to believe another character is the criminal rather than the true antagonist, and the story usually ends with some kind of confession.

Value : Life vs. Fate Worse than Death (in the sense of a restoration of Justice)

Inciting Incident Archetype(s): Show Me the Body. All mystery plot types contain an inciting incident in which a crime is discovered, whether it's a literal dead body, a theft, or some other type of crime.

Main Event: The Confession. The antagonist confesses to the crime and justice, the power of life over death, is restored.

Examples: The Inspector Gamache  series , Harry Potter  and the Chamber of Secrets  (as a subplot)

Need some inspiration? Check out our best mystery book ideas  or learn how to write a mystery novel here .

5. Thriller Story Type

Thriller Plot type definition: Thriller stories begin with some kind of crime and are driven by the investigation into that crime and the restoration of “justice.” They typically feature especially monstrous or evil antagonists and can be full of danger and psychological tension, almost a cross between horror and mystery with a touch of action.  The story often ends in a final showdown, during which the protagonist is, at some point, at the mercy of the antagonist.

Value : Life vs. a Fate Worse than Death

The thriller plot type is closely related to the Action and Mystery plot types. Both begin with some kind of crime, contain investigative elements, and climax with the hero at the mercy of the villain.

However, what makes it unique is there is always a horror element, a sense that this is somehow worse, more monstrous, than your average crime.

It's a fine line, though, and many story theories, like those from Robert McKee, make no distinction between the Thriller with the Action plot types.

Inciting Incident Archetype(s): Show me the (Monstrously Brutalized) Body. As with the mystery plot type (below), Thriller plot types contain an inciting incident in which a crime is discovered, whether it's a literal dead body, a theft, or some other type of crime. However, with thriller, the crime has a horror feel to it, the crime being particularly monstrous, brutal, etc.

Main Event: Hero at the Mercy of the Villain. In the climactic scene, the main character is caught by the antagonist and at their mercy, showing their (temporary) dominance. Depending on the story arc, the protagonist may reverse their situation or succumb to the antagonist.

Need some inspiration? Check out our best thriller book ideas  or learn how to write an thriller novel .

6.Love Story/Romance Type

Love Plot type definition: While Love Stories are typically about a romantic relationship, they are one of the broadest and most flexible plot types, and can focus on the power of either belonging or isolation and a protagonist's relationships with friends, family members, or even their community. Stories in which the couple are not together at the start of the story usually begin with some kind of “meet cute” in which they connect in some kind of emotional charged way, regardless of whether that meeting leads to intrigue or repulsion. Stories in which the couple begin the story together often involve some kind of betrayal, during which the relationship is tested. There are typically rivals to the relationship, whether other romantic interests, love triangles, or other obstacles standing in the way of the couple's relationship, and they often end with a “proof of love” in which one goes to great lengths to dramatically prove their love in some way.

Value : Love vs. Hate

Inciting Incident Archetype(s):  Meet Cute OR We Should Break Up. Love plots either begin with the couple meeting or breaking up/getting into some kind of conflict. The meet cute inciting incident involves the couple meeting in some unexpected, comedic, and/or often shambolic way, often while having extreme distaste for each other at the outset.

Main Event: Proof of Love. After some kind of separation, the protagonist must overcome obstacles to prove their love to the other.

Examples: A Midsummer Night's Dream ,  Romeo and Juliet ,  10 Things I Hate About You and most Rom-coms

Need some inspiration? Here's our comprehensive guide to How to Write a Love Story and check out our best love story ideas here .

For more on writing or editing a love story , start check by checking out our definitive guide on how to write a love story here . Then watch this coaching video between me and an author writing a love story.

7. Performance/Sports Story Type

Performance Plot type definition: Performance/sports stories revolve around some kind of competition, and deal with the main character(s) working to achieve success and esteem within the eyes of their community as well as dealing with the potential and consequences of failure.

Value : Accomplishment vs. Failure

The core value of the performance story type is esteem, which is all about looking good in front of your community, usually after accomplishing a great feat or winning a widely recognized competition.

Inciting Incident Archetype(s):  Entry into the Big Tournament. Performance stories—whether the performance medium is sports, music, art, or some other avenue—all contain an inciting incident where the characters enter a major tournament, performance, or competition. This competition is usually an actual event (e.g. the Olympics, the state championship) but may be a less formal competition.

Main Event: The Big Tournament. After preparing for the big event by overcoming smaller obstacles throughout the story, the protagonist faces their challenger in the final competition.

Examples: Miracle , Cobra Kai , Ghost , Hamilton

8. Coming of Age Story Type

Coming of Age Plot type definition: Coming of Age stories can be about characters of all ages who are focused on either self-actualizing and reaching their full potential or diverting from their full potential and becoming a worse version of themselves. They may deal with issues related to the characters maturity or their worldview, and typically involve one or more mentors.

Value : Maturity vs. Immaturity

Conflict source: Internal

• Here There Be Dragons (Confronting the Unknown). Coming of age plots often begin with an inciting incident involving something unknown, something that is outside of the protagonist’s current worldview. This throws the protagonist into confusion and shows them how much they must learn about the world.
• The Principal's Office. Alternatively, the character may get into trouble early on, often in a school setting. This forces the character to begin the process of reflecting on his or her life and making changes.

Main Event: The Revelation. In a moment of crisis, the protagonist has a major worldview revelation, leading them to see the world in a new, more sophisticated way.

Examples: How to Train Your Dragon , Catcher in the Rye ,  Good Will Hunting ,   Harry Potter  and the Sorcerer’s Stone , The Ugly Duckling

Need inspiration? Here's the Complete Guide to How to Write a Coming of Age Story and see our Coming of Age Writing Prompts for some ideas to get you started. 

9. Temptation/Morality Story Type

Temptation Plot type definition: Temptation/Morality stories begin with some kind of battle between a characters internal dilemma toward right and wrong, what they desire to do but which is harmful to them or their community versus what they don't want to do but might benefit themselves and their community. There are typically “deals with the devil” in which the character violates their own conscience, and they often experience some kind of judgment.

Value : Right vs. Wrong

The value of right vs. wrong here is not “The Good Guys” vs. “The Bad Guys.” That plot type is usually action. Instead, the evil is within the character, and they must choose whether to do the good, self-sacrificial thing or the selfish, evil thing.

Inciting Incident Archetype(s):  Let's Make a Deal. Often temptation stories begin with a proverbial “deal with the devil,” in which the character is tempted to do something they think is relatively harmless but might give them great reward.

Main Event: Judgement Day. Facing the consequences of their actions, the main character must either embrace their consequences and change or continue to attempt to escape them and face damnation.

Examples: Wall Street , A Christmas Carol

Bonus Type: Combine Them!

While all great stories are driven by values and the conflict between them, many stories combine plot types and/or value scales in unique ways, creating new plot types of their own.

Often this approach works best with either longer works, epics that combine many arcs into one story, or shorter works, like short stories, which may not contain all the elements of longer, more established plot types.

However, combining or rearranging plot types is considered advanced. Consider before you attempt to come up with your own completely unique plot type, especially if you are a new writer, as you risk the story not working or getting lost in the plot and failing to finish.

Remember: working with an established plot type requires just as much creativity and flair for coming up with dramatic situations as invention your own.

While most popular stories will fit within the ten plot types above, you could also get more specific by exploring subtypes.

Subtypes are more specific plots with unique conventions, tropes, and characters. Examples of subtypes include revenge plots, a subtype of action plots; heist plots, a subplot of adventure stories; or obsession love stories.

Most stories that work will fall somewhere into the above plot types, and all  stories that work will fall into the six value scales.

Want to learn more about plot types and story structure? My #1 Amazon best-selling book The Write Structure explores the hidden structures behind bestselling and award-winning stories. If you want to learn more about how to write a great story, by mastering storytelling musts like the exposition literary definition, you can get the book for a limited time low price. Click here to get The Write Structure ($5.99).

These 9 Types of Stories Work for Any Story Arc

Great novels, films, memoirs, and plays come in many shapes, but researchers from the University of Vermont have identified six primary shapes, all of which we talk about in detail in our story arcs guide . Here are the six:

• Rags to Riches. Happy ending story moving from negative to positive value.
• Riches to Rags. Tragic story moving from positive to negative value.
• Man in a hole. Happy ending story moving from positive to negative and back to positive.
• Icarus. Tragic story moving from negative to positive and back to negative value.
• Cinderella. Happy ending story starting negative, moving to positive, back to negative, and finally to positive again.
• Oedipus. Tragic story starting positive, moving to negative, back to positive, and finally to negative at the end.

Again, we have a full guide on the six story arcs, complete with plot diagrams, here .

These arcs are independent of plot type.

You can have a tragic Icarus mystery story where the villain gets away. You can have a Cinderella horror story where the monster starts out bad, then seems to be nearly defeated, only to come back stronger and then finally get destroyed in the end.

Even though certain genres and plot types have tendencies  toward specific plotlines, the types work independently of arc. Choose any combination of the arcs and plot types, and it will still work.

2 Tips About How to Use These Plot Types

How do you actually write a book with these plot types in mind? Follow these two tips:

1. First, Know Your Values

Bad books, stories that don't  work, don’t know what their values are.

Or they’re trying to have every single value possible.

You can’t do that if you want to tell a great story. You have to choose! If you want to master the type of story you're trying to tell, start with finding the story's value.

Here's a video that shows how one author figured out their plot type by diving into the value at the center of their story.

2. Focus on Conflict Between Values

You've heard your stories need conflict, but that doesn't mean more arguments and car chases.

The kind of conflict your stories need more  of is between values , and the way to master any  type of story is to put the story's main value in conflict with its opposite.

If you're writing an adventure story, that means you need to have life and death moments.

If you're writing a thriller , you need to have moments of life vs. fate worse  than death.

If you're writing a love story, you need to have as many moments of negative love, of anger, disillusion, and even hatred, as you do love.

If you're writing a sports story, there have to be as many moments of near failure, or actual  failure, as there are of success.

If you're writing a coming-of-age story, then you need to include moments where the growing maturity of the character is put into conflict with its opposite, immaturity.

And finally, if you're writing a temptation or morality story, then you need moments of temptation—where the character genuinely considers if they should take actions they know are wrong because of how it could benefit them or solve a greater problem.

So how about you? What type of story are you trying to tell?  Let us know in the comments .

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Put the types of story to use now with the following creative writing exercise .

First, choose one of the story scales above.

Then, outline the inciting incident scene or another scene in which your protagonist is faced with the negative value in that scale.

Finally, set a timer for fifteen minutes . Write as much of your scene as you can.

When your time is up, post your scene in the Pro Practice Workshop . And when you're done, check out others who have shared their scenes. Let them know what you think!

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Joe Bunting

Joe Bunting is an author and the leader of The Write Practice community. He is also the author of the new book Crowdsourcing Paris , a real life adventure story set in France. It was a #1 New Release on Amazon. Follow him on Instagram (@jhbunting).

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WSJ Bestselling author, founder of The Write Practice, and book coach with 14+ years experience. Joe Bunting specializes in working with Action, Adventure, Fantasy, Historical Fiction, How To, Literary Fiction, Memoir, Mystery, Nonfiction, Science Fiction, and Self Help books. Sound like a good fit for you?

While the vast majority of mystery stems from crime, I must nitpick that a “crime” is not necessary for a mystery, only a very puzzling question. I remember a few years ago a children’s book about a classroom box where every day a different student had to come up with something to put in it starting with a given letter of the alphabet (the book covered the student who had to put an “n” in the box) won a major mystery award. Historical mysteries (What happened to the ____ people? Where is Amelia Earhart?) also do not require a crime to incite the sleuth.

Such a great point. Thanks for sharing this clarifying point.

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• Literary Terms
• Definition & Examples
• When & How to Tell a Story

I. What is a Story?

A story or narrative is a connected series of events told through words (written or spoken), imagery (still and moving), body language, performance, music, or any other form of communication. You can tell a story about anything, and the events described can be real or imaginary; covering both fiction and nonfiction; and leaving no topic, genre, or style untouched. There are stories about all things and all times; past, present and future. Whenever you’re telling somebody about a series of events, you are telling a story, no matter what the subject nor when they occurred. As such, stories are of great value to human culture, and are some of the oldest, most important parts of life.

Aside from being a part of every single type of literature, stories are at the foundation of creativity and part of just about everything we do, particularly when it comes to entertainment, recording, and reporting of any form. So, they are shared in all different ways—from oral and written storytelling or journalism; to TV, film, and radio; to fine arts, stage performance and music; and so on.

In one form or another, stories have been a part of human culture and society for thousands of years—likely since man has existed! They’re found in the past and present of people from every culture, religion, and ethnicity; in every region and language. So, all of that considered, the concept of a story is actually a bit difficult to fully cover or describe. Some would say that life is made up of a series of never-ending stories. From a simple commute to school or work, to all the events of our lives, everything has a story.

II. Examples of Story

Here are a few examples of the same story told different ways.

You can sometimes tell a story in just one line:

The girl met the love of her life and lived happily until the day she died.

Or, it could be more detailed:

When the girl was 22, she met the love of her life. It was her last day of college, and when she saw him, she knew he was the one she was going to be with forever—and the boy knew the same. After graduation, the boy and the girl ran away together to elope. They lived together happily for the rest of their days.

Now really, even the second example is just a tiny story. We can tell it in all kinds of ways and of all different lengths, from one line to a series of novels. After all, if the couple lived an entire lifetime together, there would be countless events that together make up the story of their life.

III. Types of Stories

The range of types of stories is pretty much endless. For that reason, this article will divide stories into two very broad categories—fiction and nonfiction. Within each there are a huge number of possibilities in terms of subject matter, genre, type of delivery (oral, written, performance), narrative style, and so on.

Fiction stories

Fiction stories are based on made-up or imaginary events. There are dozens upon dozens of types of fiction stories and genres , including but not at all limited to:

• Fairy tales
• Adventure stories
• Historical fiction
• Science-fiction
• Love stories
• Horror stories
• Ghost stories
• Bedtime stories

Non-fiction stories

Non-fiction stories can cover any kind of real-life event or experience. But, they often fall into these kinds of categories:

• Historical events
• News and current events
• Biographies and autobiographies
• Memories and experiences
• Cultural history
• Crime and justice
• Travel stories
• Survivor stories
• War stories

IV. Importance of Story

Stories are, have been, and always will be an absolutely essential part of human culture. Stories are how we learn about each other, our past, and our cultures. Whether they are created for entertainment or to recount a real-life event—new stories are literally being lived, told, and created every second of every day. So, even if there was only one story for every person who ever lived, that would still be billions of stories in the world; it would be impossible to measure how many have existed.

V. Examples of Story in Literature

As literature is, first and foremost, written storytelling, there are limitless examples of stories in literature; across every style and genre of writing. We’ve been writing down stories for thousands of years—truth be told, written stories have taught us most of what we know about mankind’s history and culture! That said, here are a few examples:

Author Shel Silverstein is known for the quirky and memorable stories he tells through poetry. Here is “Masks” from his collection of poems Everything On It :

She had blue skin. And so did he. He kept it hid And so did she. They searched for blue Their whole life through, Then passed right by— And never knew.

As you’ve just read, Silverstein tells a whole story in just eight short lines of poetry. Tons of poems do the same in even fewer lines. Either way, you can see that a story definitely doesn’t have to be lengthy.

A fairy tale is a classic type of story about imaginary events. When we want to tell a fairy tale, we often start with the famous words “Once upon a time,” which adds a more whimsical feel to what we are about to share. Here’s an example from Rapunzel of Grimm’s Fairy Tales:

Once upon a time there was a man and a woman who had long, but to no avail, wished for a child. Finally the woman came to believe that the good Lord would fulfill her wish. Through the small rear window of these people’s house they could see into a splendid garden that was filled with the most beautiful flowers and herbs. The garden was surrounded by a high wall, and no one dared enter, because it belonged to a sorceress who possessed great power and was feared by everyone.

The fairy tale’s intro is just a small part of the story, telling us about the beginning and a bit about the characters who will be the focus.

Of course, newspapers and magazines are filled with stories. As you know, a news story reports on real events that have happened. Here’s a passage from a CNN Tech article:

There’s no other shopping bonanza quite like Alibaba’s Singles Day, which has once again smashed records. The tech giant reported $17.8 billion in sales during this year’s frenzy, breaking the record of $14.3 billion set in 2015. That’s more than Black Friday and Cyber Monday combined.

Reading a news story gives you an update on events that are happening throughout the world. Here, Tech Crunch writes about China’s 11.11 Singles’ Day, the world’s biggest shopping event. The story specifically reports on the money that Alibaba made in their latest Singles’ Day event.

VI. Examples of Story in Popular Culture

Stories are a part of every type of today’s media, from TV, film, and radio; to what gets shared on social media platforms; music; stage performance; art exhibitions, celebrity magazines—you name it, and you’ll find stories. But here are a few examples of stories in popular film and TV culture, told through performance, music, and animation.

