literature review about training and development

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Training and Development

Introduction, general overviews.

Reference Works
Instructional Systems Design
Needs Assessment
Training Methods
Pre-training Interventions
Training Media
Training Teams
Training Evaluation
Learner Characteristics
Learning Context
Employee Development
Macroperspectives

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Forthcoming articles expand or collapse the "forthcoming articles" section.

Cooperation-Competition (Coopetition)
Diversity and Firm Performance
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Training and Development by Kenneth G. Brown LAST REVIEWED: 26 October 2015 LAST MODIFIED: 26 October 2015 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199846740-0013

Training and development is the study of how structured experiences help employees gain work-related knowledge, skill, and attitudes. It is like many other topics in management in that it is inherently multidisciplinary in nature. At its core is the psychological study of learning and transfer. A variety of disciplines offer insights into this topic, including, but not limited to, industrial and organizational psychology, educational psychology, human resource development, organizational development, industrial and labor relations, strategic management, and labor economics. The focus of this bibliography is primarily psychological with an emphasis on theory and practice that examines training processes and the learning outcomes they seek to influence. Nevertheless, literature from other perspectives will be introduced on a variety of topics within this area of study.

These articles and chapters provide background for the study of training and development, particularly as studied by management scholars with backgrounds in human resource management, organizational behavior, human resource development, and industrial and organizational psychology. Kraiger 2003 examines training from three different perspectives. Aguinis and Kraiger 2009 provides a narrative review of ten years of research on training and employee development, focusing on the many benefits of providing structured learning experiences to employees. Brown and Sitzmann 2011 also reviews the literature and emphasizes research on the processes that are required to ensure that training benefits emerge. Arthur, et al. 2003 meta-analyzes the literature on training effectiveness. Russ-Eft 2002 proposes a typology of training designs. Salas, et al. 2012 offers recommendations for evidence-based training practice. Noe, et al 2014 examines training in a broader context, relative to the roles of informal learning and knowledge transfer.

Aguinis, Herman, and Kurt Kraiger. “Benefits of Training and Development for Individuals and Teams, Organizations, and Society.” Annual Review of Psychology 60.1 (January 2009): 451–474.

DOI: 10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163505

A comprehensive review of training and development literature from 1999 to 2009 with an emphasis on the benefits that training offers across multiple levels of analysis.

Arthur, Winfred A., Jr., Winston Bennett Jr., Pamela S. Edens, and Suzanne T. Bell. “Effectiveness of Training in Organizations: A Meta-analysis of Design and Evaluation Features.” Journal of Applied Psychology 88.2 (April 2003): 234–245.

DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.88.2.234

Offers a comprehensive meta-analysis of the relationships among training design and evaluation features and various training effectiveness outcomes (reaction, learning, behavior, and results).

Brown, Kenneth G., and Traci Sitzmann. “Training and Employee Development for Improved Performance.” In APA Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology . Vol. 2, Selecting and Developing Members for the Organization . Edited by Sheldon Zedeck, 469–503. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2011.

DOI: 10.1037/12170-000

A comprehensive review of training and development in work organizations with an emphasis on the processes necessary for training to be effective for improving individual and team performance.

Kraiger, Kurt. “Perspectives on Training and Development.” In Handbook of Psychology . Vol. 12. Edited by Irving B. Weiner and Walter C. Borman, Daniel R. Ilgen, and Richard J. KIlimoski, 171–192. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley, 2003.

DOI: 10.1002/0471264385

Reviews training literature from three perspectives: instruction, learning, and organizational change.

Noe, Raymond A., Alena D. M. Clarke, and Howard J. Klein. “Learning in the Twenty-first-century Workplace.” Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior 1 (2014): 245–275.

DOI: 10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091321

A review that places training and development in a broader context with other learning-related interventions and practices such as informal learning and knowledge sharing. The chapter explains factors that facilitate learning in organizations.

Russ-Eft, Darlene. “A Typology of Training Design and Work Environment Factors Affecting Workplace Learning and Transfer.” Human Resource Development Review 1 (March 2002): 45–65.

DOI: 10.1177/1534484302011003

Presents a typology summarizing elements of training and work environments that foster transfer of training.

