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Anthony K. Tjan
Roger McNamee
Wayne Pacelle
Peter Guber
Whitney Johnson
Dave Strubler
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The Transformer CLO

Abbie Lundberg
George Westerman
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The Existential Necessity of Midlife Change

Carlo Strenger
Arie Ruttenberg
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A New Will to Win

Daniel McGinn
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The Great Resignation or the Great Rethink?

Ranjay Gulati
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How to Strengthen Your Relationship with a Career Sponsor

Rachel Simmons
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Big Shoes to Fill (HBR Case Study)

Michael Beer
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Imagination Games: Tools for Sparking Innovative Business Ideas

Martin Reeves
Jack Fuller
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The Upside of Uncertainty Toolkit

Nathan R. Furr
Susannah Harmon Furr
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In-housing Digital Marketing at Sprint Corp.

David E. Bell
Olivia Hull
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Negotiating Corporate Change: Confidential Information, David Carlson, VP, Management Information Systems

James K. Sebenius
January 08, 1997

Negotiating Corporate Change: Confidential Information, Helen Freeman, VP, Small Appliances Division

Hilti fleet management (b): towards a new business model.

Ramon Casadesus-Masanell
Oliver Gassmann
Roman Sauer
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Mekong Capital - Adding Value Through Transformation

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FAW-Volkswagen Audi: Pioneering the Future (2012-Present)

F. Warren McFarlan
Shanshan Cao
Yuanyuan Yu
December 05, 2016

HBR Daily Leader: Everyday Wisdom for Exceptional Leadership

Harvard Business Review
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The New Strategic Frontier: Environment, Sustainability, and Entrepreneurial Innovation

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Cardinal Health: Deploying Blockchain Technology

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Akbank: Options in Digital Banking

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Wyeth Pharmaceuticals in 2009: Operational Transformation

Robert D. Landel
Rebecca Oliver
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David Dubois
Joerg Niessing
Katia Kachan
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Ray A. Goldberg
Matthew Preble
August 21, 2012

Transformation of IBM

David B. Yoffie
Andrall E. Pearson
November 06, 1990

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Alice Boyes
Judson Brewer
Rasmus Hougaard
Jacqueline Carter
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Royal Bank of Canada: Using People Strategy and Analytics to Drive Employee Performance (B)

Debra Schifrin
Kathryn Shaw
October 11, 2017

RBC: Transforming Transformation (A)

Ethan S. Bernstein
Francesca Gino

Lada do Brasil

James E. Austin
Helen Shapiro
Nilgun Gokgur
March 26, 1992

Hilti (A): Fleet Management?, Teaching Note

Jan W. Rivkin
July 01, 2018

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The Best Mentorships Help Both People Grow

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HANNAH BATES
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How to Create a Personal Development Plan: 3 Examples

For successful change, it is vital that the client remains engaged, recognizing and identifying with the goals captured inside and outside sessions. A personal development plan (PDP) creates a focus for development while offering a guide for life and future success (Starr, 2021).

This article introduces and explores the value of personal development plans, offering tools, worksheets, and approaches to boost self-reflection and self-improvement.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Goal Achievement Exercises for free . These detailed, science-based exercises will help you or your clients create actionable goals and master techniques to create lasting behavior change.

This Article Contains

What is personal development 7 theories, coaching in personal development and growth, how to create a personal development plan, 3 examples of personal development plans, defining goals and objectives: 10 tips and tools, fostering personal development skills, 3 inspiring books to read on the topic, resources from positivepsychology.com, a take-home message, frequently asked questions.

Personal development is a fundamental concept in psychology and encompasses the lifelong process of self-improvement, self-awareness, and personal growth. Crucial to coaching and counseling, it aims to enhance various aspects of clients’ lives, including their emotional wellbeing, relationships, careers, and overall happiness (Cox, 2018; Starr, 2021).

Several psychological models underpin and support transformation. Together, they help us understand personal development in our clients and the mechanisms and approaches available to make positive life changes (Cox, 2018; Passmore, 2021).

The following psychological theories and frameworks underpin and influence the approach a mental health professional adopts.

1. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

As a proponent of the humanistic or person-centered approach to helping people, Abraham Maslow (1970) suggested that individuals have a hierarchy of needs. Simply put, they begin with basic physiological and safety needs and progress through psychological and self-fulfillment needs.

Personal development is often found in or recognized by the pursuit of higher-level needs, such as self-esteem and self-actualization (Cox, 2018).

2. Erikson’s psychosocial development

Erik Erikson (1963) mapped out a series of eight psychosocial development stages that individuals go through across their lifespan.

Each one involves challenges and crises that once successfully navigated, contribute to personal growth and identity development.

3. Piaget’s cognitive development

The biologist and epistemologist Jean Piaget (1959) focused on cognitive development in children and how they construct their understanding of the world.

We can draw on insights from Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, including intellectual growth and adaptability, to inform our own and others’ personal development (Illeris, 2018).

4. Bandura’s social cognitive theory

Albert Bandura’s (1977) theory highlights the role of social learning and self-efficacy in personal development. It emphasizes that individuals can learn and grow through observation, imitation, and belief in their ability to effect change.

5. Self-determination theory

Ryan and Deci’s (2018) motivational self-determination theory recognizes the importance of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in personal development.

Their approach suggests that individuals are more likely to experience growth and wellbeing when such basic psychological needs are met.

6. Positive psychology

Positive psychology , developed by Martin Seligman (2011) and others, focuses on strengths, wellbeing, and the pursuit of happiness.

Seligman’s PERMA model offers a framework for personal development that emphasizes identifying and using our strengths while cultivating positive emotions and experiences (Lomas et al., 2014).

7. Cognitive-Behavioral Theory (CBT)

Developed by Aaron Beck (Beck & Haigh, 2014) and Albert Ellis (2000), CBT explores the relationship between thoughts, emotions, and behavior.

As such, the theory provides practical techniques for personal development, helping individuals identify and challenge negative thought patterns and behaviors (Beck, 2011).

Theories like the seven mentioned above offer valuable insights into many of the psychological processes underlying personal development. They provide a sound foundation for coaches and counselors to support their clients and help them better understand themselves, their motivations, and the paths they can take to foster positive change in their lives (Cox, 2018).

The client–coach relationship is significant to successful growth and goal achievement.

Typically, the coach will focus on the following (Cox, 2018):

Actualizing tendency This supports a “universal human motivation resulting in growth, development and autonomy of the individual” (Cox, 2018, p. 53).
Building a relationship facilitating change Trust clients to find their own way while displaying empathy, congruence, and unconditional positive regard . The coach’s “outward responses consistently match their inner feelings towards a client,” and they display a warm acceptance that they are being how they need to be (Passmore, 2021, p. 162).
Adopting a positive psychological stance Recognize that the client has the potential and wish to become fully functioning (Cox, 2018).

Effective coaching for personal growth involves adopting and committing to a series of beliefs that remind the coach that the “coachee is responsible for the results they create” (Starr, 2021, p. 18) and help them recognize when they may be avoiding this idea.

The following principles are, therefore, helpful for coaching personal development and growth (Starr, 2021).

Stay committed to supporting the client. While initially strong, you may experience factors that reduce your sense of support for the individual’s challenges.
Coach nonjudgmentally. Our job is not to adopt a stance based on personal beliefs or judgment of others, but to help our clients form connections between behavior and results.
Maintain integrity, openness, and trust. The client must feel safe in your company and freely able to express themselves.
Responsibility does not equal blame. Clients who take on blame rather than responsibility will likely feel worse about something without acknowledging their influence on the situation.
The client can achieve better results. The client is always capable of doing and achieving more, especially in relation to their goals.
Focus on clients’ thoughts and experiences. Collaborative coaching is about supporting the growth and development of the client, getting them to where they want to go.
Clients can arrive at perfect solutions. “As a coach, you win when someone else does” (Starr, 2021, p. 34). The solution needs to be the client’s, not yours.
Coach as an equal partnership. Explore the way forward together collaboratively rather than from a parental or advisory perspective.

Creating a supportive and nonjudgmental environment helps clients explore their thoughts, feelings, and goals, creating an environment for personal development and flourishing (Passmore, 2021).

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A personal development plan is a powerful document “to create mutual clarity of the aims and focus of a coaching assignment” (Starr, 2021, p. 291). While it is valuable during coaching, it can also capture a client’s way forward once sessions have ended.

Crucially, it should have the following characteristics (Starr, 2021):

Short and succinct
Providing a quick reference or point of discussion
Current and fresh, regularly revised and updated

Key elements of a personal development plan include the following (Starr, 2021):

Area of development This is the general skill or competence to be worked on.
Development objectives or goals What does the client want to do? Examples might include reducing stress levels, improving diet, or managing work–life balance .
Behaviors to develop These comprise what the client will probably do more of when meeting their objectives, for example, practicing better coping mechanisms, eating more healthily, and better managing their day.
Actions to create progress What must the client do to action their objectives? For example, arrange a date to meet with their manager, sign up for a fitness class, or meet with a nutritionist.
Date to complete or review the objective Capture the dates for completing actions, meeting objectives, and checking progress.

Check out Lindsey Cooper’s excellent video for helpful guidance on action planning within personal development.

We can write and complete personal development plans in many ways. Ultimately, they should meet the needs of the client and leave them with a sense of connection to and ownership of their journey ahead (Starr, 2021).

Personal Development Plan – Areas of Development In this PDP , we draw on guidance from Starr (2021) to capture development opportunities and the behaviors and actions needed to achieve them.
Personal Development Plan – Opportunities for Development This template combines short- and long-term goal setting with a self-assessment of strengths, weaknesses, and development opportunities.
Personal Development Plan – Ideal Self In this PDP template , we focus on our vision of how our ideal self looks and setting goals to get there.

“The setting of a goal becomes the catalyst that drives the remainder of the coaching conversation.”

Passmore, 2021, p. 80

Defining goals and objectives is crucial to many coaching conversations and is usually seen as essential for personal development.

Check out this video on how you can design your life with your personal goals in mind.

The following coaching templates are helpful, containing a series of questions to complete Whitmore’s (2009) GROW model :

G stands for Goal : Where do you want to be?
R stands for Reality : Where are you right now with this goal?
O stands for Options : What are some options for reaching your goal?
W stands for Way forward : What is your first step forward?

Goal setting creates both direction and motivation for clients to work toward achieving something and meeting their objectives (Passmore, 2021).

The SMART goal-setting framework is another popular tool inside coaching and elsewhere.

S = Specific M = Measurable A = Attainable/ or Agreed upon R = Realistic T = Timely – allowing enough time for achievement

The SMART+ Goals Worksheet contains a series of prompts and spaces for answers to define goals and capture the steps toward achieving them.

We can summarize the five principles of goal setting (Passmore, 2021) as follows:

Goals must be clear and not open to interpretation.
Goals should be stretching yet achievable.
Clients must buy in to the goal from the outset.
Feedback is essential to keep the client on track.
Goals should be relatively straightforward. We can break down complex ones into manageable subgoals.

The following insightful articles are also helpful for setting and working toward goals.

What Is Goal Setting and How to Do it Well
The Science & Psychology of Goal-Setting 101

1. People skills

Improving how we work with others benefits confidence, and with other’s support, we are more likely to achieve our objectives and goals. The following people skills can all be improved upon:

Developing rapport
Assertiveness and negotiation
Giving and receiving constructive criticism

2. Managing tasks and problem-solving

Inevitably, we encounter challenges on our path to development and growth. Managing our activities and time and solving issues as they surface are paramount.

Here are a few guidelines to help you manage:

Organize time and tasks effectively.
Learn fundamental problem-solving strategies.
Select and apply problem-solving strategies to tackle more complex tasks and challenges.
Develop planning skills, including identifying priorities, setting achievable targets, and finding practical solutions.
Acquire skills relevant to project management.
Familiarize yourself with concepts such as performance indicators and benchmarking.
Conduct self-audits to assess and enhance your personal competitiveness.