Cult-classic fantasy film The Neverending Story is about a story that goes on as long as time exists. It unfolds in real time as the reader is reading it, who in this case is a boy named Bastian. But it’s soon revealed that he has more of a stake in the story than he ever imagined…

Bastian finally realizes that he’s a part of the story he’s been reading, so in a way, it’s actually about him. So long as he keeps reading, the story will continue.

Everybody knows Will Smith’s retro anthem “Prince of Bel Air,” the theme song to the hit ’90s sitcom Fresh Prince of Bel Air. In the show’s intro, Smith uses this rap to fill the audience in on his backstory:

The song quickly reviews the story of his past, which serves as an intro to what the show is about. He recounts the events that led to his life being turned “upside down”; the story of how he became the Prince of Bel Air.

In Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows , Hermione reads the story of the Three Brothers, which is part of the wizarding world.

The Story of the Three Brothers is actually a story within a story—Harry Potter’s story. Rowling tries to make the wizarding world seem as real as possible, and adding background is a big part of that. By sharing stories that her characters read, she is giving evidence of the wizarding world’s storytelling and literary culture…and perhaps even some history.

VII. Conclusion

Stories are a major part of every aspect of our lives, from what we read to what we do to what we talk and think about. They’re also crucial to our understanding of history and culture, and have been recorded and passed on since man’s earliest days. Stories have always been and will always be at the core of not only literature, but life!

List of Terms

• Alliteration
• Amplification
• Anachronism
• Anthropomorphism
• Antonomasia
• APA Citation
• Aposiopesis
• Autobiography
• Bildungsroman
• Characterization
• Circumlocution
• Cliffhanger
• Comic Relief
• Connotation
• Deus ex machina
• Deuteragonist
• Doppelganger
• Double Entendre
• Dramatic irony
• Equivocation
• Extended Metaphor
• Figures of Speech
• Flash-forward
• Foreshadowing
• Intertextuality
• Juxtaposition
• Literary Device
• Malapropism
• Onomatopoeia
• Parallelism
• Pathetic Fallacy
• Personification
• Point of View
• Polysyndeton
• Protagonist
• Red Herring
• Rhetorical Device
• Rhetorical Question
• Science Fiction
• Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
• Synesthesia
• Turning Point
• Understatement
• Urban Legend
• Verisimilitude
• Essay Guide
• Cite This Website

• Grades 6-12
• School Leaders

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50+ Literary Genres and Subgenres Every Student Should Know

So many genres, so little time to read them all…

Once kids learn to read, they unlock a very rich world of books and other writings to explore. This list of literary genres and subgenres offers definitions and examples for a wide array of writing styles. Encourage students to explore them all!

What are literary genres?

Source: The Chalkboard Unicorn

A genre (ZHAHN-ruh) is a category of literature in which the various works share certain characteristics. We often break writing into four main literary genres: fiction, nonfiction, poetry, and drama. (Some people consider fiction and nonfiction to be one category called prose.)

Each of the literary genres has its own set of subgenres. There’s no definitive list of literary subgenres, and authors regularly invent new styles. For our list, we’ve chosen common literary genres and subgenres that students should learn to recognize. This is not a complete list by any means.

Students should also understand that many literary works fit into multiple categories, so narrowing down the literary genres and subgenres can be difficult. Still, knowing these different types can help kids learn which types of books they enjoy most and make it easier to find more of them.

Stories, poems, and plays that tell imaginary tales are called fiction. The people and events may be completely imaginary or based on real people and events but in fictionalized form.

When fiction is written as it is spoken, it’s known as prose. If the structure includes a focus on rhyme and rhythm, we call it poetry. Prose fiction can be broken down into categories by its length.

We use the term “novel” to describe a long piece of fiction, often described as “book-length.” Graphic novels use illustrations to help tell the tale, while novels in verse are very long poems that tell a story.

Examples: Moby Dick by Herman Melville, Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain

Novellas are shorter than full-length novels but longer than a short story. There’s no one accepted definition of the length of a novella; they generally range from 10,000 to 50,000 words.

Examples: A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens, Of Mice and Men by John Steinbeck

Short Story

A short story tells a complete tale with a fully developed theme, but it’s shorter than a novel or novella. They’re usually about 10,000 words or less.

Examples: “The Gift of the Magi” by O. Henry, “The Story of an Hour” by Kate Chopin

• 50 Irresistible Short Stories for Kids
• 70 Great Short Stories for Middle Schoolers
• 50 Best Short Stories for High School Students

While fiction is one of the major literary genres, it can be broken down into many categories known as subgenres. These subgenres describe the style and/or subjects of the literary work. It’s important to note that many works of fiction can fit into multiple subgenres.

Bildungsroman

Also described as a “coming-of-age” book, the bildungsroman (German for “education book”) tells the story of a protagonist from childhood to adulthood. It explores their moral and psychological growth, and is often (but not always) written in the first person.

Examples: Great Expectations by Charles Dickens, The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger

Originally, this term was used to describe long poems that tell the story of a hero’s journey’s and adventures. Over the years, this term has evolved to include novels and plays that trace a person or family’s history over a long period of time.

Examples: The Odyssey by Homer, War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy

Fables are short stories that teach a specific moral. Aesop is the most famous author of fables; his tales often use animals to tell the story and state the moral at the end.

Examples: “The Tortoise and the Hare” by Aesop, Fables for Our Time by James Thurber

Fairy tales are highly fictionalized short stories that generally include magic and fantastical characters. They’re usually intended for children and often feature a protagonist who receives a “happy ending” and an antagonist (villain) who is punished in the end.

Examples: “Cinderella” by the Brothers Grimm, “The Little Mermaid” by Hans Christian Andersen

Fantasy works are set in imaginary magical worlds and include mythical creatures like dragons, witches, vampires, and more. Avoid confusing this genre with science fiction; remember that fantasy deals with the impossible, while sci-fi explores the possible. (The two are frequently combined, though, and many works have characteristics of each.)

Examples: The Hobbit by J.R.R. Tolkien, Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone by J.K. Rowling

• 20 Fantasy Books Kids Won’t Be Able to Put Down

Folktales are similar to fairy tales but originally were passed down orally rather than being written down. Therefore, they often don’t have attributed authors. Many folktales have more realistic settings than fairy tales.

Examples: Paul Bunyan stories, “Headless Horseman”

Gothic/Horror

Stories that involve ghosts, otherworldly beings, and mystical happenings that cannot be explained rationally fall into the category of gothic or horror. These novels seek to cause a sense of fear in their readers. Gothic novels were very popular in the 18th and 19th centuries, and gave rise to horror writers like Stephen King.

Examples: Frankenstein by Mary Shelley, Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontë

Historical Fiction

Any fiction writing set in the past, in a real place and time, fits the definition of historical fiction. The characters can be real people or imaginary ones living through the events of that time.

Examples: The Book Thief by Markus Zusak, The Good Earth by Pearl S. Buck

• 16 Page-Turning Historical Fiction Books for Readers of All Ages

Legend/Myth

Legends and myths are ancient tales that explain early history or natural events, often using supernatural characters. Greek, Roman, and Egyptian myths remain popular today, though all cultures have their own myths and legends that have been passed down for hundreds or thousands of years. As most started as oral tradition, they rarely have attributed authors.

Examples: “Theseus and the Minotaur,” “Robin Hood,” “King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table”

• 8 Egyptian Myths Students Should Know
• 10 Great Greek Myths Your Students Should Learn
• 16 Fascinating Greek Mythology Books for Kids

In a mystery, the characters must solve a puzzle, usually a crime of some sort. Generally, the solution isn’t revealed until the end of the story. The reader can use clues to try to solve the mystery themselves as they read.

Examples: Murder on the Orient Express by Agatha Christie, The Westing Game by Ellen Raskin

• 21 Must-Read Mystery Books for Kids
• 20 Terrific Mysteries for Classroom Libraries
• Books Like Encyclopedia Brown for Mystery-Loving Kids

Roman à clef

French for “novel with a key,” a roman à clef (pronounced “roh-MAHN ah clay”) is a story about real-life people and events, thinly disguised as fiction. The characters are given fictional names, and other details may be changed slightly. The “key” is the hints the author gives the reader to help them make the connection between fact and fiction.

Examples: The Bell Jar by Sylvia Plath, Animal Farm by George Orwell

Any writing that primarily focuses on the love story between two (or more) people is a romance. These stories often have happy or emotionally satisfying endings, though some end tragically instead.

Examples: Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen, The Fault in Our Stars by John Green

Satire ridicules a topic or person, in an attempt to provoke the reader into rethinking their opinions on the subject. They may use irony, caricature, parody, and other literary devices, and characters and plots are often exaggerated or extreme to make the author’s point.

Examples: Gulliver’s Travels by Jonathan Swift, Catch-22 by Joseph Heller

Science Fiction

Also called sci-fi, this form of fiction speculates about potential changes to the real world based on scientific principles. Many sci-fi works focus on space travel, parallel universes, and time travel. They often take place in the future or on distant planets or worlds. Generally science fiction is considered to be stories that are possible based on our understanding of science, while fantasy works include magic or other supernatural elements. The two are often combined, and many works fit into both categories.

Examples: The Time Machine by H.G. Wells, Flowers for Algernon by Daniel Keyes

16 Thrilling Sci-Fi Books for Tweens and Young Adults

Utopian/dystopian.

In utopian literature, the writer imagines a “perfect” world, while dystopian writing posits a dark and cataclysmic future or alternate present. In many cases, the imaginary world is initially presented as utopian, but as more details emerge, the dystopian elements become clear. Therefore, these literary genres are often lumped together.

Examples: The Handmaid’s Tale by Margaret Atwood, The Hunger Games by Suzanne Collins

The opposite of fiction is nonfiction, which focuses on information and facts about real people, events, and other topics. Nonfiction can be full-length books or shorter compositions like articles or essays. It also includes “how-to” writing like cookbooks and self-help books.

There are many categories of nonfiction, usually based on the topic or subject. Here are some common nonfiction subgenres kids should learn about.

Autobiography/Biography

A biography tells the story of a person’s life, usually from birth to death. When a person writes their own biographical work, it’s called an autobiography.

Examples: The Diary of a Young Girl by Anne Frank, The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks by Rebecca Skloot

• How To Use Picture Book Biographies in the Classroom
• 12 Inspiring Biographies for Teens

An essay is a short nonfiction work on a specific topic. It’s usually a personal reflection on a subject, in which the author shares their own experiences and thoughts. Sometimes authors publish their essays together in collections as books. These collections can include essays on related topics or simply be a compilation of an author’s works.

Examples: A Room of One’s Own by Virginia Woolf, Walden by Henry David Thoreau

Expository Nonfiction

This catch-all category includes any nonfiction book that seeks to tell its readers about a specific topic. It often uses illustrations, diagrams, and quotes from original sources.

Examples: We Are Water Protectors by Carole Lindstrom, Freakonomics by Stephen J. Dubner and Steven Levitt

Any nonfiction book that focuses on real people or events of the past is a history book. Biographies and autobiographies can fall into this category, but histories usually encompass a larger group of people and their impact on contemporary events.

Examples: Hidden Figures by Margot Lee Shetterly, 1776 by David McCullough

While memoirs are similar to autobiographies, they differ in a few small ways. Memoirs don’t generally try to tell the entire story of a person’s life. Instead, they reflect on a person’s experiences during important parts of their life. They are nearly always written in the first person.

Examples: All Boys Aren’t Blue by George M. Johnson, I Am Malala by Malala Yousafzai

Narrative Nonfiction

In narrative nonfiction, the author tells the tale of a real person or event in a way that feels more like a fiction story. The information is factual, but the style is entertaining and engaging.

Examples: In Cold Blood by Truman Capote, Killers of the Flower Moon by David Grann

When an author writes about their travel experiences, we call it a travelogue or simply “travel writing.” Usually, the author recounts a specific trip or series of related journeys. They describe the people and places they see along the way, offering their own thoughts and opinions about these encounters.

Examples: A Walk in the Woods by Bill Bryson, The Mosquito Coast by Paul Theroux

Also called verse, poetry gives special importance to the use of words, imagery, and rhythm. Poems are individual works of poetry. Poems usually break down into lines and stanzas rather than sentences and paragraphs. They can be fiction or nonfiction and of any length from a few lines to an entire book.

We can break poetry into subgenres based on characteristics like rhyme scheme (or lack thereof), rhythmic patterns, subject, and more. Here are some common poetic literary genres kids should know. See their definitions and details here: 15 Types of Poetry to Teach Kids and Teens .

• Blackout Poetry
• Blank Verse
• Concrete Poetry
• Narrative Poetry
• Sonnet (Shakespearean and Petrarchan)
• 70 Must-Share Poems for Your Elementary Classroom
• 45 Terrific Poems for Middle School and High School

This literary genre includes plays, musical, operas, and operettas, written to be performed in front of an audience. Students often study plays in literature classes, reading them instead of seeing them performed. They can be short, or longer works broken into multiple scenes and acts.

While dramatic works can be nonfictional, they are usually fiction. Experts break plays and other dramatic works into multiple categories. These are the most common.

Make them laugh! Comedies are light and humorous dramatic works. The Greeks and Romans used this term for plays where the hero faces adversity and overcomes it in the end. By Shakespeare’s time, comedies involved humor, silly situations, and happy endings all around, and that’s how we usually use the term today.

Examples: The Taming of the Shrew by William Shakespeare, The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde

A farce is a type of comedy, with exaggerated characters and improbable situations. There’s usually a lot of physical comedy, with characters taking ludicrous circumstances and happenings very seriously.

Examples: The Comedy of Errors by William Shakespeare, She Stoops to Conquer by Oliver Goldsmith

A tragedy tells the story of a protagonist with a tragic flaw, which ultimately leads to their downfall. Tragedies can also relate terrible or sorrowful events, from the point of view of one or more characters.

Examples: Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare, Death of a Salesman by Arthur Miller

Tragicomedy

As the name implies, these dramatic works have elements of both comedy and tragedy. They can have sad or happy endings, or even those that are inconclusive. They often tell tragic tales, with enough humor to lighten the overall mood throughout.

Examples: The Merchant of Venice by William Shakespeare, Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett

History Play

Today, we use this term almost exclusively to describe Shakespeare’s plays about real historical people and events. These dramatic works were very popular during Elizabethan times.

Examples: Richard III and Julius Caesar by William Shakespeare

Problem Play

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, playwrights began writing dramatic works to draw attention to social issues or problems. Henrik Ibsen and George Bernard Shaw are well-known for this subgenre.

Examples: A Doll’s House by Henrik Ibsen, Mrs. Warren’s Profession by George Bernard Shaw

We believe in encouraging kids to read all kinds of literary genres and books, including these 16 Banned Books to Read Before 12th Grade .

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Definition of Genre

Genre originates from the French word meaning kind or type. As a literary device, genre refers to a form, class, or type of literary work. The primary genres in literature are poetry, drama / play , essay , short story , and novel . The term genre is used quite often to denote literary sub-classifications or specific types of literature such as comedy , tragedy , epic poetry, thriller , science fiction , romance , etc.

It’s important to note that, as a literary device, the genre is closely tied to the expectations of readers. This is especially true for literary sub-classifications. For example, Jane Austen ’s work is classified by most as part of the romance fiction genre, as demonstrated by this quote from her novel Sense and Sensibility :

When I fall in love, it will be forever.

Though Austen’s work is more complex than most formulaic romance novels, readers of Austen’s work have a set of expectations that it will feature a love story of some kind. If a reader found space aliens or graphic violence in a Jane Austen novel, this would undoubtedly violate their expectations of the romantic fiction genre.

Difference Between Style and Genre

Although both seem similar, the style is different from the genre. In simple terms, style means the characters or features of the work of a single person or individual. However, the genre is the classification of those words into broader categories such as modernist, postmodernist or short fiction and novels, and so on. Genres also have sub-genre, but the style does not have sub-styles. Style usually have further features and characteristics.

Common Examples of Genre

Genres could be divided into four major categories which also have further sub-categories. The four major categories are given below.

• Poetry: It could be categorized into further sub-categories such as epic, lyrical poetry, odes , sonnets , quatrains , free verse poems, etc.
• Fiction : It could be categorized into further sub-categories such as short stories, novels, skits, postmodern fiction, modern fiction, formal fiction, and so on.
• Prose : It could be further categorized into sub-genres or sub-categories such as essays, narrative essays, descriptive essays, autobiography , biographical writings, and so on.
• Drama: It could be categorized into tragedy, comedy, romantic comedy, absurd theatre, modern play, and so on.

Common Examples of Fiction Genre

In terms of literature, fiction refers to the prose of short stories, novellas , and novels in which the story originates from the writer’s imagination. These fictional literary forms are often categorized by genre, each of which features a particular style, tone , and storytelling devices and elements.