Salas, Eduardo, Scott I. Tannenbaum, Kurt Kraiger, and Kimberly A. Smith-Jentsch. “The Science of Training and Development in Organizations: What Matters in Practice.” Psychological Science in the Public Interest 13.2 (2012): 74–101.

DOI: 10.1177/1529100612436661

Reviews meta-analytic evidence and offers evidence-based recommendations for maximizing training effectiveness.

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AN EMPIRICAL STUDY ON THE IMPACT OF TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT ON EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE

The trends in Human Resource Management practices throughout the world are changing dynamically. Nowadays, employers are more concerned about employee's retention and controlled employees' turnover than cost cut off. The need of employee's retention has encouraged the employers to pay attention towards employee's development through training in order to keep them motivated. The core purpose of involvement in training and employee's motivation is to improve employee's performance resulting in enhanced organization's performance. (Flippo, 1993) defined the word training as " an act that involves growing the knowledge and skill level of an employee in order to perform a specific job ". (Armstrong, 2006) " Training is a procedure of improving the knowledge attitude and skill of employees to attain organization's objectives. It is merely through a systematic course of training in which essential professional knowledge is conveyed, skills are developed and attitudes adjusted to the work situation ". (Flippo, 1993) intense that training is not a choice for any organization that it may skip or keep rather it's an essential requirement. The only o ption that an organization has is to choose the method to be acquired for training of its employees that also depends on the training subject. Training has a vital role in bridging the gap that exists between knowledge and skills required for the job and employee's own calibre. In the absence of planned and systematic training, employees learn their job either with the help of trial and error through observation. These methods cost additional time and energy, thus increasing the cost of training increases too. Still, there is no assurance that the employee will learn properly. This is in this regard that training is essential for effective learning at reasonable cost. (Lettmayr et al., 2008) describes the term development as future oriented, volunteer activity of an employee to enhance his abilities and skills in long run. Development is a long run educational procedure emphasizes on a systematic and organized method through which managerial personnel acquire conceptual and theoretical knowledge. It is intended for the in general development of managers to assemble their long run requirements. Thus, development tends to be an initiative that is intentional and comes from the employee himself. (Boyett, 1997) Indian retail sector is passing through massive changes due to advancement in science and technology and competition from private sector. India has nearly one-sixth of the world's population. This over abundant human resource needs to be converted to asset. This is possible only through proper training and development. The former Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi rightly sensed this need and had established a separate Ministry for Human Resource Development in 1985. He stressed on the development of human resources and because of his initiatives, training had taken a front seat in the national economy. Later on, most of the PSEs realized the need and importance of training their employees for better and improved results. The human resource development approach is essential in order to have the optimum utilization of manpower for the benefit of both, the employees and the organization. (Fryer, Antony, & Ogden, 2009) (Ratto & Burgess, 2003) After opening up of the economy, there has been tremendous amount of pressure on the retail to increase productivity of their employees on one hand and reduce surplus manpower on the other. The biggest challenge in VRS is to safeguard talent drain. Talented employees see this as an opportunity and are moving away from PSEs in search of high paid jobs in private and multinational companies, which lead to scarcity of trained manpower. On the one side they get lump sum compensation package by opting for VRS and on the other side they will be attracted by MNCs and other private sector enterprises. Nearly 40% of the employees in Reliance Petroleum were drawn from the public sector. (Woźniak & Dobosz, 2003) This again emphasizes the need and importance of training and employee retention (Mulgan & Albury, 2003) Research conducted by TVRLS on VRS also proves that good outside opportunity is one of the important reasons for employees opting for VRS. (Dey, Government of India promoted retail to fulfill the social objectives since the time of the first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. (Kaula, 2003) As a result, reservation for socially and educationally weaker sections of the society was introduced in public sector jobs. The government has banned de-reservation of vacancies meant for the reserved categories since 1989 and reservation for other backward classes was introduced in 1993.