3. Cultivate confidence in your creative abilities

Confidence energizes our performance. Knowing we can perform creatively encourages us to develop novel solutions and be motivated to transform.

Consider the following:

Understand the fundamentals of how the mind works to enhance your thinking skills.
Explore a variety of activities to sharpen your creative thinking.
Embrace the belief that creativity is not limited to artists and performers but is crucial for problem-solving and task completion.
Learn to ignite the spark of creativity that helps generate innovative ideas when needed.
Apply creative thinking techniques to enhance your problem-solving and task completion abilities.
Recognize the role of creative thinking in finding the right ideas at the right time.

To aid you in building your confidence, we have a whole category of articles focused on Optimism and Mindset . Be sure to browse it for confidence-building inspiration.

With new techniques and technology, our understanding of the human brain continues to evolve. Identifying the vital elements involved in learning and connecting with others offers deep insights into how we function and develop as social beings. We handpicked a small but unique selection of books we believe you will enjoy.

1. The Coaching Manual: The Definitive Guide to the Process, Principles and Skills of Personal Coaching – Julie Starr

This insightful book explores and explains the coaching journey from start to finish.

Starr’s book offers a range of free resources and gives clear guidance to support new and existing coaches in providing practical help to their clients.

Find the book on Amazon .

2. The Big Leap: Conquer Your Hidden Fear and Take Life to the Next Level – Gay Hendricks

Delving into the “zone of genius” and the “zone of excellence,” Hendricks examines personal growth and our path to personal success.

This valuable book explores how we eliminate the barriers to reaching our goals that arise from false beliefs and fears.

3. The Gifts of Imperfection: Let Go of Who You Think You’re Supposed to Be and Embrace Who You Are – Brené Brown

Brown, a leading expert on shame, vulnerability, and authenticity, examines how we can engage with the world from a place of worthiness.

Use this book to learn how to build courage and compassion and realize the behaviors, skills, and mindset that lead to personal development.

We have many resources available for fostering personal development and supporting client transformation and growth.

Our free resources include:

Goal Planning and Achievement Tracker This is a valuable worksheet for capturing and reflecting on weekly goals while tracking emotions that surface.
Adopt a Growth Mindset Successful change is often accompanied by replacing a fixed mindset with a growth one .
FIRST Framework Questions Understanding a client’s developmental stage can help offer the most appropriate support for a career change.

More extensive versions of the following tools are available with a subscription to the Positive Psychology Toolkit© , but they are described briefly below:

Backward Goal Planning

Setting goals can build confidence and the skills for ongoing personal development.

Backward goal planning helps focus on the end goal, prevent procrastination, and decrease stress by ensuring we have enough time to complete each task.

Try out the following four simple steps:

Step one – Identify and visualize your end goal.
Step two – Reflect on and capture the steps required to reach the goal.
Step three – Focus on each step one by one.
Step four – Take action and record progress.
Boosting Motivation by Celebrating Micro Successes

Celebrating the small successes on our journey toward our goals is motivating and confidence building.

Practice the following:

Step one – Reflect momentarily on the goal you are working toward.
Step two – Consider each action being taken to reach that goal.
Step three – Record the completion of each action as a success.
Step four – Choose how to celebrate each success.

If you’re looking for more science-based ways to help others reach their goals, check out this collection of 17 validated motivation & goal achievement tools for practitioners. Use them to help others turn their dreams into reality by applying the latest science-based behavioral change techniques.

17 Tools To Increase Motivation and Goal Achievement

These 17 Motivation & Goal Achievement Exercises [PDF] contain all you need to help others set meaningful goals, increase self-drive, and experience greater accomplishment and life satisfaction.

Created by Experts. 100% Science-based.

Personal development has a rich and long history. It is underpinned by various psychological theories and remains a vital aspect of creating fulfilling lives inside and outside coaching and counseling.

For many of us, self-improvement, self-awareness, and personal growth are vital aspects of who we are. Coaching can provide a vehicle to help clients along their journey, supporting their sense of autonomy and confidence and highlighting their potential (Cox, 2018).

Working with clients, therefore, requires an open, honest, and supportive relationship. The coach or counselor must believe the client can achieve better results and view them nonjudgmentally as equal partners.

Personal development plans become essential to that relationship and the overall coaching process. They capture areas for development, skills and behaviors required, and goals and objectives to work toward.

Use this article to recognize theoretical elements from psychology that underpin the process and use the skills, guidance, and worksheets to support personal development in clients, helping them remove obstacles along the way.

Ultimately, personal development is a lifelong process that boosts wellbeing and flourishing and creates a richer, more engaging environment for the individual and those around them.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Goal Achievement Exercises for free .

Personal development is vital, as it enables individuals to enhance various aspects of their lives, including emotional wellbeing, relationships, careers, and overall happiness.

It promotes self-awareness, self-improvement, and personal growth, helping individuals reach their full potential and lead fulfilling lives (Passmore, 2021; Starr, 2021).

Personal development is the journey we take to improve ourselves through conscious habits and activities and focusing on the goals that are important to us.

Personal development goals are specific objectives individuals set to improve themselves and their lives. Goals can encompass various areas, such as emotional intelligence, skill development, health, and career advancement, providing direction and motivation for personal growth (Cox, 2018; Starr, 2021).

A personal development plan typically comprises defining the area of development, setting development objectives, identifying behaviors to develop, planning actions for progress, and establishing completion dates. These five stages help individuals clarify their goals and track their progress (Starr, 2021).

Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory . Prentice-Hall.
Beck, A. T., & Haigh, E. P. (2014). Advances in cognitive therapy and therapy: The generic cognitive model. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology , 10 , 1–24.
Beck, J. S. (2011). Cognitive behavior therapy: Basics and beyond . Guilford Press.
Cottrell, S. (2015). Skills for success: Personal development and employability . Bloomsbury Academic.
Cox, E. (2018). The complete handbook of coaching . SAGE.
Ellis, A. (2000). Can rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) be effectively used with people who have devout beliefs in God and religion? Professional Psychology-Research and Practice , 31 (1), 29–33.
Erikson, E. H. (1963). Youth: Change and challenge . Basic Books.
Illeris, K. (2018). An overview of the history of learning theory. European Journal of Education , 53 (1), 86–101.
Lomas, T., Hefferon, K., & Ivtzan, I. (2014). Applied positive psychology: Integrated positive practice . SAGE.
Maslow, A. H. (1970). Motivation and personalit y (2nd ed.). Harper & Row.
Passmore, J. (Ed.). (2021). The coaches’ handbook: The complete practitioner guide for professional coaches . Routledge.
Piaget, J. (1959): The Psychology of intelligence . Routledge.
Rose, C. (2018). The personal development group: The students’ guide . Routledge.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2018). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness . Guilford Press.
Seligman, M. E. (2011). Authentic happiness using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfillment . Nicholas Brealey.
Starr, J. (2021). The coaching manual: The definitive guide to the process, principles and skills of personal coaching . Harlow: Pearson Education.
Whitmore, J. (2009). Coaching for performance . Nicholas Brealey.

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Personal Development Plans: Case Studies of Practice

By the mid 1990s Personal Development Plans had rapidly gained in popularity as a tool for encouraging employees to think through their own development needs and action plan for their careers and skill development.

This report, based on case study research of leaders in this field, gives practitioners clear descriptions of what PDPs really are, how they fit in with other HR processes, and how they are working in practice. The eight named case studies include TSB, BP Chemicals, Marks and Spencer and Abbey National.

The report also raises some wider policy issues and choices in using PDPs as part of a strategy of self-development.

Publication details

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Journal of Workplace Learning

ISSN : 1366-5626

Article publication date: 11 July 2016

In light of contemporary shifts away from annual appraisals, this study aims to explore the implications of using a personal development plan (PDP) as a means of focussing on continuous feedback and development to improve individual performance and ultimately organisational performance.

Design/methodology/approach

Data were collected through an employee survey in one private sector organisation in the UK finance sector using a case study approach. Secondary data in the form of completed PDPs were used to compare and contrast responses to the survey.

Results indicate that the diagnostic stage is generally effective, but support for the PDP and development activity post diagnosis is less visible. Implications of this are that time spent in the diagnostic stage is unproductive and could impact on motivation and self-efficacy of employees. Furthermore, for the organisation to adopt a continuous focus on development via PDPs would necessitate a systematic training programme to effect a change in culture.

Research limitations/implications

This study was limited to one organisation in one sector which reduces the generalisability of results. Research methods were limited to anonymous survey, and a richer picture would be painted following qualitative interviews. There was also a subconscious bias towards believing that a PDP containing documented goals would lead to improved individual and organisation performance; However, the discussion has identified the concept of subconscious priming which implies that verbal goals may be equally valid, and further comparative research between verbal and written goals is recommended.

Practical implications

The results indicate the potential value that using PDPs could bring to an organisation as an alternative to annual appraisal, subject to a supportive organisational culture.

Originality/value

PricewaterhouseCoopers, in a recent article for CIPD (2015), reported that two-thirds of large companies are planning to rethink their annual appraisal system. One of the key drivers for this was the desire for more regular feedback. Given the recent shift in thinking, little research has been conducted into what would replace the annual appraisal. This paper therefore focusses on the extent to which PDPs can contribute to supporting this more regular contact and feedback.

Performance management
Human resource development
Workplace learning
Management development
Annual appraisal
Personal development plan

Greenan, P. (2016), "Personal development plans: insights from a case based approach", Journal of Workplace Learning , Vol. 28 No. 5, pp. 322-334. https://doi.org/10.1108/JWL-09-2015-0068

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Personality development in emerging adulthood—how the perception of life events and mindset affect personality trait change.

$\nJantje Hinrika De Vries$

1 Personality Psychology and Psychological Assessment, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
2 Division HR Diagnostics AG, Stuttgart, Germany

Personality changes throughout the life course and change is often caused by environmental influences, such as critical life events. In the present study, we investigate personality trait development in emerging adulthood as a result of experiencing two major life events: graduating from school and moving away from home. Thereby, we examined the occurrence of the two life events per se and the subjective perception of the critical life event in terms of valence. In addition, we postulate a moderation effect of the construct of mindset, which emphasizes that beliefs over the malleability of global attributes can be seen as predictors of resilience to challenges. This suggests that mindset acts as a buffer for these two distinct events. In a large longitudinal sample of 1,243 people entering adulthood, we applied latent structural equation modeling to assess mean-level changes in the Big Five, the influence of life events per se , the subjective perception of life events, and a moderating role of mindset. In line with maturity processes, results showed significant mean-level changes in all Big Five traits. While no changes in the Big Five dimensions were noted when the mere occurrence of an event is assessed, results indicated a greater increase in extraversion and diminished increase in emotional stability when we accounted for the individual's (positive/negative) perception of the critical life event. In case of extraversion, this also holds true for the moderator mindset. Our findings contribute valuable insights into the relevance of subjective appraisals to life events and the importance of underlying processes to these events.

Introduction

People change as they age. Individuals experience not only physical but also psychological changes across the entire lifespan. However, the exact course of internal and external changes depends on various criteria. In recent years, researchers have expended considerable effort in studying how personality develops across the lifespan; this has, in turn, incited a controversy about the stability and variability of specific personality traits. Personality traits are considered to be relatively stable individual differences in affect, behavior, and/or cognition ( Johnson, 1997 ). Whereas, the Big Five traits of conscientiousness and agreeableness appear to be rather stable and continuously increase across adulthood, levels of openness to experience appear to change in an inverted U-shape function, which increases between the ages of 18 and 22 and decreases between 60 and 70 ( McCrae and Costa, 1999 ; Roberts and DelVecchio, 2000 ; Specht et al., 2011 ). Furthermore, some studies have shown that trait change can be associated with particular life stages. For example, the findings of Roberts and Mroczek (2008) suggest that young adults tend to exhibit increases in traits that are indicative of greater social maturity. More specifically, in emerging adulthood, the average individual experiences an increase in emotional stability, conscientiousness, and agreeableness ( Arnett, 2000 ; Roberts et al., 2006 ; Bleidorn, 2015 ), and self-esteem ( Orth et al., 2018 ), while openness to experience seems to decrease in advancing age ( Roberts et al., 2006 ). Taken together, this comprises evidence that personality develops throughout the lifespan and consequently, several theories have been introduced to explain when and why personality change occurs (e.g., Cattell, 1971 ; Baltes, 1987 ; Caspi and Moffitt, 1993 ; McCrae and Costa, 1999 ; Roberts and Mroczek, 2008 ).