Here are some common examples of genre fiction and their characteristics:

• Literary Fiction : a work with artistic value and literary merit.
• Thriller : features dark, mysterious, and suspenseful plots.
• Horror : intended to scare and shock the reader while eliciting a sense of terror or dread; may feature scary entities such as ghosts, zombies, evil spirits, etc.
• Mystery : generally features a detective solving a case with a suspenseful plot and slowly revealing information for the reader to piece together.
• Romance : features a love story or romantic relationship; generally lighthearted, optimistic, and emotionally satisfying.
• Historical : plot takes place in the past with balanced realism and creativity; can feature actual historical figures, events, and settings.
• Western : generally features cowboys, settlers, or outlaws of the American Old West with themes of the frontier.
• Bildungsroman : story of a character passing from youth to adulthood with psychological and/or moral growth; the character becomes “educated” through loss, a journey, conflict , and maturation.
• Science Fiction : speculative stories derived and/or inspired by natural and social sciences; generally features futuristic civilizations, time travel, or space exploration.
• Dystopian : sub-genre of science fiction in which the story portrays a setting that may appear utopian but has a darker, underlying presence that is problematic.
• Fantasy : speculative stories with imaginary characters in imaginary settings; can be inspired by mythology or folklore and generally include magical elements.
• Magical Realism : realistic depiction of a story with magical elements that are accepted as “normal” in the universe of the story.
• Realism : depiction of real settings, people, and plots as a means of approaching the truth of everyday life and laws of nature.

Examples of Writers Associated with Specific Genre Fiction

Writers are often associated with a specific genre of fictional literature when they achieve critical acclaim, public notoriety, and/or commercial success with readers for a particular work or series of works. Of course, this association doesn’t limit the writer to that particular genre of fiction. However, being paired with a certain type of literature can last for an author’s entire career and beyond.

Here are some examples of writers that have become associated with specific fiction genre:

• Stephen King: horror
• Ray Bradbury : science fiction
• Jackie Collins: romance
• Toni Morrison: black feminism
• John le Carré: espionage
• Philippa Gregory: historical fiction
• Jacqueline Woodson: racial identity fiction
• Philip Pullman: fantasy
• Flannery O’Connor: Southern Gothic
• Shel Silverstein: children’s poetry
• Jonathan Swift : satire
• Larry McMurtry: western
• Virginia Woolf: feminism
• Raymond Chandler: detective fiction
• Colson Whitehead: Afrofuturism
• Gabriel García Márquez : magical realism
• Madeleine L’Engle: children’s fantasy fiction
• Agatha Christie : mystery
• John Green : young adult fiction
• Margaret Atwood: dystopian

Famous Examples of Genre in Other Art Forms

Most art forms feature genre as a means of identifying, differentiating, and categorizing the many forms and styles within a particular type of art. Though there are many crossovers when it comes to genre and no finite boundaries, most artistic works within a particular genre feature shared patterns , characteristics, and conventions.

Here are some famous examples of genres in other art forms:

• Music : rock, country, hip hop, folk, classical, heavy metal, jazz, blues
• Visual Art : portrait, landscape, still life, classical, modern, impressionism, expressionism
• Drama : comedy, tragedy, tragicomedy , melodrama , performance, musical theater, illusion
• Cinema : action, horror, drama, romantic comedy, western, adventure , musical, documentary, short, biopic, fantasy, superhero, sports

Examples of Genre in Literature

As a literary device, the genre is like an implied social contract between writers and their readers. This does not mean that writers must abide by all conventions associated with a specific genre. However, there are organizational patterns within a genre that readers tend to expect. Genre expectations allow readers to feel familiar with the literary work and help them to organize the information presented by the writer. In addition, keeping with genre conventions can establish a writer’s relationship with their readers and a framework for their literature.

Here are some examples of genres in literature and the conventions they represent:

Example 1: Macbeth by William Shakespeare

Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow , Creeps in this petty pace from day to day To the last syllable of recorded time, And all our yesterdays have lighted fools The way to dusty death. Out, out , brief candle! Life’s but a walking shadow, a poor player That struts and frets his hour upon the stage And then is heard no more: it is a tale Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, Signifying nothing.

The formal genre of this well-known literary work is Shakespearean drama or play. Macbeth can be sub-categorized as a literary tragedy in that the play features the elements of a classical tragic work. For example, Macbeth’s character aligns with the traits and path of a tragic hero –a protagonist whose tragic flaw brings about his downfall from power to ruin. This tragic arc of the protagonist often results in catharsis (emotional release) and potential empathy among readers and members of the audience .

In addition to featuring classical characteristics and conventions of the tragic genre, Shakespeare’s play also resonates with modern readers and audiences as a tragedy. In this passage, one of Macbeth’s soliloquies , his disillusionment, and suffering is made clear in that, for all his attempts and reprehensible actions at gaining power, his life has come to nothing. Macbeth realizes that death is inevitable, and no amount of power can change that truth. As Macbeth’s character confronts his mortality and the virtual meaninglessness of his life, readers and audiences are called to do the same. Without affirmation or positive resolution , Macbeth’s words are as tragic for readers and audiences as they are for his own character.

Like  M a cbeth , Shakespeare’s tragedies are as currently relevant as they were when they were written. The themes of power, ambition, death, love, and fate incorporated in his tragic literary works are universal and timeless. This allows tragedy as a genre to remain relatable to modern and future readers and audiences.

Example 2: The Color Purple by Alice Walker

All my life I had to fight. I had to fight my daddy . I had to fight my brothers. I had to fight my cousins and my uncles. A girl child ain’t safe in a family of men. But I never thought I’d have to fight in my own house. She let out her breath. I loves Harpo, she say. God knows I do. But I’ll kill him dead before I let him beat me.

The formal genre of this literary work is novel. Walker’s novel can be sub-categorized within many fictional genres. This passage represents and validates its sub-classification within the genre of feminist fiction. Sofia’s character, at the outset, is assertive as a black woman who has been systematically marginalized in her community and family, and she expresses her independence from the dominance and control of men. Sofia is a foil character for Celie, the protagonist, who often submits to the power, control, and brutality of her husband. The juxtaposition of these characters indicates the limited options and harsh consequences faced by women with feminist ideals in the novel.

Unfortunately, Sofia’s determination to fight for herself leads her to be beaten close to death and sent to prison when she asserts herself in front of the white mayor’s wife. However, Sofia’s strong feminist traits have a significant impact on the other characters in the novel, and though she is not able to alter the systemic racism and subjugation she faces as a black woman, she does maintain her dignity as a feminist character in the novel.

Example 3: A Word to Husbands by Ogden Nash

To keep your marriage brimming With love in the loving cup, Whenever you’re wrong, admit it; Whenever you’re right, shut up.

The formal genre of this literary work is poetry. Nash’s poem would be sub-categorized within the genre of humor . The poet’s message to what is presumably his fellow husbands is witty, clear, and direct–through the wording and message of the last poetic line may be unexpected for many readers. In addition, the structure of the poem sets up the “punchline” at the end. The piece begins with poetic wording that appears to romanticize love and marriage, which makes the contrasting “base” language of the final line a satisfying surprise and ironic twist for the reader. The poet’s tone is humorous and light-hearted which also appeals to the characteristics and conventions of this genre.

Synonyms of Genre

Genre doesn’t have direct synonyms . A few close meanings are category, class, group, classification, grouping, head, heading, list, set, listing, and categorization. Some other words such as species, variety, family, school, and division also fall in the category of its synonyms.

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Literary Genres

Types of genres are categories of literature that are generally determined by technique, length, tone, and content. When we list literary forms in broader terms, they can be more abstract, flexible, and loosely defined. However, as we get more specific and into subcategories, the distinctions and rules of the genre become crystal clear.

What are the literature genres? Though we may think there are several types of written art forms, there are actually only 3 genres of literature. You may be wondering, what are the three genres of literature? Poetry, drama, and prose. That’s right. All the other genre types fit into one of these three categories. Students will typically encounter these narrative types of literature in English for most of what they read and write about in school. Therefore, they must be able to identify examples of literary artistic expressions, know their key characteristics, and list the genres of literature.

Keep reading to learn more about the different literary genres examples, along with ways for students and teachers to storyboard their forms of literature examples. In the genres of literature chart below, each of the storyboards and examples can be copied and used in an assignment with your students.

Literary Genres Examples

Here are some literary forms examples for you to check out. Different types of genres have different purposes. As you read through these examples, notice how the techniques, lengths, tones, and contents change.

Literary forms can be classified in many ways. In this section, we will take a closer look at 3 genres of literature: poetry, drama, and prose. Understanding the different classifications of literary expression in English will not only enhance your students’ reading experience but improve their writing skills too.

Types of Literary Genres

Poetry is a genre of literature that uses aesthetic and rhythmic qualities of language—such as phonaesthetics, sound symbolism, and metre — to evoke meanings in addition to, or in place of, the literal or mundane meaning. Poetry has a very long history, dating back to prehistoric times with the creation of hunting chants and burial songs.

Among the different genre examples, poetry is considered by many to be the most intense literature genre. It allows a writer to express their deepest emotions and thoughts in a very personal way. It relies heavily on figurative language, rhythm, and imagery to relay its message to readers. Poetic writing uses beautiful language to express deep thoughts and feelings. Poetic expressions can help you understand your emotions and thoughts better, and it also helps you learn how to write more expressively.

Sub-Genres of Poetry

• Songs and Ballads

Drama is a mode of fictional representation through dialogue and performance. It is one of the kinds of literature which includes epic poetry, lyric poetry, and novel. Aristotle’s Poetics defines drama as “a representation of an action that is whole and complete and has a beginning, a middle, and an end.”

Drama is often performed on stage in front of a live audience, but it can also be presented in other forms, such as radio, film, and television. It is usually written by a playwright, although it can be adapted from other sources, such as novels, short stories, poems, or even real-life events. Or it can be read silently by individuals.

It contains dialogue, and actors impersonate the characters. Imaginary characters are frequently introduced to its narratives, allowing the playwright to explore complex human emotions and conflicts through both real-life and fantastical figures. Characters often encounter conflict, whether internal or external, as it serves as a driving force for character development and narrative tension. It is usually divided into acts or scenes and relies on props or imaginative dialogue to create a visual experience for the audience. Dramatic literary works are a good place to start, as they are usually pretty easy to understand at face value and captivates the audience with cliffhangers and mind-capitulating events.

Sub-Genres of Drama

This form of literary expression has no formal metrical structure. It applies a natural flow of speech, and ordinary grammatical structure, rather than rhythmic structure, such as in the case of traditional poetry. Prose is an example of literary text that is typically written in paragraphs, although there are some exceptions, such as in the case of drama or fiction.

Prose can be found in books, magazines, newspapers, online articles, blogs, etc. It is the most common form of writing. Examples of famous works of prose include To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee & Charlotte's Web by E.B. White. The prose is simple, straightforward language. It can be either fiction or nonfiction . The prose is typically divided into paragraphs, and it uses regular grammar. It can be either serious or funny.

Fiction is narrative writing that originates from the author’s imagination. It is designed to entertain, but it can also inspire, inform, or persuade.

Sub-Genres of Fiction

• Short Story
• Myths and Legends
• Historical Fiction

Nonfiction is writing that is based on true events, people, places, and facts. It is designed to inform, and sometimes to entertain.

Sub-Genres of Nonfiction

• Autobiography
• Diaries and Journals
• Narrative Nonfiction

What Are the Three Genres of Literature?

The main examples of genres in literature are poetry, drama, and prose. Poetry is a genre in literature that uses aesthetic and rhythmic qualities of language to evoke meanings in addition to, or in place of, the prosaic ostensible meaning. Drama is a mode of fictional representation through dialogue and performance. The prose is a form of language that has no formal metrical structure. It applies a natural flow of speech and ordinary grammatical structure, rather than rhythmic structure, such as in the case of traditional poetry. Genres of literature in English then fall into subcategories, which make up the three genres of literature.

Forms of literature examples are:

• Poetry: Ballads, Lyric, Epic, Dramatic, Narrative
• Drama: Tragedy, Comedy, History, Melodrama, Musical
• Prose: Fiction (Novel, Novella, Short Story), Nonfiction (Autobiography, Biography, Essay)

Genres of Literature Chart

A literature genres list would include categories like fiction, non-fiction, and folklore, but may also cover specialized types such as science fiction, romance, mystery, and historical fiction, offering a comprehensive overview of the literary landscape.

Genre types subcategories can be explained as the following:

Different types of literature being classified by genres and subgenres help people better understand the diversity of literary styles, themes, and techniques employed by authors. Each type has its own purpose and style. Whether you’re looking for a light read or something more heavy and informative, there’s definitely a literary genre out there for you.

A Note About Speeches...

While not one of the primary genres of literature, speeches are important historical documents or moments and literature, and they don’t always fit neatly into one of the three primary genre categories. A speech is a formal address given to an audience. Speeches can be found in prose, drama, and poetry, and their primary goals are to persuade, inform, demonstrate, or entertain a reader, an audience, or other characters. They can also be used in nonfiction or fiction, depending on their purpose and use.

Why Use Storyboarding to Learn About Literary Genres Types?

Storyboarding is the perfect way to learn and remember the different genres of literature. When you storyboard, you can visually see how each literary genre differs from the next. You can also track and compare the subcategories within genres, identify key characteristics of each, and even explore the relationships between genres. All of this will help you better understand and remember the genres of literature, making it easier to identify them when you encounter them in your reading.

How Can Storyboard That Enhance the Learning Experience of the Three Genres of Literature?

Storyboard That can help students better understand the three genres of literature by providing a visual representation of each one. By storyboarding, students can identify key characteristics of each genre and see how they differ from one another. Additionally, Storyboard That is a great way to compare and contrast genres, as well as explore the relationships between them. All of this will help students better remember the genres of literature and be able to identify them when they encounter them in their reading.

Looking to add a little creative flair to your literature class? Check out Storyboard That’s easy-to-use, online storyboard creator! With our drag-and-drop software, you can create engaging, visually appealing graphic organizers to help your students learn about the different genres of literature. Plus, our easy-to-use tools make it simple to add text, images, and multimedia content to your storyboards, so you can really bring your lessons to life.

Where to Start When Learning About Literary Genres

If you’re just starting to learn about literary narrative types, the best place to begin is with the three primary genres: prose, drama, and poetry. These genres are the foundation for all other types of literature, so it’s crucial to have a strong understanding of them before moving on to anything else. Each genre will approach plot development, conflict resolution, and the art of delivering a satisfying conclusion in unique and captivating ways, reflecting the rich tapestry of literary expression.

In terms of choosing between the three, poetry tends to be the most complicated to understand as it can go against the usual laws of grammar. There are a lot of deeper meanings within poetry, so it can be hard to break down as a newbie. Start with some short, simple prose articles such as newspaper pieces and short novels.

When you start to get the underlying meanings behind the prose, you can then start to dive into some simple drama. Look into Greek tragedies and Shakespearean plays, as they are a great starting point. These genres will give you a better understanding of the basics before progressing on to more.

When you’re ready to go deeper, poetry is the next stepping stone. Children’s poetry is a great starting point to give you a good foundation of poetic structure and meaning. Then you can go further into complicated poetry, such as that of the Elizabethans and Victorians.

Once you feel comfortable with the three primary genres, you can start exploring the many subgenres that exist within each one. There are endless possibilities when it comes to different types of narratives, so there’s no need to rush. If you enjoy literature with comedic elements, begin by exploring the comedy genre.

Related Activities

Reading Material to Start With

Start with article number one and work your way down the list. When you are happy you understand each article within the genre, move on to the next set of articles.

• A Washington Post Newspaper Report of Hurricane Ian
• The short story called "The Fall of the House of Usher" by Edgar Allan Poe
• The historical fiction novel by Christopher Paul Curtis: Bud, Not Buddy .
• "The Miracle Worker" by William Gibson
• The famous play by the one and only William Shakespeare, “Romeo & Juliet”
• "Death of a Salesman" by Arthur Miller
• "The Road Not Taken" by Robert Frost
• "A Poison Tree" by William Blake
• "Still I Rise" by Maya Angelou

How to Get a Deeper Understanding

To get a deeper meaning of each genre, get your pen and paper ready and start to highlight the key ideas throughout. It can help to get your understanding of the writings by doing a summary for each one. Once you have done this, start to think about the following key things for each genre:

• What is the author’s purpose?
• Who is the audience?
• What are the main ideas?
• How does the structure help to emphasize the purpose?
• What literary devices are used and why?
• How does the author’s style contribute to the meaning of the text?

Plays can be trickier as you cannot always rely on the written word to give you all the information. This is where watching a performance of the play can come in handy, as it will give you a much better understanding. In addition to the above, when watching a play, you should also be thinking about:

• How does the stagecraft contribute to the meaning of the play?
• What do the costumes and makeup tell us about the characters?
• How does the lighting help to create mood and atmosphere?
• What do the sound effects and music add to the play?