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In this competitive world, training plays an important role in the competent and challenging format of business. Training is the nerve that synthesized the smooth functioning of the organization and enhancing the quality of work life of the employees. Development is a process that leads to qualitative as well as quantitative advancements in the organization, especially at the managerial level, it is less considered with physical skills and is more concerned with knowledge, values, attitudes and behavior in addition to specific skills. The purpose of this paper is to measure the impact of training and development on employee's performance and productivity. This paper is quantitative in nature. Data for the paper have been collected through primary source that are from questionnaires surveys of Odisha Cement Limited, Odisha. The study result implies that there is a positive impact of training and development in the improvement of productivity and employee's performance of OCL.

Chief E D I T O R IJRISAT

Training is the art of facilitating the knowledge and skills of an employee to marvel a job. Training moulds the employee's knowledge, skills, aptitude, behaviour and attitude towards the requirements of the job and organization. Training bridges the gap between job requirements and employee specifications but not all employees would be motivated intrinsically to undergo training giving room for the external motivation. The Indian retail industry has presently emerged as one of the most dynamic and fast paced industries. It accounts for over 10 per cent of the country's gross domestic product (GDP). This is an in depth study about the employees working in retail sector in the Ghaziabad district of Uttar Pradesh, India. This study will help the retail industries to know the inner feeling of the employees and thereby train them accordingly. The employer can also implement and customize new techniques to keep the momentum of the staff at good rhythm thereby ensuring smooth and efficient working of the industry. This study will also help to know the common motivational factor that urges the employees to learn swiftly and efficiently thereby helping the companies to save time, resources and get the best work from their employees.

Nigerian Chapter of Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review

Zeeshan Haider , Naqvi Hamad , Emir Čičkušić

Tolulope J Ogunleye

Overtime, study had shown that to be relevant in any field of work there is need for continuous learning through training and development. The study is aimed at finding out the need for employees training and development in an organization. The need for improvement to change the phenomenon of low productivity and poor service delivery attributed to the employee’s in-adequate experience, calls for investigation on how effective training and development of employee can facilitate improved corporate performance using the banking industry as a field of discuss.. The study concluded that training and development brings about career growth for the employees and bankers thus the study recommended that all organization must do induction training at entry point into the banking sector.

Rasmita Behera

sri muthaylamma thalli

In the present era of globalisation, there is an imperative need for employee with extraordinary skills which adds potential to perform better. Human beings are naturally gifted with the potential to learn. It is up to us to leverage this inherent potential and achieve what we are destined to. There has also been rapid transformation in organisation structure and work practices. These changes would definitely have a significant impact for training and development of the work place. As training occupies a top spot in the HR agenda for many organisations, but the impact on the bottom line does not fall in line with expectations. The answer lies in better structure, sharp vision on the end goals and a tighter focus on the cardinal rules of the game. This paper deals with the present scenario and issues in the Indian context. It analyses how these issues if resolved can lead to better productivity.

International Journal of Advanced Research (IJAR)

IJAR Indexing

The Banking sector undergoes a sea level changes with respect to the world?s economic situation irrespective of the economical status of the country. The challenges it faces shapes the way it behaves in the last few decades. The Banks in general have been well taken forward by the Private sector banks which set the destiny of its own compared to the public sector banks. The Reserve Bank of India or Central Banks in many other countries testifies the same the contribution made by them. The reason behind the sea level change or the challenges cannot be handled by Machine, Money or Materials but it is the Men the prime factor would take care of it, meaning they have been updating along with the changes and challenges it faces. The challenges are very similar like, up-gradation in the technology, people?s behavioral change, policy change worldwide, competition and fast changing facts and figures are all the prime contributors for the challenges in the private banking sector. Mumbai is not just one of the states in India where the banks has to function as similar to other places, it I one of the most happening gauged among the top states of cities in the world, therefore the global implication will fall on the Banking players in the state especially private banks, who are considerably fast runners. The challenges have been tackled by the human Resource, named, Employees were provided with the considerable training in two phases, viz., (i) In general and (ii) At a Global standard. The references have considerably contributed to justify and the need for the re-training and re-skilling among the employees of the private banks on all the technical and other areas where the skills to be sharpened. The result of the training well develops the employees professionally along with the organization and the economy as a whole.