Critical Life Events

Theory and research support the idea that personality can change as a result of intrinsic factors such as genetics and extrinsic factors such as the environment around us ( Bleidorn and Schwaba, 2017 ; Wagner et al., 2020 ). More specifically, there is ample evidence that personality is linked to certain external influences such as critical life events (e.g., Lüdtke et al., 2011 ; Bleidorn et al., 2018 ). These can be defined as “transitions that mark the beginning or the end of a specific status” ( Luhmann et al., 2012 ; p. 594) and include leaving the parental home or major changes in one's status such as employment or duty. These transitions often require adaptation processes involving new behavioral, cognitive, or emotional responses ( Hopson and Adams, 1976 ; Luhmann et al., 2012 , 2014 ). Profound adaptations are assumed to have lasting effects, as “life events can modify, interrupt or redirect life trajectories by altering individuals' feelings, thoughts and behaviors” ( Bleidorn et al., 2018 , p. 83). Building upon this assumption, many studies have sought to determine how certain Big Five traits change because of critical life events. For instance, increases in emotional stability were found to result from transitioning into one's first romantic relationship ( Lehnart et al., 2010 ). Emotional stability might also increase in anticipation of gain-based events such as childbirth or paid employment, which, in turn, lead to increases in conscientiousness and openness to experience ( Denissen et al., 2018 ).

In the present study, we focus on two critical life events that are highly relevant for emerging adults: moving away from home and graduating from school. Both events represent a personal development milestone for the transition into adulthood and are typically associated with great educational or occupational challenges ( Arnett, 2000 ; Pusch et al., 2018 ). Few studies have highlighted these two events and how they influence life trajectories in emerging adulthood. Lüdtke et al. (2011 ) focused on the broader superordinate section of work-related life events and personality change and found that the transition from high school to college, university, or vocational training is associated with substantial normative increases in emotional stability, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. With regard to graduation from school, Bleidorn (2012) found significant mean-level changes in certain Big Five traits over an observation period of 1 year. Specifically, senior students experienced increases in conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness after graduation. In a later review by Bleidorn et al. (2018) , the authors found that graduation constitutes an almost universal life event in Western societies and that related change in adult personality is likely to be observable, because young adulthood is a period in which personality traits have been shown to be most open to change ( Roberts and DelVecchio, 2000 ; Lucas and Donnellan, 2011 ).

There are fewer investigations into the personality effects of moving away from home. Pusch et al. (2018) compared age differences in emerging vs. young adults and found that, among other life events, leaving the parental home did not reveal significant age effects with respect to personality change. However, they found significant age-invariant effects for individuals who left their parental home recently, indicating positive changes in agreeableness. Jonkmann et al. (2014) investigated living arrangements after college with regard to personality differences and found that, for example, the choice of living arrangement (living with roommates vs. living alone) predicted the development of conscientiousness and—to a lesser extent—openness and agreeableness. Similarly, according to a study by Niehoff et al. (2017) , living and studying abroad after college led to increases in extraversion, agreeableness, and emotional stability. Interestingly, Specht et al. (2011) found a significant sex effect on leaving the parental home and argued that only women become more emotionally stable when moving. Taken together, this evidence suggests that moving away from home is a major life event that has not yet been deeply investigated but represents a distinct developmental task that has the potential to shape individuals' personalities.

The Perception of Life Events

While these studies provide valuable information about the impact of critical life events, one important issue has been hitherto neglected. Many past studies have focused on life events per se , but comparatively little effort has been made to examine the subjective appraisal of such events and its effect on the processes underlying personality change ( Roberts, 2009 ). Moreover, methodological approaches to life events are sometimes misleading, because the valence of experienced events is rated by either researchers or other people who cannot sufficiently reflect inter- and intra-individual experiences of events ( Headey and Wearing, 1989 ; Kendler et al., 2003 ; Luhmann et al., 2020 ). However, there is ample evidence that people perceive the same event or situation very differently. For example, according to a comprehensive review of person-situation transactions by Rauthmann et al. (2015) , situations can be characterized by their physical (e.g., location, activity, persons) and/or psychological (e.g., task-related, threatening, pleasant) properties. Rauthmann et al. (2015) further state that “situations only have consequences for people's thinking, feeling, desiring, and acting through the psychological processing they receive” (p. 372). Thus, people's individual experiences of psychological situations may deviate from how these situations are experienced by most other people (reality principle). This assumption aligns with the TESSERA framework conceived by Wrzus and Roberts (2017) . According to the authors, events and single situations can trigger expectancies about how to act and adjust in similar situations. These expectancies then determine which state occurs after the corresponding trigger by choosing a response from a variety of possible states ( Wrzus and Roberts, 2017 ). Conjointly, two people can perceive the same situation or event very differently, leading to diverse reactions and psychological meanings.

A first step toward this important distinction was proposed by Luhmann et al. (2020) , who aimed to systematically examined the effects of life events on psychological outcomes. To do so, the authors proposed a dimensional taxonomy which that considers nine perceived characteristics of major life events. I this way, the study uniquely emphasizes the difference between assessing the mere occurrence of a critical life event and taking into account subjective appraisal. However, significantly more research is needed to fully explore how this causes lasting personality trait change.

In conclusion, two aspects of person-situation transactions should be highlighted. First, one situation can be interpreted very differently by two individuals. Expectations and individual goals—as well as variable expressions of personality traits—influence the extent to which a situation is perceived as meaningful and, therefore, determine how people approach it ( Bleidorn, 2012 ; Denissen et al., 2013 , 2018 ). Second, this is also true for life events. Two people can reasonably experience the same major life event as completely differently. Therefore, we focus the present study on the valence of two distinct life events and use this characteristic as our central parameter. In particular, in emerging adulthood, individuals might perceive the behavioral expectations and demands associated with a life event as more pressing than others ( Pusch et al., 2018 ). What remains less clear is how situational perceptions affect personality change after a major life event, but with respect to the current string of literature, it seems reductive to only ask if, but not how, critical life events are experienced.

The Moderating Role of Mindset

In the previous section, we examined how diverse critical life events can be perceived. Here, we extend our theoretical approach by focusing on the underlying processes that might account for the different perception and spotlight causes of individual personality trait changes. One construct that is highly relevant to the aforementioned regulatory mechanisms is the individual belief system mindset. According to Dweck (1999) , an individual's mindset refers to the implicit belief about the malleability of personal attributes. Dweck (1999) distinguishes between growth and fixed mindsets. The growth mindset emphasizes the belief that attributes like intelligence and personality are changeable. Conversely, the fixed mindset refers to the belief that such attributes are immutable. According to Dweck (2012) , the individual mindset is not static and can be changed throughout one's life. Actively changing one's mindset toward a growth mindset was found to decrease chronic adolescent aggression, enhance people's willpower, and redirect critical academic outcomes ( Dweck, 2012 ; Yeager et al., 2019 ). Moreover, Blackwell et al. (2007) found that the belief that intelligence is malleable (incremental theory) predicted an upward trajectory in grades over 2 years of junior high school, while the belief that intelligence is fixed (entity theory) predicted a flat trajectory. Yet, according to a meta-analysis from Sisk et al. (2018) , mindset interventions for academic achievement predominately benefitted students with low socioeconomic status or who are at-risk academically. Mindset has also been linked to business-related outcomes (e.g., Kray and Haselhuhn, 2007 ; Heslin and Vandewalle, 2008 ). That is, individuals with a growth mindset tend to use “higher-order” cognitive strategies and adapt to stress more easily ( Heslin and Vandewalle, 2008 ). Likewise, mindset has been linked to health outcomes and even mental illness, with the assumption that a growth mindset buffers against psychological distress and depression (e.g., Biddle et al., 2003 ; Burnette and Finkel, 2012 ; Schroder et al., 2017 ). Therefore, a growth mindset can be considered a predictor of psychological resilience ( Saeed et al., 2018 ).

With regard to changes in personality traits, the findings have been mixed. Hudson et al. (2020) investigated college students' beliefs by adapting a personality measure into a mindset measure and administering it within a longitudinal study. They found that the mere belief that personality is malleable (or not) did not affect trait changes. However, in her Unified Theory of Motivation, Personality, and Development, Dweck (2017) suggests that basic needs, mental representations (e.g., beliefs and emotions), and action tendencies (referred to as BEATs) contribute to personality development. Dweck further argues that mental representations shape motivation by informing goal selection and subsequently form personality traits by creating recurring experiences ( Dweck, 2017 ). Thus, there might be more information about indicators such as the integration of mindset, motivation, and environmental influences necessary to understand how personality traits change according to belief systems.

In summary, there is evidence that a belief in the malleability of global attributes allows individuals to adapt to life circumstances in a goal-directed way and that individuals' mindsets determine responses to challenges ( Dweck and Leggett, 1988 ). Building upon the existing literature around environmental influences on personality traits and the diverse effects of mindset, we argue that after experiencing a critical life event, individuals with a growth mindset will adapt to a new situation more easily and accordingly exhibit greater change in relating personality traits. In contrast, individuals with a fixed mindset might react in a more rigid way to unknown circumstances and thus don't experience the need adapt, resulting in no personality trait change.

The Present Study

This study aims to contribute to the literature around external and internal influences on personality development in emerging adulthood by analyzing changes in the Big Five, the influences of the occurrence of life events per se vs. their subjective perception, and the possible moderating effects of mindset in a longitudinal study with a large sample. Most prior studies have focused on personality development in adulthood (e.g., Roberts and Jackson, 2008 ; Lucas and Donnellan, 2011 ; Wrzus and Roberts, 2017 ; Damian et al., 2018 ; Denissen et al., 2018 ), but emerging adulthood is marked by tremendous changes; thus, we focus our analyses on this period. According to Arnett (2000 , 2007) , emerging adulthood is considered a distinct stage between adolescence and full-fledged adulthood. This is seen as a critical life period because it is characterized by more transformation, exploration, and personality formation than any other life stage in adulthood ( Arnett, 2000 ; Ziegler et al., 2015 ; Bleidorn and Schwaba, 2017 ). With regard to beliefs systems, Yeager et al. (2019) argue that beliefs that affect how, for example, students make sense of ongoing challenges are most important and salient during high-stakes developmental turning points such as pubertal maturation. For this reason, it is particularly compelling to investigate environmental influences such as major life events that shape the trajectory of personality trait change in emerging adulthood.

To do so, we examined whether two major critical life events (graduating from school and moving away from home) affect personality development. We chose these two major life events because they are uniquely related to emerging adulthood and because existing research has found mixed results regarding their influence on personality trait change (e.g., Lüdtke et al., 2011 ; Specht et al., 2011 ; Pusch et al., 2018 ). Based on prior findings, we constructed three hypotheses. First, we expect that an increase in personality trait change will occur in individuals who graduate from school/move away from home but not in those who did not experience such events. Second, subjective perceptions of the two critical life events will influence personality trait changes in the Big Five. Third, we look at the underlying processes that influence personality and argue, that mindset will moderate the impact of the two stated life events/perception of life events on personality trait change.