When reading poetry, it is essential to think about both the literal and figurative meanings of the words. This can be difficult at first, but there are some helpful strategies that you can use. For example, you can try reading the poem aloud or reading it multiple times. You can also look up words you don’t understand and try to break the poem down into smaller chunks. In addition to the above, when reading poetry, you should also be thinking about:

• What is the speaker’s tone?
• What is the poem's mood?
• What are the main themes of the poem?
• How does the poet use literary devices to create meaning?
• What is the poem’s form, and how does it contribute to the meaning?

Using a storyboard exercise like StoryBoard That can be helpful when trying to understand the genres. You can map out the key ideas and events for each one, as well as the literary devices that are used. This is a great way to see the genres side-by-side, compare and contrast them and visualize things better.

Related Resources

• Picture Encyclopedia of Literary Genres
• Picture Encyclopedia of Literary Elements
• Elements of an Epic
• The Five Act Play Structure

How To Incorporate Multicultural Perspectives Into The Study Of Literary Genres

Select texts from diverse authors and cultures.

Choose texts that represent a variety of cultures and perspectives, and that offer insights into different literary traditions and styles. This might involve reading and researching texts from authors and cultures that are different from your own and seeking out recommendations from colleagues, libraries, or online resources.

Discuss Cultural Context and Historical Background

Provide background information and historical context for each text, including information about the author and the cultural and historical context in which the text was written. This can help students understand the unique perspectives and literary traditions represented in each text.

Explore Themes and Literary Devices From Multicultural Perspectives

Encourage students to explore themes and literary devices from a variety of cultural perspectives, such as examining the role of family or community in different cultures, or analyzing how language and storytelling are used in different literary traditions.

Foster Discussion and Collaboration

Encourage open discussion and collaboration among students, and create opportunities for them to share their own perspectives and experiences. This can help students build empathy and understanding for different cultures and perspectives.

Encourage Independent Research and Exploration

Encourage students to research and explore additional texts and authors from different cultures and perspectives on their own. Provide resources and recommendations for students to pursue independent reading and research.

Integrate Multimedia and Other Resources

Integrate multimedia and other resources, such as videos, podcasts, or guest speakers, to enhance students' understanding of different cultures and perspectives. This can help bring the text to life and make it more relevant and engaging for students.

Frequently Asked Questions about Literary Genres

What is a literary genre.

A literary genre is a category or type of literature characterized by common themes, styles, and narrative conventions. It serves as a way to classify and categorize literary works based on shared characteristics and elements. Common literary forms include fiction, non-fiction, and various subgenres within these categories, such as science fiction, romance or love stories, mystery, and historical fiction. This literary genre definition encapsulates the essence of storytelling, providing a framework for understanding and appreciating the various forms, themes, and styles that contribute to the rich tapestry of literature.

What are some examples of different types of fiction genres?

Some well known types of fiction are: mystery, realistic fiction, historical fiction, fables and fairy tales, adventure, magical realism, and science fiction.

What are some examples of different types of nonfiction?

Some common types are biographies, autobiographies, speeches, letters, and informational texts.

What are the 3 forms of literature?

The three main forms of literature are prose, poetry, and drama. Prose encompasses written or spoken language without a metrical structure and includes written forms like novels, short stories, essays, and articles. Poetry employs heightened and imaginative language, often with rhyme and meter, to evoke emotions and convey complex ideas. Drama is written for performance and includes plays, scripts, and screenplays intended for actors to act out on stage or screen. These three forms represent the foundational structure of literary expression, offering diverse avenues for storytelling, creativity, and artistic communication.

What are the five main genres?

• Fiction: This genre includes works of imaginative storytelling that are not based on real events. It encompasses various subgenres such as science fiction, fantasy, historical fiction, and mystery.
• Non-fiction: Non-fiction literature is based on real events, facts, and information. This genre includes biographies, autobiographies, essays, memoirs, and other works that present factual content.
• Poetry: Poetry is a form of literary expression that uses rhythmic and metaphorical language to evoke emotions and convey ideas. It often relies on heightened language and various poetic devices.
• Drama: Drama involves the portrayal of characters in conflict, usually in a play format. It explores human emotions and relationships through dialogue and performance. Classic examples include works by playwrights like William Shakespeare.
• Mystery/Thriller: This genre revolves around suspenseful and puzzling narratives. Mystery literature often involves solving a crime or uncovering hidden truths, while thrillers aim to keep readers on the edge of their seats with tension and excitement.

What are the categories of literature?

Here are some common categories used to classify literature:

• Genre: Fiction: Includes novels, short stories, and novellas. This category encompasses a wide range of genres, such as science fiction, fantasy, romance, historical fiction, and more. Non-fiction: Involves works based on real events, facts, and information. This category includes biographies, autobiographies, essays, memoirs, and journalistic works.
• Form: Poetry: Characterized by the use of rhythmic and metaphorical language. Poetry often focuses on emotional expression and aesthetic qualities of language. Drama: Consists of plays and scripts written for performance. It includes tragedies, comedies, and other theatrical forms.
• Period or Movement: Classical Literature: Refers to works from ancient Greece and Rome. Medieval Literature: Covers works from the Middle Ages. Renaissance Literature: Encompasses the revival of arts and learning in Europe during the Renaissance. Modern Literature: Includes works from the late 19th century to the mid-20th century. Contemporary Literature: Encompasses works from the mid-20th century to the present.
• Nationality or Cultural Identity: American Literature, British Literature, World Literature: Literature can be classified based on the nationality or cultural identity of the author or the setting of the work.
• Literary Movements: Romanticism, Realism, Naturalism, Modernism, Postmodernism: Literature can be categorized based on the dominant artistic and intellectual movements of a particular time.
• Themes or Topics: Social Issues: Literature that addresses and explores societal problems, inequalities, and issues. Historical Fiction: Works set in a specific historical period, often incorporating historical events and figures.
• Age Group: Children's Literature, Young Adult Literature, Adult Literature: Works are sometimes categorized based on the target age group of the readers.

What are subgenres?

Subgenres in literature refer to more specific categories or classifications within the broader genres. They help to further define and categorize works based on shared characteristics, themes, or stylistic elements.

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What is Genre? Definition, Usage, and Literary Examples

Genre definition.

A  genre  (ZHAWN-ruh) is a category of literature in which different works share certain accepted conventions. Ancient Greek writers identified three main literary genres— poetry ,  prose , and  drama —as a way of categorizing the written word. But, over the subsequent centuries, evolving literary customs required the addition of numerous genres and subgenres to this list; naturally, some genres virtually disappeared as their popularity dwindled. Today, the four main literary genres are fiction, nonfiction, drama, and poetry.

The word  genre  comes from the French for “kind, sort, or style.”

Characteristics of Genre

Every genre shares certain overarching characteristics, though how these characteristics present themselves differ.

Form describes how a writer constructs, structures, and organizes a written work. Form in poetry consists of  meter ,  rhythm , line length, and number of  stanzas , among other factors. Form in fiction and drama follows generally agreed-upon ideas of  plot : a beginning, rising action, a climax, falling action, a resolution, and a conclusion. Nonfiction form can vary greatly depending on the type of work, but it still usually adheres to a basic plot structure.

Style is the way a writer uses words and language to convey meaning,  mood , and story. Style in poetry typically involves intensely descriptive language to paint a vivid mental picture, while style in fiction focuses on plot and character development through certain literary techniques and word choices. Nonfiction style can be more emotionally detached and journalistic, like in a  biography  of a political figure, or it can be very personal and intimate, as is the case in most  memoirs . Dramatic style is the approach a playwright takes to tell their story and explore the themes of the work; for example, they might employ farcical elements and plenty of jokes in a comedy, and serious dialogue and ominous  settings  in a drama.

A subject is the topic the genre centers on. Broad subjects appear across multiple genres, such as the struggle of good versus evil, quests and adventures, and the eternal mysteries of life, love, and death. Narrower subjects, however, tend to fall into specific genres; you would likely classify an epic quest about futuristic space exploration as a work in the  science fiction  genre.

Technique and style share similarities, but technique is more formal in nature. It consists of the methods a writer uses to construct language and present their story.  Metaphors  and  imagery  are common poetic techniques.  Foreshadowing  and  exposition  are popular among writers of fiction and nonfiction. Playwrights often use techniques of symbolism and  allegory  to make larger statements about human nature.

Tone  is the attitude of the writer. Poetic tone is philosophical, engaged, and observant. In fiction and nonfiction, tone is the writer’s viewpoint and  perspective  on the story. In drama, tone is the overall way the playwright presents the work and the mood they set; for example, you probably wouldn’t mistake a  Shakespearean tragedy  for a bedroom sex  farce , as the former would have a serious tone and the latter would have a lighter, sillier one.

Major Genres and Subgenres

Beyond the four basic genres (fiction, nonfiction, poetry, and drama), there are narrower subsets of each, called subgenres. The difference between genres and subgenres is somewhat malleable, as most people think of common subgenres as genres in and of themselves.

Take, for example, romance novels. Technically, romance novels are a subgenre of fiction. However, many people consider romance as a distinct genre because it contains so many subgenres: historical romance, contemporary romance, supernatural romance, romantic mysteries, romantic science fiction, etc.

Other fiction subgenres that often stand on their own include fantasy, science fiction,  mysteries  and suspense novels, thrillers, and  children’s  and young adult fiction. Of course, you can easily break these down into further subgenres: high and low fantasy and sword-and-sorcery; space operas, cyberpunk, and dystopias; noir, cozy mysteries, and police procedurals; horror, psychological thrillers, and legal thrillers; and picture books, “social problem” novels, and coming-of-age novels.

Autobiographies , biographies, creative nonfiction, memoirs, journalism, and science writing are popular nonfiction subgenres. Poetry subgenres include contemporary poetry, classic poetry, confessional poetry, and slam poetry. Comedies, tragedies, farces,  satires , comedies of manners, family dramas, and musicals are subgenres of drama.

All these subgenres can function as standalone genres and can be further divided into even smaller subgenres. Also, note that a genre is a system of classification, while categories are divisions within a system of classification. So, this makes the terms  subgenre  and  category  interchangeable.

The Function of Genre

Genre establishes a general code for writers to follow based on the accepted standards. This code also inspires many writers to challenge the conventions of genre and create works that defy them; for instance, Truman Capote’s classic  In Cold Blood  is often classified as a nonfiction novel, thereby spanning two genres.

Individual genres serve specific functions. Fiction and poetry spark the reader’s imagination, provide entertainment, and encourage new ways of experiencing the world. Nonfiction is primarily educational, introducing readers to subjects and ideas and sharing valuable insights. Drama is entertaining and stirs readers/viewers to think about the dynamics of interpersonal relationships, the foibles of human nature, and the points in communion we all share, as well those areas of divergence that divide us.

The end goal of genre is to set the reader’s expectation of the work. For example, you have a general idea of the type of work you’re going to read when you pick up a book of poetry; you wouldn’t mistake it for a novel or play.

Genres Outside of Literature

Genre classifications outside of literature serve the same purpose: to shape one’s expectations of the work and appeal to a specific audience by following a basic set of standards.

Film and television genres include drama, comedy, action/adventure, mystery, horror, and documentary. Pop, country, hip-hop, R&B, classical, and dance are all genres of music. The gaming world consists of many genres as well, such as role-playing, simulations, and shooter games.

Examples of Genre in Literature

1. William Shakespeare,  Hamlet

Shakespeare’s plays are all dramas that are further classified as comedies, tragedies, or histories.  Hamlet  is a tragedy because, in the end, nearly all the major characters are dead. The ghost of the King of Denmark instructs his son, Hamlet, to avenge his murder by killing the new king, Hamlet’s uncle Claudius. Hamlet pretends to be mad so he can seek revenge, while a suspicious Claudius also plots to kill Hamlet. The final scene culminates in a duel, in which the King, Queen Gertrude, Hamlet’s opponent, and Hamlet all die.

2. Rachel Carson,  Silent Spring

Carson’s 1962 environmental science book is a classic work of nonfiction. She documents the dangers of pesticides, the malfeasance of the chemical industry, and the failure of elected officials to protect the public and the environment. Aspects of the book speak to humankind’s relationship to the natural world and how, in recent years, humans have developed the power to destroy nature in major, irreversible ways.

3. James Baldwin,  If Beale Street Could Talk

Baldwin’s 1974 novel is a work of fiction. It also falls into several subgenres, including romance/love story, African American literature, and social novel. Set in Harlem, New York, in the 1970s, it chronicles the relationship between 19-year-old Tish and 22-year-old Fonny. After they become engaged, Tish discovers she is pregnant. Then, police arrest Fonny after another woman accuses him of rape. The inequities of the criminal justice system keep Tish and Fonny apart, forcing them to fashion their own version of marriage and family with Fonny behind bars.

Further Resources on Genre

An English teacher provides an overview of genres and subgenres in  an informative YouTube video .

Writers Write looks at  the 17 most popular genres/subgenres and why they matter .

Owlcation delves into the differences between  genre and form .

Electric Lit has  a list of books  that they think proves that genre distinctions are bogus.

On the other end of the spectrum, Oxford University Press discusses  why literary genres are essential .

Related Terms

• Autobiography
• Dramatic Monologue
• Figurative Language
• Narrative Poem
• Point of View
• Rhyme Scheme
• Science Fiction

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Guides • Perfecting your Craft

Last updated on Nov 22, 2023

Story Structure: 7 Types All Writers Should Know

Nothing makes the challenging task of crafting your first novel feel more attainable than adopting a story structure to help you plot your narrative.

While using a pre-existing blueprint might make you worry about ending up with a formulaic, predictable story, you can probably analyze most of your favorite books using various narrative structures that writers have been using for decades (if not centuries)!

This post will reveal seven distinct story structures that any writer can use to build a compelling narrative. But first…

What is story structure?

Story structure is the order in which plot events are told to the reader or audience. While stories can be told in a wide variety of ways, most Western story structures commonly share certain elements: exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution.

A tightly controlled structure will answer a reader's questions, provide a climax followed by resolution and information at the end of the story , further the characters’ development , and unravel any central conflicts . In other words, it's responsible for a satisfying narrative experience that accomplishes the author’s aims.

Writing is an art, but if there’s one part of the craft that’s closer to science, this would be it. Become a master of story structure, and you will have the world at your feet.

Classic story structure

When people discuss different story structures, they often talk about the different frameworks used to analyze stories. When you boil them all down, all stories have certain shared elements.

Elements of classic story structure:

• Exposition. This first part establishes a protagonist's normal life and greater desires, and usually culminates in the inciting incident.
• Rising action. The protagonist pursues their new goal and is tested along the way.
• Climax. Our hero achieves their goal — or so they think!
• Falling action.  The hero now must deal with the consequences of achieving their goal.
• Resolution. The conclusion tying together the plot, character arcs, and themes.

These are all common ‘ beats ’ to most stories. It can be easier to see these moments in genres with higher stakes (such as a military thriller), but you’ll find them in almost any type of story. 

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Seven Story Structures Every Writer Should Know

Now that we’ve established the most essential components of story, let’s look at seven of the most popular story structures used by writers — and how they deploy these components.

• Freytag's Pyramid
• The Hero's Journey
• Three Act Structure
• Dan Harmon's Story Circle
• Fichtean Curve
• Save the Cat Beat Sheet
• Seven-Point Story Structure

1. Freytag’s Pyramid

• Introduction. The status quo is established; an inciting incident occurs.
• Rise, or rising action. The protagonist actively pursues their goal. The stakes heighten.
• Climax. A point of no return, from which the protagonist can no longer go back to the status quo.
• Return, or fall. In the aftermath of the climax, tension builds, and the story heads inevitably towards...
• Catastrophe. The protagonist is brought to their lowest point. Their greatest fears have come true.

This structural model is less frequently used in modern storytelling, partly due to readers’ limited appetite for tragic narratives (although you can still spot a few tragic heroes in popular literature today). By and large, commercial fiction, films, and television will see a protagonist overcome their obstacles to find some small measure of success. That said, it’s still useful to understand the Pyramid as a foundational structure in Western literature — and you will still see it occasionally in the most depressing contemporary tales.

To learn more, read our full guide on Freytag’s Pyramid .

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2. The Hero’s Journey

Campbell’s original structure uses terminology that lends itself well to epic tales of bravery and triumph — with plot points like “Belly of the Whale,” “Woman as the Temptress,” and “The Magic Flight.” To make The Hero’s Journey more accessible, Disney executive Christopher Vogler created a simplified version that has become popular amongst mainstream storytellers.

Here, we’ll look at Vogler’s streamlined, 12-step version of The Hero’s Journey.