African Journal of Management and Business Research

Afropolitan Journals

Employees are the major assets of any organisation. The best thing that can happen to any organisation is for it to have a well-trained workforce; the active role they play towards a company’s success cannot be underestimated. And, as a result, equipping these unique assets by way of training becomes imperative in order to maximise job performances and also positioning them to take on the challenges of today’s competitive business climates. However, extensive researches have been conducted in the area of human resource management, the same cannot be said on employee training especially as it concerns most developing countries. Training and development is a critical process, which seeks to improve the performance of workers in organisations. Training, according to Michael Armstrong (2012) is the use of systematic and planned instructions activities to promote learning. Development would include both training to increase skills in performing a specific job; a total growth of an employee on the job, and education. Moreover, the efficiency and effectiveness of training and development depends on having people with the right skills, attitude and capabilities in order to reach individuals and organisational goals effectively. However, the findings from sampled companies over the years, revealed that working conditions and lack of workable resources affect the HR training and development of employees. It is recommended that certain areas be improved, that is, management support; total commitment of management, sufficient fund, provision of feedback to employees and the conducting of employee training on a continuous basis, which invariably would improve employee’s performance in organisations if properly implemented.

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Literature Review – Employee Training and Development

Introduction.

Human resources are considered by many to be the most important asset of an organization, yet very few employers are able to harness the full potential from their employees (Radcliffe, 2005). Human resource is a productive resource consisting of the talents and skills of human beings that contribute to the production of goods and services (Kelly, 2001). Lado and Wilson (1994) define human resource system as a set of distinct but interrelated activities, functions, and processes that are directed at attracting, developing, and maintaining a firm’s human resources. According to Gomez-Mejia, Luis R., David B. Balkin and Robert L. Cardy, (2008), it is the process of ensuring that the organization has the right kind of people in the right places at the right time. The objective of Human Resources is to maximize the return on investment from the organization’s human capital and minimize financial risk. It is the responsibility of human resource managers to conduct these activities in an effective, legal, fair, and consistent manner (Huselid, 1995).

Employee Training and Development

Training and development is a subsystem of an organization that emanate from two independent yet interdependent words training and development. Training is often interpreted as the activity when an expert and learner work together to effectively transfer information from the expert to the learner (to enhance a learner’s knowledge, attitudes or skills) so the learner can better perform a current task or job. Training activity is both focused upon, and evaluated against, the job that an individual currently holds (Learner R., 1986). On the other hand development is often viewed as a broad, ongoing multi-faceted set of activities (training activities among them) to bring someone or an organization up to another threshold of performance. This development often includes a wide variety of methods, e.g., orienting about a role, training in a wide variety of areas, ongoing training on the job, coaching, mentoring and forms of self-development. Some view development as a life-long goal and experience. Development focuses upon the activities that the organization employing the individual, or that the individual is part of, may partake in the future, and is almost impossible to evaluate (Nadler Leonard, 1984).

Training and development ensures that randomness is reduced and learning or behavioral change takes place in structured format. In the field of human resource management , training and development is the field concerned with organizational activity aimed at bettering the performance of individuals and groups in organizational settings. It has been known by several names, including employee development, human resource development , and learning and development (Harrison Rosemary, 2005).

As the generator of new knowledge, employee training and development is placed within a broader strategic context of human resources management , i.e. global organizational management, as a planned staff education and development, both individual and group, with the goal to benefit both the organization and employees. To preserve its obtained positions and increase competitive advantage , the organization needs to be able to create new knowledge , and not only to rely solely on utilization of the existing (Vemic, 2007). Thus, the continuous employee training and development has a significant role in the development of individual and organizational performance . The strategic procedure of employee training and development needs to encourage creativity, ensure inventiveness and shape the entire organizational knowledge that provides the organization with uniqueness and differentiates it from the others.

The Value of Training and Development

According to Beardwell & Holden (1997) human resource management has emerged as a set of prescriptions for managing people at work. Its central claim is that by matching the size and skills of the workforce to the productive requirements of the organization, and by raising the quality of individual employee contributions to production, organizations can make significant improvements on their performance.