Sample and Procedure

For this study, we created the German Personality Panel (GEPP) by collecting data from a large German sample in cooperation with a non-profit online survey provided by berufsprofiling.de . This organization assists emerging adults by providing job opportunities and post-graduation academic pathways. After completing the questionnaire, participants received feedback and vocational guidance. In 2016 and 2017, a total of 11,816 individuals between 13 and 30 years old ( M = 17.72 years; SD = 3.22, 50.71% female) took this survey. We used this first round of data-gathering as our longitudinal measurement occasion T1. If participants consented to be contacted again, we reached out via email in October 2018 to request their participation in a second survey. A total of 1,679 individuals between 14 and 26 years old ( M = 17.39, SD = 2.37, 64.82% female) agreed to participate and filled in a second online survey (second measurement occasion of GEPP, T2). The test battery at T2 took approximately 30–40 min, and we provided personalized feedback on personality development, as well as a monetary compensation, to all participants.

Because we were interested in emerging adults who were about to graduate from school?and thus found themselves in a critical time period?we excluded all participants older than 21 at T2. On the other hand, we included 14-year-old participants because they could have entered school in Germany at the age of five and thus graduated from secondary school and/or moved away from home by this age. At T2, 12% had not yet finished school, 32% held a secondary school certificate, and 57% held a university entrance diploma.

To further improve data quality, we obtained an indicator for careless responding by asking about self-reported diligence (“Did you work conscientiously on the test?”). Participants were informed that their answer had no impact on their compensation. At T2, 41 (3%) participants answered “No.” After excluding participants meeting this criterion, a sample of n = 1,243, aged 14–21 years ( M = 16.92, SD = 1.75, 67.23% women), remained for subsequent data analyses. All data and further materials are available via osf ( https://osf.io/xc6d4/?view_only=5b913c97553d48a290b75a3f725aca3d ).

Sample Attrition

Numerous email accounts were invalid at the second measurement point—for example, because students' personalized school email accounts were deleted following their graduation or because certain institutions used only a single email account to offer vocational counseling to college students ( N = 3,495). Those who did not participate at the second measurement point (dropouts) were slightly younger than those who participated (continuers) [ M (ageD) = 17.39; M (ageC) = 17.76; p ≤ 0.000, d = −0.12] and more women filled in the second questionnaire (dropouts = 50.9% women, continuers = 64.8% women; p ≤ 0.000, d = 0.31). Only modest selectivity effects (measured by Cohen's d ) in terms of mean differences in personality traits between dropouts and continuers were found at T1; thus, there was negligible systematic attrition ( Specht et al., 2011 ; Pusch et al., 2018 ). Continuers had slightly higher scores in agreeableness ( d = 0.17), conscientiousness ( d = 0.19), and openness ( d = 0.16) than dropouts, but they almost identical in terms of extraversion ( d = −0.08) and emotional stability ( d = 0.01).

Personality

Personality traits were assessed on both measurement occasions using a short version of the Big Five personality inventory for the vocational context (TAKE5; S&F Personalpsychologie Managementberatung GmbH, 2005 ). The TAKE5 has been shown to be a highly reliable and valid personality measure ( Mussel, 2012 ). In the short version of the test, each of the Big Five subscales (openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and emotional stability) consists of three items and was measured on a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 ( strongly disagree ) to 7 ( strongly agree ). Example items for conscientiousness include (translated from German): “Nothing can stop me from completing an important task,” “People around me know me as a perfectionist,” and “My work is always carried out the highest quality standards.” Items were selected to cover the different aspects of each domain therefore internal consistencies provide no valuable indicator. Test-retest reliabilities for the TAKE5 between T1 and T2 were 0.69 for extraversion, 0.52 for openness to experience, 0.57 for conscientiousness, 0.58 for agreeableness, and 0.50 for emotional stability. Small to moderate reliability levels can be explained by the heterogeneity of the items and our attempt to capture rather broad personality constructs. Similar results have been reported for other brief personality scales ( Donnellan et al., 2006 ; Rammstedt et al., 2016 ). All descriptive statistics and correlations can be found in Table 1 , and bivariate correlations of all items can be found at osf ( https://osf.io/xc6d4/?view_only=5b913c97553d48a290b75a3f725aca3d ).

Table 1 . Correlations and descriptive statistics among variables.

Life Events

In the present study, we focus on two major life events that are highly characteristic of the critical period between the late teens and young adulthood ( Arnett, 2000 ; Lüdtke et al., 2011 ; Bleidorn, 2012 ): moving away from home and graduating from school. At T2, after completing the personality questionnaire, participants rated their subjective perception of each of the two life events on a dimensional 7-point Likert scale (1 = very negatively , 7 = very positively ). Of the initial sample, 68.38% of the participants had graduated from school, 47.66% had moved away from home, and 46.96% had experienced both life events. Participants who had graduated from school were older ( M = 17.32 years, SD = 1.84, female = 68.80%) compared to those who had not yet finished school ( M = 15.30 years, SD = 1.09, female = 68.21%). Those who had moved away from home were approximately 1 year older ( M = 17.53, SD = 1.89, female = 69.30%) compared to those did not yet moved away ( M = 16.29, SD =1.69, female = 66.91%). To avoid potential confounding effects, we only asked about events that had happened within the past year (after the first measurement occasion). This allowed us to account for experiences that took place before T1.

In the second step, in order to obtain a fuller picture, participants also had the option of rating an additional significant life event from a list of 18 potential life events from various domains—such as love and health—based on the Munich Life Event List (MEL; Maier-Diewald et al., 1983 ). However, the number of individuals who experienced these other life events was too small to allow for further analyses.

Participants' mindset was measured with a questionnaire based on Dweck's Mindset Instrument (DMI). The 16-item DMI was developed and created by Dweck (1999) and is used examine how students view their own personality and intelligence. In the current study, only items concerning beliefs about the malleability of personality were used. The mindset inventory items were “Personality traits are something a person cannot change,” “You have a certain personality and you really can't do much to change it,” and “You can learn new things, but you can't really change your basic personality.” At T2, participants were presented a 7-point response scale, ranging from 1 ( strongly disagree ) to 7 ( strongly agree ) ( M = 3.60, SD = 1.45). Items were reversed such that higher levels indicated a growth mindset. This short inventory was found to be highly reliable ( M = 3.60, SD = 1.45, ω = 0.81, 95% CI [0.70, 0.84]).

Statistical Analyses

Analyses were carried out in four steps. First, we conducted confirmatory factor analyses to test for measurement invariance across time points T1 and T2. Second, we constructed latent difference score models for all Big Five scales to test for mean differences in personality traits. Third, we investigated the impact of the life events moving away from home and graduating from school, as well as the perception of these two events on changes in the Big Five. Fourth, we added mindset as a moderator to the model. All statistical analyses were carried out in R and R Studio 1.2.1335 ( R Core Team, 2018 ).

Measurement invariance

To ensure that the same construct was being measured across time, we first tested for measurement invariance. For weak measurement invariance, we fixed the factor loadings for each indicator to be equal across measurement occasions and compared this model to the configural model, where no restrictions were applied. The same procedure was followed to assess strong measurement invariance, with the weak invariant model compared to a model with constrained intercepts to equality across time (e.g., the same intercept for Item 2 at T1 and Item 2 at T2) ( Newsom, 2015 ). To evaluate the model fit, comparative fit index (CFI), Tucker–Lewis index (TLI), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) were inspected. Good fit was considered to be indicated when CFI and TLI values were 0.90 or higher, RMSEA below 0.08, and SRMR values below 0.05 ( Hu and Bentler, 1999 ; Marsh et al., 2005 ). The configural model showed good fit for all of the Big Five traits (All χ 2 [4 24], df = 5, CFI > [0.98 1.00], TLI > [0.94 1.00], RMSEA < [0.0 0.06], SRMR < [0.0 0.02]). Model fit for partial strong measurement invariance revealed similar fit (all χ 2 [9 50], df = 8, CFI > [0.96 1.00], TLI > [0.92 1.00], RMSEA < [0.01 0.07], SRMR < [0.01 0.03]) when freely estimating the intercept of the first manifest OCEAN item ( Cheung and Rensvold, 2002 ; Little et al., 2007 ). All further analyses are based on this model and full results for fit indices are presented in Table S1 .

Latent Change Score Models

To test for changes in personality over time, we applied latent structural equation modeling analysis with the R package lavaan (version 0.5-23.1097; Rosseel, 2012 ). Required sample size for the specified latent change score model was estimated by the R-toolbox semTools ( MacCallum et al., 2006 ; Jorgensen et al., 2018 ) for RMSEA = 0.05, df = 16, α = 0.05, and a statistical power of 90% to N = 672 individuals. Therefore, we consider our sample size to be sufficiently large.

As we were first interested in the rate of change, we built a multiple-indicator univariate latent change score model for each of the Big Five domains ( Figure 1 ). Each latent construct of interest (OCEAN) consisted of three observed measures (X1, X2, and X3) at two waves. Equality constraints were imposed on factor loadings and intercepts ( Newsom, 2015 ). Moreover, the autoregressive path was set equal to 1. The means, intercepts, and covariances at the first occasion and for the difference score factor were freely estimated, and all measurement residuals were allowed to correlate among the sets of repeated measurements ( McArdle et al., 2002 ). We accounted for missing data by applying robust maximum likelihood estimation. Finally, after specifying this basic model, the variables of interest—the occurrence of the life event, perception of the life event, and the moderator mindset—were added to the model.

Figure 1 . Schematic model of the multiple-indicator univariate latent change score model. The latent construct of interest (each personality trait) was measured at two time points (T1 and T2), using three indicators each time (X1, X2, X3). The lower part of the model constitutes the assessment of measurement invariance. “Δ latent change” captures change from the Big Five trait from T1 to T2. Latent regressions from “Δ latent change” on Mod→ Δ reflect the influence of the covariate perception of life event or the moderator mindset on the development of the Big Five. Straight arrows depict loadings and regression coefficients, curved arrows co-variances.

Standardized mean differences were calculated as an average of all intra-individual increases and decreases in a given personality trait over time. As illustrated in Figure 2 , all latent mean scores for the Big Five increased from T1 to T2. Conscientiousness and openness to experience exhibited the largest mean-level changes from T1 to T2, whereas agreeableness ( d = 0.02) and emotional stability ( d = 0.07) remained nearly the same. To test for changes in personality, we employed a multiple-indicator univariate latent change score model. Separate models for each of the Big Five all fit the data well (all CFI > 0.95, TLI > 0.93, RMSEA < 0.05, SRMR < 0.04). Inspecting the intercepts of the change factors revealed that all Big Five scores changed between T1 and T2, with less increase among individuals with high compared to low levels at T1. The latent means for each personality dimension at each time point, along with their fit indices, are reported in Table 2 .

Figure 2 . Mean-level changes in Big Five dimensions over measurement occasions T1 and T2.

Table 2 . Big Five mean-level change from T1 to T2 with fit indices, n = 1,243.

Life Events and Perception of Life Events

To assess personality trait change resulting from experiencing a life event, we included a standardized dichotomized variable “experiencing the life event vs. not” into the model. Again, the model fit the data well for both critical life events (all CFI > 0.94, TLI > 0.92, RMSEA < 0.05, SRMR < 0.04). However, comparing participants who had experienced one of the critical life events (moving away from home or graduating from school) to those who had not revealed that neither life event had a significant impact on changes in personality traits between T1 and T2 ( p >0.05).

To assess personality trait change resulting from perception of a life event, we included the standardized variable “perception of the life event” for each of the two events into the model and regressed the latent change score on the covariate. This time, results regarding the subjective perception of the life event graduating from school indicated a significant impact on personality change for emotional stability (χ 2 [16] = 94.07, CFI = 0.92, TLI = 0.90, RMSEA = 0.07, SRMR = 0.05, λ = 0.05, p [λ] < 0.05). Specifically, participants who had experienced graduating from school more negatively exhibited a diminished increase in emotional stability than compared to individuals who had experienced graduating from school more positively. We also found evidence that subjective perceptions are relevant for extraversion. A greater positive change in extraversion was observed when participants experienced graduating from school more positively than compared to negatively (χ 2 [16] = 23.90, CFI = 0.99, TLI = 0.99, RMSEA = 0.02, SRMR = 0.03, λ = 0.10, p [λ] = 0.05). Subjective perceptions moving away from home had no impact on trait changes in any of the Big Five traits. Descriptive statistics for the life events along with model fit indices can be found in Table S2 .