• The Ordinary World. The hero’s everyday life is established.
• The Call of Adventure. Otherwise known as the inciting incident.
• Refusal of the Call. For a moment, the hero is reluctant to take on the challenge.
• Meeting the Mentor. Our hero meets someone who prepares them for what lies ahead — perhaps a parental figure, a teacher, a wizard, or a wise hermit.
• Crossing the First Threshold. The hero steps out of their comfort zone and enters a ‘new world.’
• Tests, Allies, Enemies. Our protagonist faces new challenges — and maybe picks up some new friends. Think of Dorothy on the Yellow Brick Road.
• Approach to the Inmost Cave. The hero gets close to their goal. Luke Skywalker reaches the Death Star.
• The Ordeal. The hero meets (and overcomes) their greatest challenge yet.
• Reward (Seizing the Sword). The hero obtains something important they were after, and victory is in sight.
• The Road Back. The hero realizes that achieving their goal is not the final hurdle. In fact, ‘seizing the sword’ may have made things worse for them.
• Resurrection. The hero faces their final challenge — a climactic test that hinges on everything they’ve learned over their journey.
• Return with the Elixir. Having triumphed, our protagonist returns to their old life. Dorothy returns to Kansas; Iron Man holds a press conference to blow his own trumpet .

While Vogler’s simplified steps still retain some of Campbell’s mythological language with its references to swords and elixirs, the framework can be applied to almost any genre of fiction. To see how a ‘realistic’ story can adhere to this structure, check out our guide to the hero’s journey in which we analyze Rocky through this very lens.

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3. Three Act Structure

Act 1: Setup

• Exposition . The status quo or ‘ordinary world’ is established.
• Inciting Incident. An event that sets the story in motion.
• Plot Point One. The protagonist decides to tackle the challenge head-on. She ‘crosses the threshold,’ and the story is now truly moving.

Act 2: Confrontation

• Rising Action. The story's true stakes become clear; our hero grows familiar with her ‘new world’ and has her first encounters with some enemies and allies. (see Tests, Allies, Enemies)
• Midpoint. An event that upends the protagonist’s mission. (Similar to the climax in Freytag’s pyramid)
• Plot Point Two. In the wake of the disorienting midpoint, the protagonist is tested — and fails. Her ability to succeed is now in doubt.

Act 3: Resolution

• Pre Climax. The night is darkest before dawn. The protagonist must pull herself together and choose between decisive action and failure.
• Climax. She faces off against her antagonist one last time. Will she prevail?
• Denouement. All loose ends are tied up. The reader discovers the consequences of the climax. A new status quo is established.

When we speak about a confrontation with an antagonist, this doesn’t always mean a fight to the death. In some cases, the antagonist might be a love rival, a business competitor, or merely an internal or environmental conflict that our protagonist has been struggling with the entire story.

If you’re interested in using this model to plot your own story, read our guide to the three-act structure , and be sure to sign up to our free course on the subject.

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4. Dan Harmon's Story Circle

Another variation on Campbell’s monomyth structure, the Story Circle is an approach developed by Rick and Morty co-creator Dan Harmon. Again, heavily inspired by the Hero's Journey, the benefit of Harmon's approach is its focus on the protagonist's character arc. Instead of referring to abstract concepts like 'story midpoint' and 'denouement', each beat in the story circle forces the writer to think about the character's wants and needs.

• A character is in a zone of comfort... This is the establishment of the status quo.
• But they want something... This 'want' could be something long-standing and brought to the fore by an inciting incident.
• They enter an unfamiliar situation... The protagonist must do something new in their pursuit of the thing they want.
• Adapt to it... Faced with some challenges, they struggle then begin to succeed.
• Get what they wanted... Usually a false victory.
• Pay a heavy price for it... They realize that what they 'wanted' wasn't what they 'needed'.
• Then return to their familiar situation... armed with a new truth.
• Having changed... For better or worse.

Created by a writer whose chosen medium is the 30-minute sitcom, this structure is worded in a way that sidesteps the need for a protagonist to undergo life-changing transformations with each story. After all, for a comedy to continue for six seasons (and a movie) its characters can't completely transform at the end of each episode. They can, however, learn small truths about themselves and the world around them — which, like all humans, they can quickly forget about if next week's episode calls for it.

To learn more and see this structure applied to an episode of Rick and Morty, check out our full post on Dan Harmon's Story Circle .

Side note: for this kind of character-driven plot (and, indeed, for all of these structures), you're going to want to know you're protagonist inside and out. Why not check out some of our character development exercises for help fleshing your characters out, like the profile template below.

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5. Fichtean Curve

Fleshed out in John Gardner’s The Art of Fiction , the Fichtean Curve is a narrative structure that puts our main characters through a series of many obstacles on their way to achieving their overarching goals. Resembling Freytag’s Pyramid, it encourages authors to write narratives packed with tension and mini-crises that keep readers eager to reach the climax.

Bypassing the “ordinary world” setup of many other structures, the Fichtean Curve starts with the inciting incident and goes straight into the rising action. Multiple crises occur, each of which contributes to the readers’ overall understanding of the narrative — replacing the need for the initial exposition.

To discuss this unusual structure, it’s perhaps best to see it in use. We’ll use Celeste Ng’s Everything I Never Told You as an example. Needless to say, spoilers ahead.

Rising Action

• First crisis. Lydia’s family is informed her body was found in a nearby lake. From this first crisis's climax, the narrative flashes back to provide exposition and details of the family’s history.
• Second crisis. In flashbacks, we discover that, 11 years prior, Marilyn abandoned her family to resume her undergraduate studies. In her absence, the family begins to fall apart. Marilyn learns she is pregnant and is forced to return home. Having lost her opportunity for further education, she places the pressure of academic success on her children.
• Third crisis. Back in the present, Lydia’s father, James, is cheating on Marilyn. The police decide to close the investigation, ruling Lydia’s death a suicide. This results in a massive argument between her parents, and James leaves to stay with the “other woman.”
• Fourth crisis. Flashback to the day Lydia died. From her perspective, we see that she’s misunderstood by her parents. She mourns her brother’s impending departure for college, leaving her as the sole focus of her parents’ pressure. Isolated, she tries to seduce a friend — who rejects her advances and explains he’s in love with her brother.
• Lydia takes a boat into the lake in the middle of the night — determined to overcome her fear of water and reclaim control of her life. Lydia jumps off the boat, into the water, and out of this life. As in a classical tragedy, this moment is both devastating and inevitable.

Falling Action

• Some level of resolution is achieved, and readers get to at least glimpse the “new norm” for the characters. Lydia’s family lean on one another in their grief. While they may never be able to make their amends with Lydia, they can learn from her death. Not all of the loose ends are tied off, but readers infer the family is on the long road to recovery.

Note: In the rising action stage, all of the crises should build tension towards — and correspond with — the story’s major climax. Like the three-act narrative structure, the Fichtean Curve’s climax typically occurs two-thirds through the book.

While this structure lends itself well to flashback-heavy novels such as Everything I Never Told You, it is also incredibly common in theatre. In stage plays like The Cherry Orchard and A Doll’s House , the action takes place in a fixed time and place, but backstory and character development are revealed through moments of high drama that occur before the audience’s eyes.

For a deeper look at this structure, head to our full post on the Fichtean Curve .

6. Save the Cat Beat Sheet

Another variation of the three-act structure, this framework created by Hollywood screenwriter Blake Snyder, has been widely championed by storytellers across many media forms.

Fun fact: Save the Cat is named for a moment in the set up of a story (usually a film) where our hero does something to endear himself to the audience.

While many structures are reluctant to prescribe exactly when in a story the various beats should take place, Snyder and Save the Cat have no such qualms. The number in the square brackets below refers to the page that the beat should take place — assuming you’re writing a 110-page screenplay.

• Opening Image [1]. The first shot of the film. If you’re starting a novel , this would be an opening paragraph or scene that sucks readers into the world of your story.
• Set-up [1-10]. Establishing the ‘ordinary world’ of your protagonist. What does he want? What is he missing out on?
• Theme Stated [5]. During the setup, hint at what your story is really about — the truth that your protagonist will discover by the end.
• Catalyst [12]. The inciting incident!
• Debate [12-25]. The hero refuses the call to adventure. He tries to avoid the conflict before they are forced into action.
• Break into Two [25]. The protagonist makes an active choice and the journey begins in earnest.
• B Story [30]. A subplot kicks in. Often romantic in nature, the protagonist’s subplot should serve to highlight the theme.
• The Promise of the Premise [30-55]. Often called the ‘fun and games’ stage, this is usually a highly entertaining section where the writer delivers the goods. If you promised an exciting detective story, we’d see the detective in action. If you promised a goofy story of people falling in love, let’s go on some charmingly awkward dates.
• Midpoint [55]. A plot twist occurs that ups the stakes and makes the hero’s goal harder to achieve — or makes them focus on a new, more important goal.
• Bad Guys Close In [55-75]. The tension ratchets up. The hero’s obstacles become greater, his plan falls apart, and he is on the back foot.
• All is Lost [75]. The hero hits rock bottom. He loses everything he’s gained so far, and things are looking bleak. The hero is overpowered by the villain; a mentor dies; our lovebirds have an argument and break up.
• Dark Night of the Soul [75-85-ish]. Having just lost everything, the hero shambles around the city in a minor-key musical montage before discovering some “new information” that reveals exactly what he needs to do if he wants to take another crack at success. (This new information is often delivered through the B-Story)
• Break into Three [85]. Armed with this new information, our protagonist decides to try once more!
• Finale [85-110]. The hero confronts the antagonist or whatever the source of the primary conflict is. The truth that eluded him at the start of the story (established in step three and accentuated by the B Story) is now clear, allowing him to resolve their story.
• Final Image [110]. A final moment or scene that crystallizes how the character has changed. It’s a reflection, in some way, of the opening image.

Some writers may find this structure too prescriptive, but it’s incredible to see how many mainstream stories seem to adhere to it — either by design or coincidence. Over on the Save the Cat website, there are countless examples of films and novels analyzed with Snyder’s 15 beats . You’ll be surprised how accurate some of the timings are for each of the beats.

For a deeper dive into this framework, and to watch this video where Reedsy’s Shaelin plots out a Middle-Grade fantasy novel using Snyder’s method — head to our full post on the Save the Cat Beat Sheet .

7. Seven-Point Story Structure

A slightly less detailed adaptation of The Hero’s Journey, the Seven-Point Story Structure focuses specifically on the highs and lows of a narrative arc .

According to author Dan Wells, who developed the Seven-Point Story Structure , writers are encouraged to start at the end, with the resolution, and work their way back to the starting point: the hook. With the ending in mind, they can have their protagonist and plot begin in a state that best contrasts the finale — since this structure is all about dramatic changes from beginning to end.

• The Hook. Draw readers in by explaining the protagonist’s current situation. Their state of being at the beginning of the novel should be in direct contrast to what it will be at the end of the novel.
• Plot Point 1. Whether it’s a person, an idea, an inciting incident, or something else — there should be a "Call to Adventure" of sorts that sets the narrative and character development in motion.
• Pinch Point 1. Things can’t be all sunshine and roses for your protagonist. Something should go wrong here that applies pressure to the main character, forcing them to step up and solve the problem.
• Midpoint. A “Turning Point” wherein the main character changes from a passive force to an active force in the story. Whatever the narrative’s main conflict is, the protagonist decides to start meeting it head-on.
• Pinch Point 2. The second pinch point involves another blow to the protagonist — things go even more awry than they did during the first pinch point. This might involve the passing of a mentor, the failure of a plan, the reveal of a traitor, etc.
• Plot Point 2. After the calamity of Pinch Point 2, the protagonist learns that they’ve actually had the key to solving the conflict the whole time.
• Resolution. The story’s primary conflict is resolved — and the character goes through the final bit of development necessary to transform them from who they were at the start of the novel.

For a deeper look into Wells's approach — including the key to using it — check out our full post on the seven-point story structure .

We've said it before, and we'll say it again: story structures aren't an exact science, and you should feel welcome to stray from the path they present. They're simply there to help you find your narrative's footing — a blueprint for the world you're about to start building.

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Three, six or 36: how many basic plots are there in all stories ever written?

Slaughterhouse-Five author Kurt Vonnegut’s rejected university thesis laid out his vision of deep narrative ‘shapes’. Now academics have run computer analysis of his theory

In 1965, Kurt Vonnegut submitted a thesis to the University of Chicago outlining how classic stories such as Cinderella shared a basic “shape”. It was rejected, and he was furious, speculating that it had been turned down because “it was so simple and looked like so much fun”, and raging that “the apathy of the University of Chicago is repulsive to me. They can take a flying fuck at the mooooooooooooooon.”

The thesis formed the basis of a lecture Vonnegut would give years later – watch it here, it’s so worth it – expanding on his theory with graphs to illustrate the various forms of story, from man in a hole (“somebody gets into trouble and gets out of it again”) to boy gets girl . “There is no reason why the simple shapes of stories can’t be fed into computers; they are beautiful shapes,” said Vonnegut.

A new academic study has done exactly this, and gives us yet another reason to wish the great man were still with us to share his thoughts on it (and perhaps resubmit that thesis). Researchers from the University of Vermont’s Computational Story Lab fed 1,737 stories from Project Gutenberg – all English-language texts, all fiction – through a program that analysed their language for its emotional content.

Putting – maybe – an end to a debate that has been ongoing for millennia , the researchers found there are “six core trajectories which form the building blocks of complex narratives”. These are: “rags to riches” (a story that follows a rise in happiness), “tragedy”, or “riches to rags” (one that follows a fall in happiness), “man in a hole” (fall–rise), “Icarus” (rise–fall), “Cinderella” (rise–fall–rise), and “Oedipus” (fall–rise–fall). The most successful – here defined as the most downloaded – types of story, they find, are Cinderella, Oedipus, two sequential man in a hole arcs, and Cinderella with a tragic ending.

Their analysis (and the “simple shapes of stories” as theorised by Vonnegut) is provided online , and it’s fascinating to pick through. I liked the rise-fall-rise shape of Gulliver’s Travels, where words such as “destroy”, “enemy” and “ignorance” drag down the happiness rating, and the plunging “Icarus” graph of Romeo and Juliet , plagued by words such as “tears”, “die”, “weep” and “poison”.

The researchers acknowledge that “there have been various hand-coded attempts to enumerate and classify the core types of stories from their plots” in the past, whether it’s Foster-Harris’s 1959 assertion that there are three basic plot patterns (happy ending, unhappy ending and tragedy), or Christopher Booker’s The Seven Basic Plots . The latter cites seven possible narrative structures: overcoming the monster (as in Beowulf ), rags to riches (as in Cinderella), the quest (as in King Solomon’s Mines), voyage and return (as in The Time Machine), comedy (as in A Midsummer Night’s Dream), tragedy (as in Anna Karenina) and rebirth (as in Beauty and the Beast).

The author Ronald Tobias, the researchers point out, came up with 20 “master plots”, including “underdog”, “metamorphosis”, “ascension” and “descension”. Georges Polti topped Tobias with 36: ranging from “rivalry of kinsmen” to “falling prey to cruelty of misfortune”.

It’s Vonnegut, however, who inspired the University of Vermont’s researchers most, in particular the similarity he finds between Cinderella and the origin story of Christianity in the Old Testament. In his autobiography, Palm Sunday, Vonnegut wrote: “I confessed that I was daunted by the graph of Cinderella, and was tempted to leave it out of my thesis, since it seemed to prove that I was full of shit. It seemed too complicated and arbitrary to be a representative artefact … but then I said to myself: ‘Wait a minute – those steps at the beginning look like the creation myth of virtually every society on earth.’ And then I saw that the stroke of midnight looked exactly like the unique creation myth in the Old Testament. And then I saw that the rise to bliss at the end was identical with the expectation of redemption as expressed in primitive Christianity. The tales were identical.” Vonnegut’s journey led the researchers “to search for all such groupings”.

The academics’ analysis looks at 10,000-word windows, each of which has its emotional content rated. This means they capture “the major highs and lows” of a story, rather than any briefly discussed emotional moments. It also only considers English literature, and the fact it is all taken from Project Gutenberg means it is restricted to older material in the public domain. But it’s a start.

It also comes at a time when new plot arcs are possibly forming: Angus Phillips, head of the school of arts and director of the Oxford International Centre for Publishing Studies at Oxford Brookes University, speculates that “the increase in reading on digital devices is changing the behaviour of authors”, with “a divergence between plot-driven, genre fiction aimed at a digital audience; contrasted with the character-driven approach of literary fiction, often read in print”. He points to Fay Weldon’s comments on her blog, that “short, in this the day of the galloping e-reader, is best. Writers need to envisage readers not turning the page as the maid draws the curtains and brings a glass of wine, but on the train or bus on the way to work, eating a sandwich, or standing in the queue for coffee.” It would be fascinating to see the University of Vermont’s programme applied to contemporary fiction, and to see if anything has changed today.

• Kurt Vonnegut

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Literary English

Different Types of Literature

What is literature.