The environment of an organization refers to the sum total of the factors or variables that may influence the present and future survival of an organization (Armstrong, 1998). The factors may be internal or external to the organization. Cascio W. F, (1995), uses the terms societal environment to define the varying trends and general forces that do not relate directly to the company but could impact indirectly on the company at some point in time. Four of these forces are identified as economic, technological, legal and political and socio-cultural and demographic forces. The second type of environment is the task environment that comprises elements directly influencing the operations and strategy of the organization. These may include the labour market, trade unions, competition and product markets comprising customers, suppliers and creditors. The task environment elements are directly linked to the company and are influenced by the societal environment.

However, variables in the task, competitive or operative environment as they are variously referred to, affect organizations in a specific industry and it is possible to control them to some extent. As such, environmental change, whether remote or task, disrupts the equilibrium that exists between the organization’s strategy and structure, necessitating adjustment to change. Pfeffer (1998) proposes that there is evidence demonstrating that effectively managed people can produce substantially enhanced economic performance. Pfeffer extracted from various studies, related literature, and personal observation and experience a set of seven dimensions that seem to characterize most if not all of the systems producing profits through people. He named them the seven practices of successful organizations and they are: employment security, selective hiring of new personnel, self-managed teams and decentralization of decision making as the basic principles of organizational design, comparatively high compensation contingent on organizational performance , extensive training, reduced status distinctions and barriers, including dress, language, office arrangements, and wage differences across levels, and extensive sharing of financial and performance information throughout the organization.

Effect of Training and Development on Employee Productivity

McGhee (1997) stated that an organization should commit its resources to a training activity only if, in the best judgment of managers, the training can be expected to achieve some results other than modifying employee behavior. It must support some organizational goals , such as more efficient production or distribution of goods and services, product operating costs, improved quality or more efficient personal relations is the modification of employees behavior affected through training should be aimed at supporting organization objectives.

Effect of Training and Development on Employee Motivation

Motivation is concerned with the factors that influence people to behave in certain ways. Arnold etal (1991), have listed the components as being, direction-what a person is trying to do, effort- how hard a person is trying to and persistence- how long a person keeps on trying. Motivating other people is about getting them to move in the direction you want them to go in order to achieve a result, well motivated people are those with clearly defined goals who take action that they expect will achieve those goals. Motivation at work can take place in two ways. First, people can motivate themselves by seeking, finding and carrying out that which satisfies their needs or at least leads them to expect that their goals will be achieved. Secondly, management can motivate people through such methods as pay, promotion, praise and training (Synderman 1957). The organization as a whole can provide the context within which high levels of motivation can be achieved training the employees in areas of their job performance.

Effect of Training and Development on Competitive Advantage

Competitive advantage is the essence of competitive strategy . It encompasses those capabilities, resources, relationships, and decisions, which permits an organization to capitalize on opportunities in the marketplace and to avoid threats to its desired position, (Lengnick-Hall 1990). Boxall and Purcell (1992) suggest that ‘human resource advantage can be traced to better people employed in organizations with better processes.’ This echoes the resource based view of the firm, which states that ‘distinctive human resource practices help to create the unique competences that determine how firms compete’ (Capelli and Crocker- Hefter, 1996). Intellectual capital is the source of competitive advantage for organizations. The challenge is to ensure that firms have the ability to find, assimilate, compensate, and retain human capital in shape of talented individual who can drive a global organization that both responsive to its customer and ‘the burgeoning opportunities of technology’ (Armstrong, 2005)

Effect of Training and Development on Customer Relations

William Edward Deming , one of the quality Gurus defines quality as a predictable degree of uniformity and dependability at low costs and suitable to the market, he advises that an organization should focus on the improvement of the process as the system rather than the work is the cause of production variation (Gale 1994). Many service organizations have embraced this approach of quality assurance by checking on the systems and processes used to deliver the end product to the consumer. Essentially this checks on; pre-sale activities which encompass the advice and guidance given to a prospective client, customer communications ( how well the customers are informed of the products and services, whether there are any consultancy services provided to help the customers assess their needs and any help line available for ease of access to information on products), the speed of handling a client’s transactions and processing of claims, the speed of handling customers calls and the number of calls abandoned or not answered, on the selling point of Products/Services a customer would be interested to know about the opening hours of the organization, the convenience of the location and such issues (Gale 1994). This is only possible when employees are well trained and developed to ensure sustainability of the same.

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