To test for a moderating role of mindset, an interaction term between mindset and each of the two critical life events was constructed. First, we built an interaction term between mindset and the dichotomous variable “experienced the life event” and regressed the latent change factor on the interaction term. Separate models for each of the Big Five all fit the data well (all CFI > 0.94, TLI > 0.92, RMSEA < 0.05, SRMR < 0.05). As shown in Table S3 , no effects for the Big Five traits were significant for the distinction between experienced the life event vs. did not experience the life event ( p > 0.05). Second, for each of the two life events an interaction term between mindset and perception of the life event was built analogously. For extraversion, we found a significant influence of the moderator when assessing the perception of graduating from school (χ 2 [16] = 25.62, CFI = 0.99, TLI = 0.99, RMSEA = 0.03, SRMR = 0.03, λ = −0.09, p [λ] = 0.05). Hence, a fixed mindset indicates less change in extraversion when experiencing the critical life event graduation from school. More specifically, regarding manifest means of extraversion, participants with a growth mindset experienced almost the same amount of increase in extraversion over time, regardless of their perception (positive or negative) of the critical life event. On the other hand, participants with a fixed mindset only show an increase in extraversion when they experienced the life event more positively (see Figure 3 ). No effects for the interaction between mindset and the critical life event moving away from home were significant.

Figure 3 . Change in trait extraversion for people with a fixed vs. growth mindset with regard to the perception of life event graduation from school .

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of external sources such as life events and internal dispositions like the mindset on personality trait change. We assert that exploring whether the subjective experience of life events is associated with personality trait development constitutes an important future directions in various domains of personality research. Therefore, we took a closer look at the underlying processes, particularly as they relate to individual differences in situational perceptions and belief systems. We investigated how two critical life events (moving away from home and graduating from school) influence personality trait change, the role of subjective perceptions of these events, and how internal belief systems like mindset moderate the impact of life events on trait change.

Mean-Level Change

Since our sample was selected to be between 14 and 21 years of age, most of our participants were classified as emerging adults Arnett, 2000 , 2007 . A large body of research has consistently demonstrated that emerging adulthood is characterized by trait changes related to maturity processes (for an overview, see Roberts et al., 2006 ). Thus, emerging adults tend to experience increases in conscientiousness, emotional stability, openness, and (to a lesser degree) agreeableness. This pattern is often called the “maturity principle” of personality development, and it has been found to hold true cross-culturally ( Roberts and Jackson, 2008 ; Bleidorn, 2015 ). Although the effects were small, we found evidence for mean-level changes in line with the maturity principle and functional personality trait development. Extraversion, openness, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and emotional stability significantly increased over the 1-year period. The largest changes were found for openness and conscientiousness. These changes are most likely to be explained by attempts to satisfy mature expectations and engage in role-congruent behavior. While increases in openness might be due to identity exploration, higher scores on conscientiousness could reflect investment in age-related roles. Individuals might, for instance, take increased responsibility for social or career-related tasks that require more mature functioning ( Arnett, 2000 , 2007 ).

First, we analyzed whether the occurrence of a life event per se had an influence on personality trait change. In our study, neither of the critical life events?moving away from home or graduating from school?affected Big Five trait change over the two measurement occasions. One possible explanation is that the two chosen life events were not prominent enough to evoke far-reaching changes in personality traits ( Magnus et al., 1993 ; Löckenhoff et al., 2009 ). In line with a study by Löckenhoff et al. (2009 ), more stressful, adverse events might have triggered more pronounced and predictable effects on personality traits. Moreover, the period between the late teens and early adulthood is characterized by a large number of stressful events and daily hassles ( Arnett, 2000 , 2007 ). In a comprehensive review of emerging adulthood by Bleidorn and Schwaba (2017) , graduates also experienced changes in other personality traits, such as openness and emotional stability, which suggests that many developmental tasks and major life transitions contribute to changes in Big Five trait domains. Furthermore, according to Luhmann et al. (2014) and Yeager et al. (2019) , life events may not only independently influence the development of personality characteristics, they might also interact with one another. Researchers must address the interpretation of other challenges that adolescents experience. This notion is also supported in a study by Wagner et al. (2020) , who introduced a model that integrates factors that are both personal (e.g., genetic expressions) and environmental (e.g., culture and society). The authors assert that the interactions and transactions of multiple sources are responsible for shaping individuals' personalities, and, in order to understand how they interact and develop over time, more integrated research is needed. Future studies should focus on a wider range of important life events and environmental influences during emerging adulthood and account for possible accumulating effects.

Second, and perhaps most remarkably, our findings revealed a different picture after we analyzed how the two critical life events were perceived. When participants experienced graduating from school negatively, a greater decrease in emotional stability was observed. Conversely, when the event was evaluated positively, a greater positive change in extraversion was reported. There are clear theoretical links between these two traits and the perception of life events in terms of emotional valence. While low emotional stability encompasses a disposition to experience negative emotions such as fear, shame, embarrassment, or sadness (especially in stressful situations), extraverted individuals are characterized by attributes such as cheerfulness, happiness, and serenity ( Goldberg, 1990 ; Depue and Collins, 1999 ). In line with the notion of a bottom-up process of personality development ( Roberts et al., 2005 ), experiencing a major life event as either positive or negative might lead to a prolonged experience of these emotions and, thus, ultimately to altered levels of the corresponding personality traits. These findings are in line with previous research on subjective well-being (SWB). In fact, variance in SWB can be explained by emotional stability and extraversion, indicating a robust negative relationship between low emotional stability and SWB and a positive relationship between extraversion and SWB ( Costa and McCrae, 1980 ; Headey and Wearing, 1989 ). Moreover, Magnus et al. (1993) found selection effects for these traits, suggesting that high scorers in extraversion experience more subjectively positive events, and low scorers in emotional stability experience many (subjectively) negative events (see also Headey and Wearing, 1989 ).

In the present study, we found evidence of a moderating influence of mindset on the impact of the life event graduating from school for the trait extraversion. Our results indicate that people with a growth mindset show greater change in extraversion, almost regardless of whether they experienced the life event more negatively or more positively. On the other hand, the present results indicate that people with a fixed mindset show an increase in extraversion after experiencing a life event more positively, but almost no change in extraversion when experiencing graduating from school negatively.

Interestingly, we only found effects for extraversion. As previously mentioned, trait extraversion stands for behavioral attributes such as how outgoing and social a person is, and this is related to differences in perceived positive affect ( Goldberg, 1990 ; Magnus et al., 1993 ; Roberts et al., 2005 ). The characteristics of extraversion can be linked to the assumption that people with a growth mindset show greater resilience ( Schroder et al., 2017 ; Yeager et al., 2019 ), especially in the face of academic and social challenges ( Yeager and Dweck, 2012 ). Thus, people who believe that their internal attributes are malleable confront challenges such as graduation by adapting and learning from them; our findings suggest that this results in an increase in extraversion. By contrast, people who believe that they cannot change their personality characteristics might attribute a negatively experienced graduation to external circumstances out of their control. Thus, they do not rise from a negative life event and experience no impetus to become more extraverted.

The above notwithstanding, more research is needed, as we found no evidence for the other Big Five personality traits. Further, the relationship between mindset and personality is complex to disentangle. We examined only two major life events in this first attempt. More attention is needed with respect to other life events and their interplay with internal belief systems and implicit theories to explore possible far-reaching effects on behavior.

In summary, the present study makes an important contribution to the literature on personality development in emerging adulthood with a special focus on external and internal influences and the assessment of critical life events. Our findings support the notion of a dimensional approach to life events, as introduced by Luhmann et al. (2020) , in contrast to a typological approach. With regard to research on situational perception, it seems reductive to examine the occurrence of certain life events rather than their subjective perceptions. As previously mentioned, many studies emphasize that (1) events and single situations can trigger expectancies about how to act and adjust in similar situations (TESSERA framework, Wrzus and Roberts, 2017 ); (2) psychological situations and person-situation transactions deviate from one another ( Rauthmann et al., 2015 ); and (3) regulatory mechanisms influence the variability in individual personality trait change ( Denissen et al., 2013 ).

Again, further research is needed to explore the underlying processes behind critical life events and their impact on personality trait changes. In doing so, great care should be taken in selecting life events with a strong social and emotional component with respect to individual perceptions. Finally, there is also a need for more research into the selection of life events being assessed with regard to their interplay.

Limitations and Future Directions

Our research demonstrates the importance of examining the underlying processes behind personality changes that arise from external influences such as life events. One of the strengths of this study was our large sample, which comprised N = 1,679 German emerging adults and allowed us to use powerful statistical methods. One limitation was that we gathered data across a 1-year time interval with only two measurement occasions. As noted by Luhmann et al. (2014) , the inclusion of more than two measurement points makes it easier to distinguish between sudden short- or long-term shifts and more gradual linear changes. With this in mind, it is possible that critical life events correlate with temporary disruptions of personality maturation; tracing the impact of a single life event on personality trait change might not be as straightforward as is often assumed. Moreover, two measurement occasions can only reveal the immediate effect of life events on personality traits and may, therefore, neglect long-term effects that become salient after more time has passed. Future studies should also incorporate more characteristics of life events. We concentrated our study on the valence of critical life events, but other features—such as impact, challenge, and predictability—could reveal a more comprehensive picture ( Luhmann et al., 2020 ).

Another limitation of the present study is that all our data relied on self-report personality measures. Even though almost all research on personality change is based on self-report measures, the influence of (for example) self-concepts cannot be neglected. Self-reported data might thus depart from other types of data in terms of differential stability, for example ( Wagner et al., 2020 ). Hence, changes in the Big Five domains might reflect subjective rather than observable changes in personality. At the same time, we believe that our approach of assessing personality traits and the perception of life events gives valuable insights into personality development, since we focused on how individuals consciously understand their experiences. Nevertheless, it would be informative to compare both approaches (observer and self-reported data) to examine how they complement one another (see also: Bleidorn et al., 2020 ).

Yet another important issue that must be mentioned are our attrition effects. As previously stated, the data for the first measurement occasion was gathered through a non-profit self-assessment test intended to help students explore post-graduation occupational opportunities. Hence, our sample might be prone to selection effects and confounding preexisting differences: only emerging adults who were concerned about their future might have taken the test in the first place. The self-selection to voluntarily participate in a research study might also explain the higher percentage of female participants. Moreover, some of the Big Five traits from T2 dropouts were correlated with T1 personality traits. Therefore, our results should be interpreted with caution; participants with low conscientiousness, for example, might have been more likely to drop out or have been excluded from our study due to the diligence check, and thus conscientiousness could have risen over the study period because the sample composition shifted between T1 and T2. Nevertheless, the noted differential attrition effects were rather small and reflect only modest selectivity (see also Lüdtke et al., 2011 ; Specht et al., 2011 ).

Finally, we did not examine cultural differences. With our German sample, we only investigated patterns in a modern Western industrialized country. Hence, we did not control for different cultural and demographic backgrounds, and our results might thus not be applicable to a broader range of individuals.

The present research improves our understanding of personality trait development during the critical period of emerging adulthood and demonstrates the importance of examining the underlying processes behind personality changes that arise from external influences such as life events. We showed how two critical life events can shape and adjust life trajectories, which is a necessary step toward gaining a comprehensive picture of the underlying processes of personality trait change across the life course. In addition to changes in the operationalization of life event research, larger and more diverse samples over more measurement occasions are needed to further explore how individual perceptions and internal belief systems influence our personality during and after experiencing critical life events.