Literature generally can be any written work, but it especially is an artistic or intellectual work of writing. The usage of language in literature is sometimes different from the way it is ordinarily used. The difference is the use of artistic tools to create aesthetic beauty in a text. Literature is the depiction of the society.  It is a great tool to teach the morality to a society. There are different types of literature through which different writers serve their own ends. Here is the detailed study about types of literature.

Types of Literature

These are the main types of literature:  Drama, Fable, Autobiography, Biography, Poetry, Prose, Science Fiction, and Journalistic Literature.

Drama is a play in literature, and a playwright composes it. It portrays fictional or non-fictional stories. To explain away certain events, characters, or stories, a drama is produced, using dialogues or actions. It can be performed on stage, radio or on big screens as in films. Conflicts, emotions and impressive characters are required to produce a high-quality drama. There are many forms of drama but some of the most common are:  comedy, tragedy, musical drama  and  melodrama . Let us have a brief explanation of these types of drama.

Comedy:  Comedy is a type of drama, which is lighter in tone. Its purpose is to make the audience laugh and amuse them. It has a happy ending. Very unusual circumstances are there coupled with quick and witty remarks. People consider it as the most entertaining and fun form of drama and literature. An example of a comedy drama is  ’The Comedy of Errors’  by William Shakespeare.

Tragedy:  Tragedy is the type of drama that has a dark theme. It portrays suffering, pain, longing, and often death. An example of a tragedy drama is ‘ Romeo and Juliet’  by William Shakespeare.

Musical Drama:  A musical drama tells a story with dialogues, songs, music, and dance. These things convey the emotions in the drama. An example of a musical drama is  ‘A Star is Born’ , which starred Lady Gaga.

Melodrama:  Melodrama is a kind of drama that portrays exaggerated emotions like tension or excitement. It arouses the same emotions in the audience and makes them indulged in it. The situation and the dialogues are more important in a melodrama than action. An example of a melodrama is  ‘Still   Life, Brief Encounter’  by Noel Coward.

Writers write a fable when the intention is to provide the audience with a moral story. A fable usually uses animals as characters to convey the story. In Fables, animals act like humans and are able to speak and understand reasoning. They are a personification of human characteristics and their nature. An example of a fable is the famous story of  ‘The Tortoise and the Hare’ , which almost every child has heard in his childhood.

Autobiography

  Autobiography is an interesting thing to read because of its teller of the story is the one, about who the story is. The character himself is the writer and describes his life from his own original perspective and experiences. It gives you an insight on the person that is writing it, because they share their true-life events and thoughts. Mostly, famous people write autobiographies to tell their story to their fans and the world. A famous and spectacular example of autobiography is  ‘The Diary of a Young Girl’ , a book by Anne Frank.

Biography in literature tells the story of a person from another person’s perspective. Someone else writes it rather than the subject himself. The writer could be somebody close to the person or somebody who had studied about that person. Biography is different from a resume because it enlightens the audience with different aspects of a person’s life. A great example of biography is  ‘Unbroken:   A World War II Story of Survival, Resilience, and Redemption’,  by Laura Hillenbrand.

Poetry in literature is a composition of rhythm, sound, and lyrics. The definition of poetry by one of the greatest poets in history, William Wordsworth, is  “the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings” . ( 1 ) The poet composes poetry in sort of a song to develop emotions and imaginations in the listeners’ hearts and minds. Poetry is aesthetic. The poet chooses words carefully, so the listeners can relate themselves to it. The four main types of poetry are  haiku, free verse, sonnets,  and  acrostic   poems . An example of one of the most beautiful books of poetry is  ‘Ariel’ , by Sylvia Plath.

Prose in literature is that form of literature, which is somewhat plain and simple. It has no special grammar structure or a writing pattern to follow. It is written in a usual tone, forming into a natural speech or a conversational tone. Nothing is specific in prose. Paragraphs or sentences can be long or short. Examples of prose include novels, newspapers, textbooks, etc.

Science Fiction

Science fiction, also called “sci-fi,” is a genre of literature where most of the things are imaginary. The stories are about the future technology. These fiction stories also have a relationship to real science laws, because science considers those things possible in future, according to the scientific laws. Science fictions are sometimes true and sometimes they are just imaginations based on assumptions. Some examples of science fiction are,  ‘The Time Machine’  by H. G. Wells,  ‘Spies in Disguise’  by Blue Sky Studios,  ‘A Wrinkle in Time’  by Madeleine L’Engle, etc.

Journalistic Literature

Journalistic Literature is a sort of nonfiction. In literary journalism, the journalist gathers information and then creates and publishes. It combines the facts and reporting with some clever strategies and narrative techniques. These techniques make the reports more engaging and interesting. People call literary journalism also Narrative or New Journalism. Some of the most prominent literary journalists of past and present are Mark Singer, Richard Rhodes, Jack London, Stephen Crane, Tom Wolfe, Henry Mayhew, etc. ( 2 )

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Types of Genres: A Literary Guide

Are you looking to be inspired by a new biography? What about cracking open a heart-racing thriller? There’s always romance, too, if you're in the mood for love.

Whether you’re picking another book off the shelf or plotting out your new novel, learning more about genre can help you decide what comes next.

What is Genre in Literature?

If you want to become a writer , there are a number of reasons to learn about genres, according to Paul Witcover , associate dean of the online Master of Fine Arts (MFA) in Creative Writing  program at Southern New Hampshire University (SNHU).

Witcover helped develop SNHU’s online MFA program and is the author of several novels, including “Lincolnstein” and “The Emperor of All Things." His work has been released by major publishers, including HarperCollins and Simon & Schuster. As both an educator and a writer specializing in fantasy, science-fiction and horror, he has a unique insight into the subject of genre.

“I feel it’s important for writers to have an understanding of genre because it will impact how their books are marketed, as well as how they are perceived by publishers,” he said. “But I also think writers can be too concerned with genre.”

Although he encourages writers to learn about the subject, Witcover noted a tendency for overly rigid ideas about the distinctions between genres. “Concepts of genre are more fluid than writers may believe,” he said.

Keeping that fluidity in mind, here’s an overview of some of the most referenced genres in literature. 

What are the Four Major Categories of Genre?

• Fiction: Imagined or invented literature is called fiction, Writers & Artists noted. Examples of fiction titles include “1984” by George Orwell and “Little Fires Everywhere” by Celeste Ng.
• Nonfiction: According to Writers & Artists, nonfiction refers to fact-based works. Some nonfiction titles include “The Body Keeps Score” by Bessel van der Kolk and “I Am Malala” by Malala Yousafzai, and “Essentials of Classic Italian Cooking” by Marcella Hazan. 
• Poetry: Britannica defines poetry as “literature that evokes a concentrated imaginative awareness of experience or a specific emotional response through language chosen and arranged for its meaning, sound and rhythm.” Poetry incorporates poetic elements and encompasses the work of writers like Maya Angelou, Robert Frost, Amanda Gorman and Richard Siken.
• Drama: Dramatic literature refers to texts of plays that can be read for their literary value as well as performed, according to Britannica. Dramas include stage directions and specific formatting not found in prose or verse. Some of the most studied dramas are Shakespeare’s plays, like “Hamlet” and “Romeo and Juliet.” You might be familiar with other dramas, too, like “Death of a Salesman” and “The Crucible” by Arthur Miller or August Wilson’s Century Cycle of 10 dramas depicting the Black experience in the U.S. throughout the 20th century, including “The Piano Lesson” and “Fences.”

Although most writing falls into at least one of these four categories, the edges are a bit blurred, and there can be overlap. For example, a verse novel combines fiction and poetry, like “The Poet X” by Elizabeth Acevedo. There are also novels that combine elements of fiction with nonfiction, including novels based on real experiences and historical fiction like “The Night Watchman” by Louise Erdrich. Many classic dramas, such as Shakespeare's plays, also include elements of poetry.

In the end, these classifications often come down to style and form — like whether a work is written in prose or verse, for instance.

What’s the Difference Between Prose and Verse?

Prose refers to the type of language used in non-poetic writing, including most fiction and nonfiction. According to Merriam-Webster , prose is “a literary medium distinguished from poetry especially by its greater irregularity and variety of rhythm and its closer correspondence to the patterns of everyday speech.” Most of the articles, blogs and books you read feature prose writing.

The direct counterpart to prose is verse, which Merriam-Webster calls metrical language or language using poetic meter or rhythm. An easy way to remember the difference between prose and verse is thinking about music. Song lyrics have verses and — you guessed it — lyrics are typically written in verse.

What are the Genres of Fiction?

First, fiction is typically organized by the age of its prospective audience. These categories include:

• Children’s Literature: Many classic examples of children’s literature are picture books, including “Where the Wild Things Are” by Maurice Sendak or “Don’t Let the Pigeon Drive the Bus” by Mo Willems. Scholastic noted most picture books are intended for children up to seven years old.
• Middle Grade: According to Penguin Random House , middle grade books are typically aimed toward children ages eight through 12, or in third through sixth grade. Some middle grade books are “The Lion, The Witch and The Wardrobe” by C.S. Lewis and “The Girl Who Drank the Moon” by Kelly Barnhill.
• Young Adult (YA): YA books are intended for readers between 12 and 18 years old, according to Smithsonian Magazine . Some examples include “The Hunger Games” by Suzanne Collins and “The Hate U Give” by Angie Thomas.
• Adult: Adult works are geared toward readers over 18 years old and often include more mature themes. Examples are “Giovanni's Room” by James Baldwin and “The Girl With the Dragon Tattoo” by Stieg Larsson.

In terms of readership, these categories mainly serve as points of reference. There are readers under eight years old who prefer middle grade books, and many adult readers who enjoy YA. There are also some books that appeal to both adults and younger audiences.

Apart from these age categories, there are a few other ways that fiction can be divided and discussed. For instance, there are categories that describe real-world fiction versus the fantastical.

• Mimetic fiction: Mimetic fiction is sometimes called realistic fiction, according to Witcover. This wide category encompasses all fiction that takes place in the real world.
• Speculative fiction: Speculative fiction  refers to genres not based in reality, including work with magical, supernatural or otherwise imagined elements. Essentially, speculative fiction is the opposite of mimetic fiction. The category includes subgenres like fantasy, science-fiction, dystopian fiction and more, Witcover noted.

From there, fiction can be broken down into a few other different categories, according to Dr. Lisa Wood, MFA , a graduate and undergraduate English and literature instructor and team lead at SNHU. Wood is an award-winning screenwriter and psychological horror author and vice president of the Horror Writers Association.

She said that fiction is also frequently divided into two more camps: commercial and literary.

• Commercial fiction: Fiction that has mass appeal is often referred to as commercial fiction. Because of its wide appeal, commercial fiction tends to be extremely popular. Wood noted commercial fiction also tends to be plot-based.
• Literary fiction: “Literary fiction is character-based fiction,” Wood said. She added that literary fiction is typically mimetic and focused on themes and symbols. Witcover explained a bit further. “Traditionally, literary fiction has been said to be more about character than plot, but I don't agree with that,” he said. Instead, he noted that literary fiction is more occupied with style and structure than a straightforward storytelling approach.

These categories can overlap, too. A few books with both mass-appeal and distinguished praise include “The Great Gatsby” by F. Scott Fitzgerald and “The Goldfinch” by Donna Tartt.

What is Genre Fiction?

• Fantasy: According to the California Department of Education (CDE) , fantasy "invites suspension of reality." The genre encompasses stories that wouldn't happen in real life, often set in another world or including magical elements. Examples include “The Hundred Thousand Kingdoms” by N.K. Jemisin and “Good Omens” by Neil Gaiman and Terry Pratchett.
• Historical fiction: Historical fiction takes place in a historical setting, the CDE notes. Some examples of historical fiction include “The Prophets” by Robert Jones, Jr. and “The Four Winds” by Kristin Hannah.
• Horror: “Carrie” by Stephen King, “The Haunting of Hill House” by Shirley Jackson and Edgar Allen Poe’s work are all under the umbrella of horror. These works are intended to frighten audiences and elicit a feeling of dread, according to the CDE.
• Thriller: According to the New York Public Library, thrillers gradually build anxiety and suspense . Examples of thrillers include “Gone Girl” by Gillian Flynn, “All Her Little Secrets” by Wanda M. Morris and “The Silent Patient” by Alex Michaelides.
• Romance: Romance Writers of America (RWA) noted that romance refers to optimistic and emotionally satisfying stories that focus on a central love story.  “The Love Hypothesis” by Ali Hazelwood and “Red, White and Royal Blue” by Casey McQuiston are both romance novels.

“Each of these major genres contain several subgenres that further define the type of story,” Wood said. For instance, legal thrillers, psychological thrillers and spy thrillers all fall under the umbrella of thrillers.

Some additional examples of genre fiction are science-fiction, mystery, western, dystopian and gothic. “Many stories contain elements of several defined genres,” said Wood.

Witcover agreed that a great deal of fiction could be filed under multiple genres. “I actually happen to think that all fiction is genre fiction,” he said. “Every type of fiction is appealing to a particular audience and carries its own freight of tropes, conventions, and expectations.”

What are the Genres of Nonfiction?

According to the New York Public Library , some types of nonfiction and their definitions include:

• Biography: Biographies tell the story of a notable person’s life, written by someone other than the subject. Some examples are “Into the Wild” by Jon Krakauer, which tells the story of the adventurer Chris McCandless, and “The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks” by Rebecca Skloot.
• Food and travel: Cookbooks, food history books, travel guides and travel memoirs all fall under this category that includes “The Omnivore's Dilemma” by Michael Pollan and “My Life in France” by Julia Child.
• Memoir: Stories from an author’s life that offer a firsthand account of events are called memoirs. According to Reader's Digest , some highly-recommended memoirs include “I Know Why The Caged Bird Sings” by Maya Angelou and “Spare” by Prince Harry.
• True crime:  True-crime books describe real events from actual crimes or unsolved mysteries. Some examples are “In Cold Blood” by Truman Capote and “I'll Be Gone in the Dark” by Michelle McNamara.

Nonfiction also includes self-help books, like “Atomic Habits” by James Clear and “Find Your People” by Jennie Allen, in addition to textbooks and books on business, history and a variety of other subjects.

What are the Most Popular Genres Overall?

According to Witcover, romance is one of the most popular literary genres, but he added that the broader categories of speculative fiction and mimetic fiction are both extremely popular at large.

For adult works, Publishers Weekly reported the best-selling fiction genres of 2022 were:

• General fiction
• Graphic novel
• Suspense and thriller

The top selling nonfiction genres of 2022 noted by Publishers Weekly included:

• General nonfiction
• Biography, autobiography and memoir
• Business and economics

While more nonfiction books were sold overall, there was growth for fiction sales between 2021 and 2022. Publishers Weekly reported the fastest growing genres in that time were romance, fantasy and horror.

What Else Should You Know About Genre?

“It is important to understand that genre is a marketing tool,” said Wood. “It is the method that booksellers use to determine where to shelve books.”

She noted that writers should consider the elements, tropes and expectations that exist within each genre, but regardless of genre, there’s something more important to consider. “Write and write well,” she said. “The rest will come.”

If you want to hone your craft as a writer and further explore the traditions and trends of different genres, SNHU’s bachelor’s in creative writing  includes concentration options in:

• Screenwriting

Studying creative writing can be a great way to develop your skills and start your career, no matter what type of genre you plan to write. And if you’re more interested in literary theory, criticism and studying existing works, you could consider a degree in English literature .

Find Your Program

According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) , working writers and authors typically hold at least a bachelor’s degree when entering the field. If you already have a bachelor’s, you could also consider an advanced degree like a Master of Arts (MA) in Creative Writing  or an MFA in Creative Writing.

Learning about genre can offer you a deeper understanding of your craft, and once you know the rules, you can masterfully rewrite them. However, Witcover noted that genre should never confine you as a writer.

“Know your genres,” he said. “But write what you want regardless of genre.”

A degree can change your life. Find the SNHU liberal arts program  that can best help you meet your goals. 

Mars Girolimon '21 '23G is a staff writer at Southern New Hampshire University where they earned their bachelor's and master's, both in English and creative writing. In addition to their work in higher education, Girolimon's short fiction is published in the North American Review, So It Goes by The Kurt Vonnegut Museum & Library, X-R-A-Y and more. They're currently writing their debut novel, which was Longlisted for The First Pages Prize. Connect with them on LinkedIn and X, formerly known as Twitter .

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Short Story: A Literary Genre

The short story, a concise narrative form within the literary canon, is characterized by brevity and focus, typically encapsulating a single theme, conflict, or character development in a limited word count.

Short Story: Literal and Conceptual Meanings

Table of Contents

The short story as a genre epitomizes a dynamic interplay between literal and conceptual meanings, presenting a concise yet potent narrative form that beckons readers to explore beyond its surface. On a literal level, short stories encapsulate succinct plots, well-defined characters, and often a singular theme or conflict within a confined word count. This brevity, however, acts as a canvas for the conceptual dimensions to unfold. Short stories frequently operate as allegories or metaphors, encapsulating broader societal, psychological, or existential truths within their narrative confines. This dual nature of literal brevity and conceptual depth allows short stories to resonate with readers on both immediate and profound levels, challenging them to unravel layers of meaning and prompting contemplation long after the final words have been read.

Short Story: Definition as a Literary Genre

The short story, a concise narrative form within the literary canon, is characterized by brevity and focus, typically encapsulating a single theme , conflict , or character development in a limited word count. It serves as a literary microcosm, offering a snapshot of human experience that demands precision in storytelling.

Defined by its compact structure, the short story demands economy of language while often inviting readers to engage with nuanced layers of meaning and interpretation.

Short Story: Types

This table aims to encompass a wide range of short story types, but the categorization can be fluid as some stories may exhibit characteristics of multiple genres.

Short Story in Literature: Key Features

• Brevity: Short stories are concise narratives that focus on a single theme, incident, or character. They aim to deliver a complete narrative experience within a limited word count.
• Central Theme: Short stories often revolve around a central theme or idea, providing a focused exploration of specific emotions, conflicts, or concepts.
• Character Development: Despite their brevity, short stories can feature well-developed characters that undergo significant changes or face challenges, contributing to the narrative’s depth.
• Economy of Language: Short stories demand precision in language use. Every word serves a purpose, contributing to the overall impact of the narrative.
• Limited Setting: Due to their compact nature, short stories often have a limited setting, focusing on specific locations or environments essential to the plot.
• Crisis or Turning Point: Short stories frequently include a critical moment, often referred to as the climax, where the narrative takes a decisive turn, leading to resolution or a change in the characters’ circumstances.
• Narrative Structure : While there is flexibility, short stories typically follow a traditional narrative structure with an introduction, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution.
• Emphasis on Imagery: Short stories often rely on vivid imagery to convey emotions, settings, and characters in a condensed format, engaging the reader’s senses.
• Open or Closed Endings: Short stories can conclude with either open or closed endings, leaving room for interpretation or providing a definitive resolution to the narrative.
• Exploration of Human Experience: Whether through realistic portrayals or fantastical elements, short stories aim to capture facets of the human experience, offering insights, reflections, or commentary on life.

These features collectively contribute to the unique appeal and impact of short stories within the broader landscape of literature.

Short Story in World Literature: Best Examples

• Features: A complex narrative that blends elements of fantasy, philosophy, and detective fiction, exploring the idea of infinite possibilities.
• Features: A satirical and absurd tale where a man wakes up to find his nose missing, delving into themes of identity and societal absurdity.
• Features: Blurring the lines between journalism and fiction, Marquez narrates the events leading to a man’s predestined death in a small Colombian town.
• Features: A poignant exploration of family dynamics and loss, told through the eyes of a young girl whose father works at a lighthouse.
• Features: A contemporary Japanese story blending romance and coming-of-age elements, capturing the essence of grief, love, and personal growth.

Short Story in British Literature: Best Examples

• Features: A classic ghost story that blends the supernatural with Dickens’s social commentary, exploring themes of isolation and fate.
• Features: A poignant exploration of the destructive nature of materialism and the impact of familial expectations on a young boy.
• Features: The final story in Joyce’s “Dubliners,” offering a rich portrayal of Irish society and delving into themes of love, death, and self-discovery.
• Features: While Jackson is American, “The Lottery” had a significant impact on British literature. It’s a chilling exploration of blind conformity and the darker aspects of tradition.
• Features: A darkly humorous and suspenseful tale that showcases Dahl’s skill in blending the macabre with wit, as a young man discovers the unsettling secrets of his landlady.

Short Story in American Literature: Best Examples

• Features: A Gothic masterpiece that explores the psychological deterioration of an unnamed narrator who becomes obsessed with the “vulture eye” of an old man.
• Features: A chilling portrayal of a small town’s ritualistic stoning, revealing the dangers of blind conformity and the darker aspects of tradition.
• Features: A Southern Gothic tale that combines dark humor with profound moral questions, as a family’s road trip takes an unexpected and tragic turn.
• Features: A story that blends adventure with introspection, exploring themes of regret, death, and the impact of a writer’s choices on his life.
• Features: A humorous exploration of the effects of sudden wealth on a working-class family, reflecting Chekhov’s keen understanding of human nature.

Short Story in Literature Translation: Best Examples

• Features: A poignant reflection on language, culture, and loss set against the backdrop of the Franco-Prussian War, emphasizing the importance of education.
• Features: A thought-provoking exploration of the nature of life, morality, and the pursuit of knowledge, showcasing Chekhov’s mastery of the short story form.
• Features: A mind-bending narrative that blends elements of fantasy, philosophy, and detective fiction, challenging conventional notions of time and reality.
• Features: A classic novella that captures the indomitable spirit of an aging Cuban fisherman, exploring themes of resilience, endurance, and the eternal struggle between man and nature.
• Features: A collection of short stories that delves into Murakami’s surreal and existential themes, often blurring the boundaries between reality and imagination.

Short Story in Literature: Relevant Terms

Short story in literature: suggested readings.

• Chekhov, Anton. The Essential Tales of Chekhov. Edited by Richard Ford, Ecco, 1999.
• O’Connor, Flannery. A Good Man Is Hard to Find and Other Stories. Harcourt, 1955.
• Borges, Jorge Luis. Collected Fictions . Translated by Andrew Hurley, Viking Penguin, 1998.
• Joyce, James. Dubliners. Oxford University Press, 1996.
• Murakami, Haruki. Men Without Women . Translated by Philip Gabriel and Ted Goossen, Knopf, 2017.

Anthologies:

• The Oxford Book of American Short Stories. Edited by Joyce Carol Oates, Oxford University Press, 2012.
• The Vintage Book of Contemporary American Short Stories . Edited by Tobias Wolff, Vintage, 1994.
• The Norton Anthology of Short Fiction. Edited by R.V. Cassill and Richard Bausch, W. W. Norton & Company, 1981.
• The Art of the Short Story . Edited by Dana Gioia and R. S. Gwynn, Pearson, 2005.

Theoretical Works:

• Poe, Edgar Allan. “The Philosophy of Composition.” The Complete Works of Edgar Allan Poe , edited by James A. Harrison, T. Y. Crowell & Co., 1902, pp. 356-370.
• Culler, Jonathan. The Pursuit of Signs: Semiotics, Literature, Deconstruction. Cornell University Press, 1981.

Related posts:

• Prolepsis: A Literary Device
• Theatrical Devices in Plays/Dramas

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Could a video game developer win the Nobel Prize for Literature?

Profesor de Humanidades, IE University

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Andrés Porras Chaves does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

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In October 2016, the Swedish Academy announced that it was awarding the Nobel prize for Literature to the singer-songwriter Bob Dylan for “having created new poetic expressions within the great American song tradition”. The decision sent out shockwaves: for the first time, a musician had received the most prestigious literary award on the planet. It sparked debate , with many questioning the decision and even sarcastic suggestions that novelists could aspire to winning a Grammy.

The controversy fed into much needed debates on the boundary between poetry and song, but the question of what constitutes literature is much broader. Does it mean the same as it did in 1901, when the first Nobel prize for literature was awarded?

High and low culture

These questions date back far beyond 2016. In the late 1950s, a group of professors from the University of Birmingham founded a new interdisciplinary area of study, called cultural studies , in order to ask new questions: What was the role of TV and other mass media in cultural development? Is there a justification for distinguishing high and low culture? What is the relationship between culture and power?

These questions are all still relevant to current debates around literature. Often, the word “literary” is a status symbol, a seal of approval to distinguish “high” culture from more vulgar or less valuable “low” forms of culture. Comics, for example, were not invited to join the club until recently, thanks in part to a rebranding under the more respectable guise of “graphic novels”.

According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, literature displays “excellence of form or expression and expressing ideas of permanent or universal interest”. It seems that an artist like Bob Dylan can take home the Nobel prize thanks to literature’s defining feature of “excellence of form or expression”, which is not strictly limited to the written word.

But how do we account for other language-based forms of expression? If performed works such as theatre or songwriting can be considered literature, where is the limit?

Word play: text-based video games

According to data from video game data consultancy Newzoo , more than 3 billion people play video games worldwide – almost half of the world’s population. In Spain alone, 77% of young people play videogames , making them a massively relevant form of culture. But what does this have to do with “excellence of form or expression”? To answer this question we have to look back several decades.

When the first video games were developed in the 1950s, two distinct genres emerged: one was action oriented (such as the pioneering 1958 game Tennis for Two ), and the other more text based. The original written games, known as “ interactive fiction ”, were made up exclusively of text, and the player’s job was to read and make decisions that would determine the game’s outcome using a keyboard.

The inclusion of images in adventure games would not arrive until 1980, when Mystery House became the first “graphic adventure” game. These would reach their heyday in the 1990s: famous examples include the first two Monkey Island games (1990, 1991), Day of the Tentacle (1993), Full Throttle (1995), and Grim Fandango (1998), though there were many others. Despite technological advances, these games inherited several features from interactive fiction, including the predominant role of text.

The experience of playing one of these titles is not so different from that of a book: reading, pauses, the possibility of backtracking, and so on. The player spends most of their time in dialogue with various characters in search of information, stories, or even banter and jokes that are irrelevant to the game’s progress, much like footnotes or subplots.

Several classic adventure games even have direct links to literature: The Abbey of Crime (1987) is a Spanish adaptation of Umberto Eco’s The Name of the Rose , while the legendary insult sword fighting of The Secret of Monkey Island was written by science fiction author Orson Scott Card . In Myst (1993), the gameplay itself revolves around two books.

Literature on the screen: “story-rich” games

In more recent years, a new sub-genre of adventure games – known as “story-rich” games – has become popular thanks to independent creators and producers. In Papers, Please (2013), a border policeman in a fictional dictatorial regime deals with terrible moral dilemmas on a daily basis. In Firewatch (2016), players take the role of a forest ranger who investigates a conspiracy by walkie-talkie. In Return of the Obra Dinn (2018), the player must reconstruct a tragedy on the high seas with the help of an incomplete book and a peculiar compass. In all these cases, gameplay and visuals take a back seat to strong narratives.

A quintessential example is The Stanley Parable (2011), where the player takes the role of a worker in a strangely deserted office. They have to explore several corridors while trying unsuccessfully to interact with their surroundings, accompanied by the voice of an enigmatic narrator. Upon reaching a room with two open doors, the voiceover states that Stanley “entered the door on his left”.

The player can choose to follow the instructions or disobey, provoking the wrath of the narrator much like in the denouement of Miguel de Unamuno’s 1914 novel Fog , where the main character speaks directly to the author.

Each decision then opens up new paths leading to dozens of possible endings, similar to a “choose your own adventure” book. Its fragmentary and disordered story – as well as its playful spirit – is reminiscent of Julio Cortázar’s 1963 novel Hopscotch . The experience of playing the game is marked by postmodern literary features – as described by critics like Mikhail Bakhtin or Linda Hutcheon – including metafiction, intertextuality and parody.

One of its creators – Davey Wreden, a critical studies graduate – also created The Beginner’s Guide (2015), a game in which the player moves through levels of failed video games to learn more about their mysterious creator. In one, the player’s task consists solely of wandering through a virtual cave reading the countless comments left there by other frustrated players.

In recent years, the genre of digital or electronic literature has emerged, including books with QR codes, works that can only be read with virtual reality headsets, poetry collections published as apps, and so on. These works are fundamentally based on language, begging the question of why video games cannot also fit into this category.

This debate takes on added relevance today, as digital formats are having an undeniable impact on our reading habits. Just as today we accept oral cultures or popular music as literature, perhaps one day we will do the same with interactive stories like The Stanley Parable . Writing has always tried to break away from established ideas, and we know that literature is not limited to words on paper. Sometimes it pays to disobey the voice in our heads and walk through the door on the right, the one that leads to new, unexplored possibilities.

This article was originally published in Spanish

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N. Scott Momaday, Pulitzer-Winning Native American Novelist, Dies at 89

The success of his novel “House Made of Dawn,” the first work by a Native American to win a Pulitzer, inspired a wave of Native literature.

By John Motyka

N. Scott Momaday, whose portrayal of a disaffected World War II veteran’s journey to spiritual renewal in his novel “House Made of Dawn” won a Pulitzer Prize, the first for a Native American author, heralding a more prominent place in contemporary literature for Native writers, died on Wednesday at his home in Santa Fe, N.M. He was 89.

The death was announced in a statement by his publisher, HarperCollins.

Mr. Momaday also wrote critically acclaimed poetry, memoirs and essays. His explorations of identity and self-definition, of the importance of the oral tradition in literature, and of his Kiowa heritage were interwoven with reverent evocations of landscape in passages of soaring lyrical prose.

Mr. Momaday began “House Made of Dawn,” a first novel that won the Pulitzer for fiction in 1969, with a one-word sentence: “Dypaloh.” The word is a traditional invocation of storytellers at the Jemez Pueblo (called by its Native name, Walatowa, in the book) in New Mexico, to which the young Native American protagonist, Abel, returns in 1945. That opening is followed by a short prologue that describes runners on a ritual morning run.

To tell Abel’s story, Mr. Momaday combined modern literary techniques — stream-of-consciousness, a disjointed narrative featuring multiple character perspectives (he acknowledged the influence of William Faulkner) — with a near-mythical, circular structure common in traditional Native American tales.

He traced an arc that describes Abel’s drunken, ignominious return to his grandfather’s house at the pueblo and his inability to readjust to life in a traditional setting after the war and the deaths of his mother and brother. The book describes his affair with a white woman, his dreamlike, highly symbolic murder of an albino Indian, and an interlude in Los Angeles among hard-edged but nostalgic urban Native Americans and a trickster-like shamanic figure.

“His return to the town had been a failure, for all his looking forward,” Mr. Momaday writes. “He had tried in the days that followed to speak to his grandfather but he could not say the things he wanted; he had tried to pray, to sing, to enter into the old rhythm of the tongue, but he was no longer attuned to it.” And finally: “ … he was dumb. Not dumb — silence was the older and better part of custom still — but inarticulate. ”

Abel subsequently returns to the pueblo to witness his grandfather’s death and, as a measure of self-knowledge and cultural acceptance, participates again in a ritual run.

Mr. Momaday borrowed the title, “House Made of Dawn,” from the Navajo “Night Chant,” an ancient prayer/song that a friend of Abel’s in Los Angeles recites to remind Abel of his traditional roots.

A reviewer, William James Smith, wrote in Commonweal magazine that the book was an effort “to push the secular mode of modern fiction into the sacred mode, a faith and recognition in the power of the word.”

The Pulitzer was a surprise for Mr. Momaday and for others in the publishing world. Originally asked to submit poetry by an editor at the Harper publishing company, he sent instead the relatively slender manuscript of the novel as an entry in the company’s novel contest. Although he had missed the deadline, an editor, Frances McCullough, immediately saw its merit and urged that it be accepted for publication.

Mr. Momaday pursued the theme of self-definition further in “The Way to Rainy Mountain,” a book based on tales told to him by his grandmother. He drew on ethnology, history and personal recollection to reimagine the southward migration of his nomadic Kiowa forebears from the headwaters of the Yellowstone River to their ultimate home near a small rise called Rainy Mountain in Oklahoma.

The Kiowa, he wrote, “had dared to imagine and determine who they are.”

He added: “In one sense, then, the way to Rainy Mountain is pre-eminently the history of an idea, man’s idea of himself, and it has an old and essential being in language.”

Reviewing the book in the journal Southern Review, the critic Kenneth Fields, to explain its appeal, cited the somewhat mystical nature of the book and Mr. Momaday’s assertion that in Native tradition the word is sacred.

“The Indians,” he wrote, “took for their subject matter those elusive perceptions that resist formulation, never entirely apprehensible, but just beyond the ends of nerves.”

The Native American writer Sherman Alexie called Mr. Momaday “one of the primary foundations for all Native American literature” and credited his Pulitzer with bringing Native writing into the mainstream.

“Momaday was a multigenre writer — poetry, fiction, nonfiction — as were nearly all the Native writers of his era,” Mr. Alexie said in an email. “I write multigenre because Momaday made it seem like it was the thing that Native American writers do. Like it was a natural part of our identity.”

Kenneth Lincoln, in his comprehensive 1983 book “Native American Renaissance,” described Mr. Momaday’s work as “seminal.”

In a 1997 collection of essays, “The Man Made of Words,” Mr. Momaday offers several eloquent defenses of the oral tradition. In the essay “A Divine Blindness,” he delineated the long reach of writing and printing in human history, but added that “in America there is something else.” He called it “a continuum of language that goes back thousands of years before the printing press — back to the times of origin — an Indigenous expression, an utterance that proceeds from the very intelligence of the soil: the oral tradition.”