Data Availability Statement

The datasets generated for this study can be found in online repositories. The names of the repository/repositories and accession number(s) can be found below: All data, further materials, and items are available via OSF at: https://osf.io/xc6d4/ .

Ethics Statement

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by the ethic commission of Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg. The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author Contributions

JHDV and PM designed the study and formulated the hypotheses. MS and AF provided the testing platform and set up the test battery. JHDV, MS, and AF were responsible for recruiting the sample and administrating the panel. JHDV and PM conducted the data analysis. JHDV designed the figures and drafted the manuscript. All authors discussed the results and commented on the manuscript.

This work was funded by a research grant to Professor Patrick Mussel by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Germany (Mu3045/6-1).

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Supplementary Material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.671421/full#supplementary-material

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Keywords: personality development, life events, big five, mindset, emerging adulthood

Citation: De Vries JH, Spengler M, Frintrup A and Mussel P (2021) Personality Development in Emerging Adulthood—How the Perception of Life Events and Mindset Affect Personality Trait Change. Front. Psychol. 12:671421. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.671421

Received: 23 February 2021; Accepted: 11 May 2021; Published: 10 June 2021.

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Copyright © 2021 De Vries, Spengler, Frintrup and Mussel. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Jantje Hinrika De Vries, jantje.de.vries@fu-berlin.de

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Paul L. Wilson

Appointment

STAR Method: Creating Powerful Personal Case Studies

“Awake. Be the witness of your thoughts. You are what observes, not what you observe.” – Siddhartha Gautama

Introducing the STAR Method

Arguing for STAR Case Studies

What your personal case study should have.

Case Study Example: KatrinaHousing.org

Problems With My Personal Case Study

Your own star case study.

When it comes to getting a job, you need to do everything possible to stand out. From your resume to the interview, you want to shine over the rest of your competition.

One tactic to do this is using the STAR. Method. This acronym stands for:

S ituation: Set the scene and give the necessary details of your example. T ask: Describe what your responsibility was in that situation. A ction: Explain exactly what steps you took to address it. R esults: Share what outcomes your actions achieved.

The advantage of using the STAR Method is that it gives you a structure within which you boil down your experience into clear and concise statements about accomplishments. This allows you to emphasize key skills in each area without going off on tangents or getting bogged down in unnecessary details. This kind of framework makes crafting an effective response to your achievements much more straightforward.

The STAR Method is common with resumes and interviews, but I have never seen someone do it as a personal case study. Most resumes and interviews that use the STAR Method share limited information, which is the point. However, a personal case study allows you to provide more details while keeping it structured and easy to understand.

I define a personal case study as:

“Documenting an experience that illustrates notable personal development.”

A personal case study deserves more space than a resume or an interview. A Linkedin article or blog post works well in building a story around the achievement. Unlike the popular Harvard business case studies that can be 20 to 100 pages long, the STAR Method offers a quick structure that helps simplify your personal case study.

When featuring my case studies on my resume, I use a short URL that links STAR Method case studies to my professional blog. This provides more context than a resume could ever give and helps lead people to my blog, which I use to go in-depth about my skills and achievements. Utilizing the STAR Method in this manner gives me significantly more space to be convincing on just how amazing I am 😀

Below is an example of how I used the STAR case study approach in showing my efforts in the 2005 Katrina hurricane. Yet, there can be some confusion on exactly what you should do in each section of the STAR Method. I’ve outlined exactly what the section means and what needs to be done.

SITUATION: YOUR MOUNTAIN

When discussing the Situation, you want to paint a picture of a mountain of a problem. Be honest, but show the difficulty of the situation you had to overcome. If it’s not difficult, think of something else to build a case study around. The whole point of the STAR Method is to take your audience through your own Hero’s Journey .

Bad Example: In college, I took an entrepreneurial management course that required me to do a project.
Good Example: 82% of businesses fail in their first year, and one of the top reasons is due to poor management. In college, I took an entrepreneurial management course that, with only over a month, had me plan, organize, and execute an entrepreneurial project. The project’s purpose was to challenge us to learn how to work as a team and overcome poor management in a start-up.

For a personal case study, I could add more to paint a mountain of a situation, but what is essential is that the reader understands this was not a normal situation.

TASK: YOUR ROLE

Out of the four steps of the STAR Method, Task is the most confusing. It’s not uncommon for people to think, “What are the tasks I had to do?”. More of like a checklist, of sorts. However, this section builds further off the Situation, and shows what you were “tasked” with in order to overcome the challenge. What is your role in this Hero’s Journey tale?

Another mistake you want to be wary of is sharing your actions. Normally, when we tell people about our job, we don’t just say our title. We often share what we exactly do, which you want to save for the next step, “Action.”

Bad Example #1: Our event was a dancing lesson, and we needed to sell t-shirts and collect phone numbers.
Bad Example #2: I was in charge of designing t-shirts, where I created the most amazing designs that everyone loved.
Good Example #3: My team and I decided to answer the challenge of overcoming poor management by organizing a dancing event that had several monetization and marketing components. I have a lot of experience in graphic design, so I was specifically tasked with designing t-shirts to be sold at our event and doing the advertising to drive up our attendance.

You can see in our good example I gave more context about the event my team was putting on and my skillset. I also didn’t just say I was over design and marketing. I expressly shared what I was tasked to do.

ACTION: YOUR EFFORTS

Action is probably the easiest to share in the STAR Method. It’s actually what we jump to when an interviewer asks what we did to overcome something. The key to the Action step, at least for personal case studies, is to be detailed in your efforts. Here is where you want to shine. You want your audience to see that you accomplished a lot.

Bad Example: I designed t-shirts and flyers. I collected emails and sent them out.
Good Example: For the marketing, I designed flyers, collected student phone numbers, developed a texting campaign, and worked with multiple clubs to have them invite their members. For the t-shirt designs, I created five designs and sent out a survey to over 500 people to see which ones they liked the most.

In the above “Good Example,” I could actually dig deeper into my actions. How did I collect the students’ phone numbers? What software did I use to do a texting campaign? What software did I use to design the shirts and survey? You want to showcase your skillset as much as possible.

RESULTS: YOUR IMPACTS

Finally, the results section. This, without a doubt, is the most powerful part of the STAR Method. You want to give as many impacts as possible to round out your Hero’s Journey. The more details you can provide, the better.

Also, I want to point out something with my example case study of Katrina House that I share below. I go beyond stating the results and have added an evidence sub-section. I think this is so important to have. You want to back up your claims. I suggested they change the acronym STAR to STARE, but I was outvoted :-D. You could argue that you should blend your evidence throughout the whole case study, which you definitely could and should. I just think it is good to make visible all the evidence you have, even if it is already shared in your personal case study.

Bad Example: Our event was a success. We sold a lot of t-shirts and collected a lot of phone numbers.
Good Example: Our event was a success. We had 422 people show up to our dancing event. For two hours of fun, we made $781, of which $259 was profit. Additionally, my shirt designs were extremely popular. We sold 64 shirts, making $1,280 in revenue, and made a profit of $640. Due to us collecting phone numbers at other events (not just at our dance), we were able to collect 812 phone numbers. Here are some pictures and a video of our event. Also, I’ve taken a screenshot of our Venmo account showing all the money we made on t-shirt sales and the dance. Finally, here is a screenshot of our software dashboard that shows how many phone numbers we have in the system.

The more evidence you can share, the more impressive your personal case study becomes. It builds credibility in what you’ve done and shows how you conquered your mountain.

What I just walked you through was a quasi-real experience by a student team in my Small Business Management course. Though not perfect, the leader of this event wrote up a STAR case study that does a good job of showcasing his involvement and achievements.

Hopefully, you can see how having a link to a personal case study on your resume can be powerful. I guarantee it will make you stand out from everyone else that is applying for whatever job you want. It not only portrays an impressive picture of what you’ve done, but the reader is going to see that it took you time to develop your STAR case study. You shouldn’t just have a few sentences. If so, just put it on your resume. You need to prove to the reader why the extra space is merited.

MY OWN CASE STUDY

Situation: the serious problem with hurricane katrina.

On Aug. 29, 2005, Hurricane Katrina hit the Gulf Coast near Buras, Louisiana, bringing floods that devastated New Orleans. More than 1,833 people in the region died. Nearly 228,000 homes and apartments in New Orleans were flooded, including 39% of all owner-occupied units and 56% of all rental units. Approximately 204,700 housing units in Louisiana were either destroyed or sustained major damage. In the wake of the hurricane, the Red Cross announced as many as 450,000 people would need housing. FEMA would later estimate that Katrina displaced as many as one million people. Unfortunately, neither FEMA nor the Red Cross were equipped to support the temporary housing needs this catastrophe caused.

TASK: Our Response – KatrinaHousing.org

To address this massive housing shortage, my good friend Joel Otterstrom built, within 48 hours, KatrinaHousing.org, which had a searchable online database where people could offer temporary housing for Katrina hurricane survivors. Unknowingly, Joel had developed the first of its kind house-sharing platform, a model that Airbnb wouldn’t create and popularize for another three years.

After Joel built Katrina Housing, he contacted me and asked if I would “get the word out” about the website. By accepting his invitation, I would end up doing much more than marketing Katrina Housing.

Here are some additional roles I took on:

Company’s spokesperson
Manage volunteer efforts
Run the in-house call center
Work as a volunteer
Oversee partner relationships

Eventually, I would take over as Executive Director and run the operations until we merged Katrina Housing with another emergency housing organization.

ACTION: Turning Digital Efforts Into Emergency Relief

When I started the marketing efforts for Katrina Housing, we had no budget. Myself and another teammate, Eran Greenburg , wrote several news releases and worked with volunteers to do extensive outreach across the web, seeking forums and blogs that discussed relief efforts for hurricane survivors. We enlisted several dozen of these platforms to post our news releases to bring awareness to our website.

In the early days of the disaster, I worked with other emergency housing efforts to centralize and consolidate all the web efforts to help the hurricane survivors. We launched a blog (which was fairly innovative in 2005) to keep the community we created informed of our efforts.

To overcome our budget deficit, I set up Katrina Housing as an official 501c3, making it possible to accept donations.

I established close partnerships with the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, the Salvation Army, Ancestry.com, Verio, and Zion’s Bank and enlisted their help in supporting our website and a toll-free helpline.

Most Katrina survivors who needed housing didn’t have Internet access. So, I worked with my friend Joel and used his company’s toll-free number. With his number, we established a call center with our partners to help people use Katrina Housing. To handle the surge of popularity we were receiving at the height of our efforts, I managed 10+ volunteers that handled the call overflow that the other call centers couldn’t take or during off hours.

I designed a simple one-page flyer featuring our toll-free number and had hundreds of them printed in Houston. We had a Texan volunteer who worked with his local church to distribute the flyers to everyone possible at the Louisiana Astrodome.

RESULTS: The Powerful Impacts of Digital Emergency Relief

In our first two weeks, Katrina Housing had placed almost 5,000 families and individuals in temporary homes. In the end, we placed over 100,000 people and generated 186,118 listings people could use to help them overcome their dire situation.

My early guerilla marketing efforts lead to me interviewing with multiple national networks like NBC News, Fox News, CBS, and The New York Times, among other smaller outlets. These interviews broadcasted our website and toll-free number, making it possible to reach millions of people who could provide temporary housing.

Our blog became the centralized platform for the digital relief efforts that were happening with the Katrina and Rita hurricane (Rita hit Louisiana & Texas not even a month later). We consistently published hundreds of weekly blog updates about the emergency efforts and provided a much-needed source of communication for digital volunteers and on-the-ground emergency workers.

By creating a legal non-profit, I was able to collect over $250,000 in donations to help us further support the relief efforts. Our 501c3 status made it, so we were able to establish key corporate partnerships that allowed us to utilize their infrastructure, free of cost, to support the heavy load of traffic to our website and helpline number. It was also key in becoming a premier partner with The Department of Homeland Security and the Salvation Army. This partnership allowed us to show our toll-free number on the JumboTron in the Louisiana Superdome. FEMA even publicly singled out KatrinaHousing.org and the emergency efforts we were doing.