Mr. Momaday was also an artist. His book “In the Presence of the Sun: Stories and Poems, 1961-1991” included 60 drawings by the author. “But it is words Mr. Momaday is in love with,” the reviewer Barbara Bode wrote in The New York Times Book Review. She describes the book as “a refined brew of origins, journeys, dreams and the landscape of the deep continental interior.”

Mr. Momaday was born Navarre Scott Mammedaty in Lawton, Okla., on Feb. 27, 1934. He explained in “The Names: A Memoir” that Mammedaty, as a single appellation, was his grandfather’s name. It means “walking above” in Kiowa. During his grandfather’s lifetime, the Kiowa began to designate surnames. Mr. Momaday’s father, Alfred Morris Momaday, a full-blooded Kiowa, changed the name to Momaday “for reasons of his own,” the author wrote.

The father was an artist and teacher who contributed illustrations to “The Way to Rainy Mountain.” Mr. Momaday’s mother, Mayme Natachee Scott Momaday, also a teacher, was descended from early American pioneers as well as a Cherokee great-grandmother. The author was originally raised among Kiowa relatives on a family farm in Oklahoma; his parents later found work at the Jemez Pueblo in New Mexico, where he spent part of his childhood.

Mr. Momaday attended the University of New Mexico and graduated in 1958 with a degree in political science. He earned a master’s degree and a doctorate in English from Stanford University under the mentorship of the literary theorist and critic Yvor Winters . He went on to teach English at the University of California at Santa Barbara, Berkeley and Stanford, and taught English and comparative literature at the University of Arizona, Tucson.

Mr. Momaday’s marriages to Gaye Mangold and Regina B. Heitzer-Momaday ended in divorce. His third marriage, to Barbara Gregg Glenn Momaday, ended with her death in 2008. He is survived by two daughters from his first marriage, Jill Momaday and Brit Momaday-Leight; a daughter from his second marriage, Lore Denny; eight grandchildren; and one great-granddaughter. Another daughter from his first marriage, Cael Momaday, died in 2017.

Mr. Momaday’s work was sometimes criticized for being repetitive, but he said that was intentional.

“I’ve written several books, but to me they are all part of the same story,” he wrote. “And I like to repeat myself, if you will, from book to book, in the way that Faulkner did — in an even more obvious way, perhaps. My purpose is to carry on what was begun a long time ago; there’s no end to it that I see.”

Alex Traub contributed reporting.

An earlier version of this obituary omitted the name of one of Mr. Momaday’s wives. In addition to the two named, he was married most recently to Barbara Gregg Glenn Momaday, who died in 2008.

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How two sisters in Fort Worth turned a passion for books into a haven for healing

Our Uniquely Fort Worth stories celebrate what we love most about Cowtown, its history & culture. Story suggestion? [email protected].

It all started when the Craddock sisters, Donya and Donna, discovered a story about their great grandparents. They were slaves owned by the Marmaduke family in the late 1800s . They lived in the Governor’s mansion in Marshall, Texas — then home to the Missouri state government in exile..

Above the slave quarters was a library full of books, except their great ancestors had no chance of reading them. They could only dust the covers. Anti-literacy laws were established for slaves at the time so getting caught with a book was considered a crime.

“Our ancestors were living under a library (with books they could not read) and now we own a bookstore. We are our ancestors’ wildest dreams,” Donna told the Star-Telegram.

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Their bookstore was where many in Texas found comfort through Black literature shortly after the shooting death of Michael Brown , a Black 18-year-old in Ferguson, Missouri, ignited fiery riots and the demand for answers ran hot . The Craddock’s bookstore, T he Dock Bookshop at 6637 Meadowbrook Dr. in east Fort Worth, is one of the largest full-service Black-owned bookstores in Texas and the Southwest. Adding to the shop’s allure is its draw of celebrity authors such as Deion Sanders , Omar Epps , and Cornel West .

So out of all the places the sisters could have built their literary empire, why Fort Worth?

“There was a book desert for Black literature,” according to the sisters.

From Nebraska to Texas: Sisters labor in love of books

A new job in mortgage banking sent Donya Craddock to North Texas in 1997. She packed her love of reading with her. On the side, she began selling real estate books at local trade shows.

Recognizing she needed help in getting settled in a new town, Donya convinced her sister Donna to relocate to Fort Worth with her. Their reunion led to a routine of visiting local bookstores to bond and find new literature. It was a happy time.

Then something changed.

“The bookstores we went to, Black Bookworm and Black Images, closed so there were no (Black) bookstores in Fort Worth,” said Donya. “We love libraries but you couldn’t find books like ‘Destruction of A Black Civilization’ there. Bookstores had a more curated selection.”

The sisters felt they had to do something. They came up with a plan. They pooled their life savings and opened The Dock in 2008, even as financial institutions cratered ushering in the Great Recession . That year racial tensions flared as America inaugurated its first Black president in Barack Obama.

Shortly after the bookshop opened their mother, Deborah Gregory, was diagnosed with breast cancer. She was also widowed so they persuaded her to relocate to Fort Worth to be closer to her daughters. But also so the sisters could take care of their mom. Gregory began helping out with the bookstore, keeping an eye on the store and giving the decor her creative vision. The sisters call their mom’s contribution as enhancing “The Dock Experience.”

Enduring racial animus: ’We were right here in the middle of it all’

The timing of their nascent venture was not exactly idyllic.

“We had BB gun bullets shot at our door, feces put in front of it, and one time we were standing outside as a truck drove up and a man got out, spit in front of us, then drove off,” the sisters recalled. “We were building up knowledge of self, history, and culture so people get nervous whenever Black folks start building themselves up.”

It was a rough time to start their business. The sisters felt the resistance to their store — from racial asides to the lingering hangover of an economic malaise. Despite it all the sisters persevered. Their shop was becoming a safe harbor for many Black North Texans as racial animus roiled the nation shortly after the deaths of Trayvon Martin, George Floyd, and Fort Worth’s own Atatiana Jefferson .

“They came here to share their concerns and just cry,” Donya said.

Eventually people from all over flocked to the store as racial injustice movements grew in size and volume across America.

“Every time it was a major national tragedy we had town halls and forums, it almost became a way for people to release and deal with the hurt and pain,” Donya said. “Books speak about all of these movements and we were right here in the middle of it all.”

Be ‘edutained’ at this Fort Worth shop of books, conversations

As patrons walk through the glass double doors of the store in Meadowbrook Crossing, they step into a room with high ceilings festooned with faces of historical figures many can recognize. To one side of the 4,000-square-foot room are neat rows of shelves full of books on Western history, graphic novels, children’s topics and even self help volumes.

In the back is an open space for a stage for poetry readings and gatherings. Cushioned chairs in neat lines sit in front like an attentive audience. Patrons can also buy paintings, pottery, and other cultural trinkets.

“A lot of our ancestors wrote books and did serious work so we want to lift their voices up to make sure they’re always heard,” Donna said.

On open mic nights and town halls, the conversations easily rise in laughter or fall to serious banter — exactly how the sisters want it.

No topic is taboo. Lately, as groups intent on banning books grow in strength across the nation, the sisters wish for meaningful discussions. If not to stem its spread, at least to educate folks in its history.

“Book banning has been happening since ‘Uncle Toms Cabin ,’ its becoming more of an issue now because they have groups who are really trying to hinder the education of history,” Donya said. “American history is not pretty and they don’t want their kids to see what happened because it makes them uncomfortable. But books stand the test of time.”

The sisters hope their Fort Worth shop is only the beginning

“We want to be remembered as a bookstore that loved community, culture, and as a space where people can get inspired or as we like to say ‘edutained’,” Donna said.

This story was originally published May 8, 2024, 5:00 AM.

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The best way to crack an egg for every personality type

Are you traditional? Risk-averse? Adventurous? These are your egg-cracking options.

I’ve written about some pretty niche cooking topics over the years. But often the articles that are the most discussed and the most fun to debate focus on those mundane, everyday tasks in the kitchen. You know, the ones everyone has an opinion about.

One of the most recent topics du jour, thanks to the weekly live chat I host with my colleague Aaron Hutcherson: how to crack an egg . Here’s what one reader sent in:

“Is it really better to crack an egg on a flat surface? Every time I try this, it caves in the shell. I find it is much less likely to break the yolk if an egg is cracked on the side of a bowl. Has anyone done a scientific study?”

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As commenter Cajaza later summed up: “This is one of the great mysteries of life.” (Right up there with which came first, the chicken or the egg, as fellow reader Lily Rowan pointed out.)

I don’t believe there’s a right or wrong way to crack an egg, only what feels right to you. Curious what other readers do, or looking for a new method to try? Step right up to find the strategy best suited to your personality!

The traditionalist: On the counter

The chosen technique of Jacques Pépin, as mentioned by several readers. “Case closed,” commenter Theo23rd said. You, too, can look like a seasoned French chef! Or follow the lead of these impressive readers: “My husband taught me to break eggs one-handed back when we were dating in college,” Faithful Reader posted in our chat. “I use a flat surface so I can crack two in each hand at the same time,” Open_the_Pod_Bay_Door_HAL shared . What?!

Pros: Everyone has a counter, right? As the theory goes, cracking on a flat surface spreads the impact out over a greater area, which yields fewer, larger shards, Lan Lam says at Cook’s Illustrated. Good news for those who hate fishing out bits of shell once the egg ends up in the bowl. Not one, but two, readers said they crack their eggs on the edge of the counter, sort of a cross between the counter and bowl rim, to which I say, you’re much braver than I am.

Cons: Cross-contamination central! Hand-washing and kitchen hygiene is always important, but that’s especially true with eggs (and chicken), which do carry a risk of salmonella. So, yes, cracking an egg on my counter gives me the heebie-jeebies. As to cleaning the counter — well, a lot of people aren’t as good about sanitizing as they think they are. Crack onto a paper towel or flat plate if you must, but honestly, I’ve messily smashed more eggs this way than I care to admit. As the original poster in our chat said, you may get more of a caved-in shell than a cleanly broken one, meaning you have to pry through the exterior and the membrane to finish the job.

The risk-averse: Edge of the bowl

If you’re worried about getting raw egg on your countertop or you want to limit the number of surfaces the egg comes in contact with, this is your method. People will tell you that all the pros do otherwise, but it’s okay to embrace the bowl instinct.

Pros: Predictability. The egg will crack exactly where you rap it against the bowl, typically along the equator and often with enough force to split the membrane just under the shell, meaning you need merely to separate the halves to release the egg. You’ll also bypass any mess on the counter — should anything dribble down the outside of the bowl, you can quickly catch it before it makes contact with the counter (or set your bowl on a dish towel you can toss in the laundry, as I do).

Cons: Tiny shards of shell, thanks to the more concentrated point of impact, as Lam explains. It doesn’t happen every time, but be prepared to scoop pieces of shell out of the bowl. Not all bowls are created equal either, so depending on the thickness or shape of the rim, your mileage may vary.

The adventurer: Against each other

So you enjoy a little danger? Grab a pair of eggs and tap them against each other in a survival-of-the-strongest contest. “To do it, hold the eggs upright and gently, but with intention, tap one against the other ,” while avoiding smashing them to smithereens, Eric Haessler at Cook’s Illustrated explains. “Inevitably, only one of them will crack because there will always be one egg whose shell is slightly stronger or weaker than the other.” Watch it in action in a video posted by Haessler’s colleague, Cook’s Illustrated Editor in Chief Dan Souza.

Pros: It’s fun! Plus, as reader Muniack said , “it’s much neater and I never get egg shells in with the egg.” As Haessler writes, “The break will be a clean divot right in the center of the egg, making it easy for you to work your thumbs into the opening, and the interior membrane should keep the shell fragments in place,” meaning fewer, if any, pieces to extract.

Cons: If you’re too aggressive, you’ll end up cracking both eggs — which is fine if you need two, but not if you’re only using one of them. (Ask me how I know.) And if you’re using all your eggs, you’ll have to crack the last one on something else.

The self-confident: With a handheld tool

Attention all you swift and decisive home cooks out there: If you’re confident in your ability to whack an egg with just the right amount of force in just the right spot, this one’s for you. As reader gotnoneck astutely observed , “The real art of cracking eggs is knowing how hard to knock them and when to pull your punches.” Among the preferred implements: sharp knife (reader mickrick ), side of a fork ( Candylandy ), blade of a dinner knife ( LadyBlakeney ), edge of a spatula (a chat participant).

Pros: Avoids the question of bowl or counter. Whatever implement you use can go straight into the dishwasher. You also get to pick the point of impact.

Cons: Strike too hard and you may crack the egg all over your hand. Also I’m not sure if it was because I hit too hard or not hard enough, but my experiments with this led to shards of eggs flying all over my kitchen.

More From Forbes

5 careers for the esfp entertainer myers-briggs personality type.

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ESFP types are known as entertainers and a common job type for them is a firefighter.

The ESFP personality type, also known as “the entertainer,” is a social butterfly, impulsive, fiery and high-spirited. They are exceptionally generous with their energy and time and are always uplifting and encouraging their peers. ESFP stands for extraverted, sensing, feeling, perceiving. ESFPs have high emotional intelligence which makes them excellent leaders. They thrive in laid-back sociable work environments that involves a lot of interaction with clients and work colleagues. Here are five careers for the ESFP personality type.

1. Occupational Therapist

An occupational therapist assesses a patient’s mental, physical and emotional state and develops a personal treatment plan to help them overcome any issues they may have. They also liase with other healthcare professionals to ensure patients receive adequate care. Occupational therapists can work in nursing homes, hospitals, mental health facilities, schools and home health services. Occupational therapy is the ideal career choice for an ESFP because of their ability to emotionally connect with their patients and their compassionate nature. To become an occupational therapist, you will need a master’s degree in occupational therapy and a state license. According to Indeed.com, once qualified, you can expect to earn $49.79 per hour as an occupational therapist.

2. Firefighter

Firefighters typically respond to fire related emergencies and work to extinguish fires and rescue those in danger. They also respond to car accidents and other medical emergencies. Firefighters educate the public on fire safety, and conduct fire prevention inspections in businesses and places where members of the public congregate in large numbers such as shopping malls. The ESFPs dedication to helping others and their desire to save lives and protect their communities makes them well-suited for a career in firefighting. The basic requirements to become a firefighter are a valid drivers license, a high-school diploma or a GED, and you will need to pass a physical ability test. Indeed.com suggests the average firefighter earns $54,022 per year.

3. Tour Guide

A tour guide takes local or foreign visitors on tours around their city or country. They take them to places such as famous landmarks, museums, historical sites and natural attractions. They explain the history and any interesting stories behind the locations visited. Tour guides also arrange accommodation, transportation and plan itineraries. Guiding people around a country requires spontaneity and creativity, qualities that ESFPs possess in abundance. These natural characteristics allows them to effortlessly cater to the interests and needs of their tour group. You will need a high-school diploma to become a tour guide. Although not a requirement, courses in subjects such as social studies, literature, political science, sociology, history, anthropology and geography will increase your chances of gaining employment as a tour guide. It is also important that you are extremely knowledgeable about the locations you take your visitors to. Tour guides, as indicated by Indeed.com, earn $35,179 per year.

4. Career Coach

A career coach helps individuals identify their career goals, research potential career paths, and develop a plan to achieve these goals. They assist with job search techniques, resume writing and interview preparation. ESFPs thrive as career coaches because of their enthusiasm and passion for life. Therefore, they can motivate and encourage their clients to pursue their dreams. A degree is not a requirement to become a career coach, having several years of experience in the field you wish to coach is enough to gain employment in this career. But most coaches hold a bachelor’s degree in a related field such as business, human resources, communications or English. You can expect to earn $19.22 per hour, according to Indeed.com, as a career coach.

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It s possible the russian army is tricking the ukrainian army with a fake offensive, ufc st louis results bonus winners from night of memorable finishes, 5. physical therapist.

Physical therapists work alongside hospitals to evaluate and treat patients suffering from disabilities and recovering from illnesses and injuries. They develop treatment plans to alleviate pain and boost mobility. ESFPs make good physical therapists because their outgoing and high-spirited nature helps motivate patients to put their best efforts forward which accelerates healing. To become a physical therapist, you must earn a Doctor of Physical Therapy and get licensed by your state. According to Indeed.com, physical therapists earn $53.72 per year.

What Jobs Should An ESFP Avoid?

ESFPs thrive in jobs that allow them to express their personality and core strengths. Therefore, the following career paths are not suited to people with the ESFP personality type.

• Administrative work

One of the greatest characteristics of the ESFP personality type is their passion for uplifting those around them. The ESFP type enjoys a career which encourages emotional support and practical advice while the ENTP type will identify to follow through their own priorities like an economist and the ESTJ type will focus on being law-abiding to their work environment like a business manager. When this translates into their career, it gives them a sense of purpose and fulfillment; therefore, it is essential that ESFPs seek careers that allow them to express the full extent of their vibrant and vivacious personality.

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