EVIDENCE SUPPORTING MY RESULTS

Here are a few news articles showing my involvement and Katrina Housing significantly helping with the hurricane relief effort:

NBC News: How to help the victims of Hurricane Katrina
NBC News: Katrina evacuees redefine ‘full house’
Salt Lake Tribune: Web links people, homes
WHIR News: Web Host Verio Adds to Hurricane Relief
MarketingSherpa: Guerrilla Marketing to Aid Katrina Victims
The Daily Universe: Centers connect refugees
Meridian Magazine: Katrinahousing.org – Three LDS Programmers Team Up to Help
The Baltimore Sun: Aiding victims of storm has proved a tough task
Hartford Courant: Keeping Relief Flowing South

That wraps up my real-world case study. It was a whirlwind (pun intended) of a ride. And something that helped me with future endeavors. I just wish I had created a case study for it back when it happened.

Above is an example of how I used the STAR case study approach in showing my efforts in the 2005 Katrina hurricane.

Several important things to note about this example. First, due to it happening so long ago, I don’t have the ample data and proof I’d want in a solid personal case study such as this one.

I do have a lot of media sources that covered us, but if I had a mindset for STAR case studies back then, I would have collected the exact number of people we placed, the total website listings we achieved, screenshots of the traffic to our website, lots of photos of our volunteer team, emails of partnerships, footage of my local and national televised interviews, and anything else to strengthen what I had accomplished.

Also, I’d go out and get testimonials from the people I worked with. This isn’t necessarily required to have a strong personal case study, but it helps when someone else praises your efforts. Studies show that third-party testimonials establish deeper credibility than you just saying. More significance is placed on your claims when someone else is touting your praises!

Advanced Tip: Get Linkedin Recommendations whenever you work somewhere, do a project, and/or do something amazing. My own resume has a testimonial column that correlates with every job I’ve ever done. Testimonials are a lot easier to get when you’re at the job or just finished the project.

If there hadn’t been so much publicity about this particular experience I had, I wouldn’t have been able to provide important details that showcased just how much I did during this time. Honestly, I wish I could go back to my 21-year-old self and tell him to track everything in my career and collect data on anything noteworthy I did.

So many areas of our life can have a STAR Method case study done. To prove my point, here is a great list that can be used to find case studies to develop:

What courses did I take?
What skills did I gain from these courses?
What projects did I do in school? What was the outcome?
What unique experiences have I been a part of? What did I contribute
What books did I read? What did I learn?
What tools did I use, and how did I use them?
What professional memberships/sites/groups do I use or am I a part of?
What new skills did I learn last year(s)? How did I learn them?
Who did I work for?
What did I do for them?
Who have I impressed and why?
Do I have Linkedin testimonials?
What challenges did I face this year at work? How did I overcome them?
What processes did I improve or make more efficient?
What did I do that was above and beyond my normal job duties?
How did I stand out among other employees?
Was I ever recognized by a supervisor for a job well done? When and why?
Did I win any awards or accolades?
What new processes did I implement to improve things?
What problems did I solve?
Did I ever consistently meet or exceed goals or quotas?
Did I save the company money?
What made me really great at my job?
How was my performance measured, and did I reach/exceed any performance targets?
What did my boss say he/she wanted me to achieve when I was hired?
Have I done something that got better results than my employer had been getting before?
What would I say if asked what made or makes me great at my job?

That is a long list, and some suggestions are better than others. If anything, it should show you that there are many, many opportunities to create a personal case study. The more you track your performance in these areas, the better you’ll be able to present yourself professionally to the world.

Using the STAR Method can be invaluable for crafting powerful personal and data-rich case studies. By breaking down your experience into clear statements about accomplishments, you can highlight key skills while staying focused on relevant information that will clearly depict what you achieved. So if you’re looking for an easy way to construct compelling case studies about why you’re amazing, give this acronym a try!

The STAR Method: The Secret to Acing Your Next Job Interview
STAR Resume and Examples
How I Keep Track of My Achievements

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Case Study-Based Learning

Enhancing learning through immediate application.

By the Mind Tools Content Team

If you've ever tried to learn a new concept, you probably appreciate that "knowing" is different from "doing." When you have an opportunity to apply your knowledge, the lesson typically becomes much more real.

Adults often learn differently from children, and we have different motivations for learning. Typically, we learn new skills because we want to. We recognize the need to learn and grow, and we usually need – or want – to apply our newfound knowledge soon after we've learned it.

A popular theory of adult learning is andragogy (the art and science of leading man, or adults), as opposed to the better-known pedagogy (the art and science of leading children). Malcolm Knowles , a professor of adult education, was considered the father of andragogy, which is based on four key observations of adult learners:

Adults learn best if they know why they're learning something.
Adults often learn best through experience.
Adults tend to view learning as an opportunity to solve problems.
Adults learn best when the topic is relevant to them and immediately applicable.

This means that you'll get the best results with adults when they're fully involved in the learning experience. Give an adult an opportunity to practice and work with a new skill, and you have a solid foundation for high-quality learning that the person will likely retain over time.

So, how can you best use these adult learning principles in your training and development efforts? Case studies provide an excellent way of practicing and applying new concepts. As such, they're very useful tools in adult learning, and it's important to understand how to get the maximum value from them.

What Is a Case Study?

Case studies are a form of problem-based learning, where you present a situation that needs a resolution. A typical business case study is a detailed account, or story, of what happened in a particular company, industry, or project over a set period of time.

The learner is given details about the situation, often in a historical context. The key players are introduced. Objectives and challenges are outlined. This is followed by specific examples and data, which the learner then uses to analyze the situation, determine what happened, and make recommendations.

The depth of a case depends on the lesson being taught. A case study can be two pages, 20 pages, or more. A good case study makes the reader think critically about the information presented, and then develop a thorough assessment of the situation, leading to a well-thought-out solution or recommendation.

Why Use a Case Study?

Case studies are a great way to improve a learning experience, because they get the learner involved, and encourage immediate use of newly acquired skills.

They differ from lectures or assigned readings because they require participation and deliberate application of a broad range of skills. For example, if you study financial analysis through straightforward learning methods, you may have to calculate and understand a long list of financial ratios (don't worry if you don't know what these are). Likewise, you may be given a set of financial statements to complete a ratio analysis. But until you put the exercise into context, you may not really know why you're doing the analysis.

With a case study, however, you might explore whether a bank should provide financing to a borrower, or whether a company is about to make a good acquisition. Suddenly, the act of calculating ratios becomes secondary – it's more important to understand what the ratios tell you. This is how case studies can make the difference between knowing what to do, and knowing how, when, and why to do it.

Then, what really separates case studies from other practical forms of learning – like scenarios and simulations – is the ability to compare the learner's recommendations with what actually happened. When you know what really happened, it's much easier to evaluate the "correctness" of the answers given.

When to Use a Case Study

As you can see, case studies are powerful and effective training tools. They also work best with practical, applied training, so make sure you use them appropriately.

Remember these tips:

Case studies tend to focus on why and how to apply a skill or concept, not on remembering facts and details. Use case studies when understanding the concept is more important than memorizing correct responses.
Case studies are great team-building opportunities. When a team gets together to solve a case, they'll have to work through different opinions, methods, and perspectives.
Use case studies to build problem-solving skills, particularly those that are valuable when applied, but are likely to be used infrequently. This helps people get practice with these skills that they might not otherwise get.
Case studies can be used to evaluate past problem solving. People can be asked what they'd do in that situation, and think about what could have been done differently.

Ensuring Maximum Value From Case Studies

The first thing to remember is that you already need to have enough theoretical knowledge to handle the questions and challenges in the case study. Otherwise, it can be like trying to solve a puzzle with some of the pieces missing.

Here are some additional tips for how to approach a case study. Depending on the exact nature of the case, some tips will be more relevant than others.

Read the case at least three times before you start any analysis. Case studies usually have lots of details, and it's easy to miss something in your first, or even second, reading.
Once you're thoroughly familiar with the case, note the facts. Identify which are relevant to the tasks you've been assigned. In a good case study, there are often many more facts than you need for your analysis.
If the case contains large amounts of data, analyze this data for relevant trends. For example, have sales dropped steadily, or was there an unexpected high or low point?
If the case involves a description of a company's history, find the key events, and consider how they may have impacted the current situation.
Consider using techniques like SWOT analysis and Porter's Five Forces Analysis to understand the organization's strategic position.
Stay with the facts when you draw conclusions. These include facts given in the case as well as established facts about the environmental context. Don't rely on personal opinions when you put together your answers.

Writing a Case Study

You may have to write a case study yourself. These are complex documents that take a while to research and compile. The quality of the case study influences the quality of the analysis. Here are some tips if you want to write your own:

Write your case study as a structured story. The goal is to capture an interesting situation or challenge and then bring it to life with words and information. You want the reader to feel a part of what's happening.
Present information so that a "right" answer isn't obvious. The goal is to develop the learner's ability to analyze and assess, not necessarily to make the same decision as the people in the actual case.
Do background research to fully understand what happened and why. You may need to talk to key stakeholders to get their perspectives as well.
Determine the key challenge. What needs to be resolved? The case study should focus on one main question or issue.
Define the context. Talk about significant events leading up to the situation. What organizational factors are important for understanding the problem and assessing what should be done? Include cultural factors where possible.
Identify key decision makers and stakeholders. Describe their roles and perspectives, as well as their motivations and interests.
Make sure that you provide the right data to allow people to reach appropriate conclusions.
Make sure that you have permission to use any information you include.

A typical case study structure includes these elements:

Executive summary. Define the objective, and state the key challenge.
Opening paragraph. Capture the reader's interest.
Scope. Describe the background, context, approach, and issues involved.
Presentation of facts. Develop an objective picture of what's happening.
Description of key issues. Present viewpoints, decisions, and interests of key parties.

Because case studies have proved to be such effective teaching tools, many are already written. Some excellent sources of free cases are The Times 100 , CasePlace.org , and Schroeder & Schroeder Inc . You can often search for cases by topic or industry. These cases are expertly prepared, based mostly on real situations, and used extensively in business schools to teach management concepts.

Case studies are a great way to improve learning and training. They provide learners with an opportunity to solve a problem by applying what they know.

There are no unpleasant consequences for getting it "wrong," and cases give learners a much better understanding of what they really know and what they need to practice.

Case studies can be used in many ways, as team-building tools, and for skill development. You can write your own case study, but a large number are already prepared. Given the enormous benefits of practical learning applications like this, case studies are definitely something to consider adding to your next training session.

Knowles, M. (1973). 'The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species [online].' Available here .

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What Is a Case Study?

Weighing the pros and cons of this method of research

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Cara Lustik is a fact-checker and copywriter.

Verywell / Colleen Tighe

Pros and Cons

What Types of Case Studies Are Out There?

Where do you find data for a case study, how do i write a psychology case study.

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in many different fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.

The point of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or group so that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format similar to other types of psychology writing. If you are writing a case study, we got you—here are some rules of APA format to reference.

At a Glance

A case study, or an in-depth study of a person, group, or event, can be a useful research tool when used wisely. In many cases, case studies are best used in situations where it would be difficult or impossible for you to conduct an experiment. They are helpful for looking at unique situations and allow researchers to gather a lot of˜ information about a specific individual or group of people. However, it's important to be cautious of any bias we draw from them as they are highly subjective.

What Are the Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies?

A case study can have its strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that are often difficult or impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:

Allows researchers to capture information on the 'how,' 'what,' and 'why,' of something that's implemented
Gives researchers the chance to collect information on why one strategy might be chosen over another
Permits researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research

On the other hand, a case study can have some drawbacks:

It cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
It may not be scientifically rigorous
It can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they want to explore a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. Through their insights, researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might be explored in future studies.

It's important to remember that the insights from case studies cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. However, case studies may be used to develop hypotheses that can then be addressed in experimental research.

Case Study Examples

There have been a number of notable case studies in the history of psychology. Much of Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies. Some great examples of case studies in psychology include:

Anna O : Anna O. was a pseudonym of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim, a patient of a physician named Josef Breuer. While she was never a patient of Freud's, Freud and Breuer discussed her case extensively. The woman was experiencing symptoms of a condition that was then known as hysteria and found that talking about her problems helped relieve her symptoms. Her case played an important part in the development of talk therapy as an approach to mental health treatment.
Phineas Gage : Phineas Gage was a railroad employee who experienced a terrible accident in which an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull, damaging important portions of his brain. Gage recovered from his accident but was left with serious changes in both personality and behavior.
Genie : Genie was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation. The case study of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language learning was possible, even after missing critical periods for language development. Her case also served as an example of how scientific research may interfere with treatment and lead to further abuse of vulnerable individuals.

Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to study things that researchers could not replicate in experimental settings. In Genie's case, her horrific abuse denied her the opportunity to learn a language at critical points in her development.

This is clearly not something researchers could ethically replicate, but conducting a case study on Genie allowed researchers to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible to reproduce.

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might use:

Collective case studies : These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study a group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community. For example, psychologists might explore how access to resources in a community has affected the collective mental well-being of those who live there.
Descriptive case studies : These involve starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed, and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
Explanatory case studies : These are often used to do causal investigations. In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have caused certain things to occur.
Exploratory case studies : These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses .
Instrumental case studies : These occur when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
Intrinsic case studies : This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children are good examples of how an intrinsic case study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.

The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking at several cases simultaneously.

The type of case study that psychology researchers use depends on the unique characteristics of the situation and the case itself.

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by researchers are:

Archival records : Census records, survey records, and name lists are examples of archival records.
Direct observation : This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural setting . While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of observers.
Documents : Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc., are the types of documents often used as sources.
Interviews : Interviews are one of the most important methods for gathering information in case studies. An interview can involve structured survey questions or more open-ended questions.
Participant observation : When the researcher serves as a participant in events and observes the actions and outcomes, it is called participant observation.
Physical artifacts : Tools, objects, instruments, and other artifacts are often observed during a direct observation of the subject.

If you have been directed to write a case study for a psychology course, be sure to check with your instructor for any specific guidelines you need to follow. If you are writing your case study for a professional publication, check with the publisher for their specific guidelines for submitting a case study.

Here is a general outline of what should be included in a case study.

Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information : The first section of your paper will present your client's background. Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem : In the next section of your case study, you will describe the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts, feelings, and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or diagnostic assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis : Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client's symptoms fit the diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to support why this approach was chosen.

Cognitive behavioral approach : Explain how a cognitive behavioral therapist would approach treatment. Offer background information on cognitive behavioral therapy and describe the treatment sessions, client response, and outcome of this type of treatment. Make note of any difficulties or successes encountered by your client during treatment.
Humanistic approach : Describe a humanistic approach that could be used to treat your client, such as client-centered therapy . Provide information on the type of treatment you chose, the client's reaction to the treatment, and the end result of this approach. Explain why the treatment was successful or unsuccessful.
Psychoanalytic approach : Describe how a psychoanalytic therapist would view the client's problem. Provide some background on the psychoanalytic approach and cite relevant references. Explain how psychoanalytic therapy would be used to treat the client, how the client would respond to therapy, and the effectiveness of this treatment approach.
Pharmacological approach : If treatment primarily involves the use of medications, explain which medications were used and why. Provide background on the effectiveness of these medications and how monotherapy may compare with an approach that combines medications with therapy or other treatments.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process, and outcomes.

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case study itself, including the strengths and limitiations of the study. You should note how the findings of your case study might support previous research.

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study. What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

Need More Tips?

Here are a few additional pointers to keep in mind when formatting your case study:

Never refer to the subject of your case study as "the client." Instead, use their name or a pseudonym.
Read examples of case studies to gain an idea about the style and format.
Remember to use APA format when citing references .

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011;11:100.

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011 Jun 27;11:100. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Gagnon, Yves-Chantal. The Case Study as Research Method: A Practical Handbook . Canada, Chicago Review Press Incorporated DBA Independent Pub Group, 2010.

Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . United States, SAGE Publications, 2017.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Personal Development Case Studies

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Countrywide Property Lawyers
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Presentation Skills
Cranfield University
Cabinet Office

Supervisory Skills

Carlson Marketing
Leadership Skills
Alpine Electronics
Countryside Council for Wales

Case Study – Countrywide Property Lawyers (solicitors)

A dedicated series of one to one coaching sessions looking at the current behaviours which lead to time being encroached on and analysis of a questionnaire to look at preferred working styles and why time is lost. A further personality questionnaire revealed how to deal effectively with each individual to minimise interruptions, reducing the amount of times Jo accepting work which is not part of her objectives and dealing with self-induced stress.

“The time management course has changed, for the better, the way I approach both my professional and personal life.”

– Jo Moore, PA to the Managing Director, Countrywide Property Lawyers.

Case Study – MIND (charity)

A one day course to provide the Management team of Kettering branch of MIND with lots of hints and tips on managing their time more efficiently.

“Thank you for the excellent Time Management training you provided for us. The information and handouts are, and will be, very useful.”

– Kirsty Woods, Training Manager, Kettering MIND

Case Study – Institute of Logistics and Transport (Institute)

A two day standard course to give Managers the understanding of what negotiating is and the concept of win/win negotiating. Role plays in small groups with large group and individual feedback combined to layer the learning.

“A big thank you for a very informative and useful course.”

– Daryl Chesney, Institute of Logistics and Transport

Case Study – Northampton Borough Council (public sector)

A two day course to provide staff with the skills and techniques to negotiate in a wide variety of situations. This was a highly participative course, designed around a Negotiating video which layers the learning through scenarios. Delegates put the learning into practice with role plays in small groups with tutor feedback.

“I found the course very stimulating. Adrian made it interesting and enjoyable. Thank You.”

– Ross Leal, Northampton Borough Council

Case Study – Carlsberg-Tetley Brewing

“This was an excellent course, understandable, practical and makes negotiating plain and simple for both business and personal use. I have used the techniques confidently straight away making significant cost savings at work and at home. I really appreciated the advice Adrian gave me after the course in dealing with a tricky negotiation.”

– Brands Inventory Manager

Case Study – Cranfield University (education)

A one day course designed to give research officers hints and tips on making professional presentations.

“I felt the course was very helpful and I obtained loads of good hints and tips on how to plan and implement a successful presentation. I particularly like the examples of mind mapping and what I should, could and must include in a presentation – VERY useful. The course was interesting and the handouts are very useful for reference when planning a presentation.”

– Janet Marshall, Training Co-Ordinator, Cranfield University

Testimonial (26 March 2003)

Thank you so much for the papers relating to your excellent course. We very much appreciate your generosity towards our overseas students in allowing us to use the material that you have originated.

I found the day very beneficial and enjoyable. I feel that you removed a lot of the ‘mystique’ associated with presenting, and have set us comprehensible and attainable goals.

Thank you very much.

Angela Miller Eurolang Co-Ordinator and French and English Lecturer, Cranfield University”

Case Study – Cabinet Office (Government – COBAN)

A two day course to provide delegates with the basics of presenting to an audience sized between 4-20 people. The course is a part of a wider modular programme spread over 18 months. Delegates started the course with a short presentation and ended with a presentation of 20-30 minutes in duration; following hints and tips and feedback. There was 200% improvement from the first presentation to the second one!

“I have been hearing how much everyone really enjoyed the event. Marie and Fari have been singing your praises as the best trainer in the whole programme.”

– Marcie Smikle, Change Management, COBAN

Case Study – Carlson Marketing Group (marketing)

A two day course designed for staff new to supervising. The aim was to give them the core skills of managing others: understanding how others learn, coaching techniques, assertiveness skills and motivation in practice. The training was agreed as fast paced, with plenty of activities and fun. The final review exercise was entered into with such enthusiasm that we had people from other courses knocking on the door to join in because they were intrigued by the laughter!

“A thoroughly enjoyable course. The trainer made me feel comfortable and happy to participate in role activities. The course not only gave me the confidence and enthusiasm to manage and motivate your team, it also gave me valuable insights into effective communication skills not just to be used professionally, but in my everyday life too.”

– Joanne Hamilton, Senior Programmer

“I would like to say that the trainer was fantastic and sticks to the learners own objectives and creates a very positive training environment.”

– Sarah Crispin, Team Administrator, Data Capture

Case Study – Motech (automotive industry)

“I wish to thank you for a very interesting and thought provoking 2 days training. When the course was first suggested to me I was very sceptical about it and thought it would be of little benefit to me and my position within the company. However, these thoughts were immediately blown away and I went on to find the course very enjoyable.”

– David Hill, Sales Office Manager, Motech

Case Study: Countryside Council for Wales

A two day course designed to improve the leadership skills of staff who are excellent managers but needed guidance on the difference between leadership and management. The pre-course work involved each delegate completing a self-perception questionnaire on their leadership style, which was analysed and compared to the perceptions of others their boss, colleagues, peers and others nominated by the delegate.

The Kouzes/Posner Leadership Practices Inventory was explained as part of the course to enable delegates to practice, review and start action planning a development programme. Each delegate was supplied with a superb workbook providing guidance on each aspect of leadership to develop and options on development according to their learning style.

“A challenging and highly informative training event. Adrian is an inspirational trainer who’s style allows learning in a very effective manner. The course material is very valuable and has given me a great deal of inspiration to allow me to develop as a leader in a very positive manner.”

– Tim Jones, Countryside Council for Wales

Case Study: Alpine Electronics

The Development Company is proud to be working in partnership with Alpine Electronics UK.

Alpine Electronics UK design, develop and manufacture mobile media solutions tailored for high-quality car manufacturers such as Jaguar Landrover and Honda..

When Cathy Buckley, HR Manager of Alpine aligned the learning and development plan with the business plan she identified that middle and senior Managers needed their management and leadership skills updating.

The Development Company was chosen to be the sole training deliverer because of our pragmatic approach to training design, delivery and evaluation.

August 2007

Cathy says “It was so important to find a supplier who could partner me in this project and having carried out extensive research I chose The Development Company.

The Development Company has followed best practice throughout the process including:

a tailored training needs analysis to finalise the management programme content
delivery tailored to our systems, values and culture
an evaluation process to find out what effects the training was having which enabled me to put forward a business case for a second modular programme.”

The first modular programme ran from December 2007 to May 2008 with one module delivered once a calendar month and with work-based assignments in-between. Comments such as “it has transformed my management style” and “the best courses I have ever attended” added to results such as “I have had feedback that I communicate more effectively” and “the tools increased staff morale”.

The Directors and Senior Managers of Alpine UK chose The Development Company to develop their leaders. Prior to the event, a self-perception leadership skills questionnaire was completed by the attendees. Each leader nominated members of staff to complete a questionnaire on their leadership style. This 360 degree analysis was a core part of the programme, enabling the leaders to take a step back, review the results and start an action plan for either continuation or change.

The event was a major learning curve for all attendees and encouraged some dramatic changes in leadership style.

Leadership Skills development

“The good news is that all the techniques you introduced on the Leadership Programme are a toolkit for a very high performing organisation. I am thrilled to see our leaders see how clearly their leadership style impacts on our organisation strategy in the short, medium and long term.”

– Cathy Buckley, HR Manager, Alpine Electronics

Management Development Programme 2 During 2008-2009 the second group of Managers attended a modular development programme. Based on the 1st programme this will be evaluated later in 2009. Following the evaluation of the first programme, the need for learning contracts was identified to enable attendees to agree assignments as a work based objective. This was part of Cathy’s goal of moving towards a learning organisation culture.

Other Skills development

As the needs of the business change, the development plan changes and The Development Company has provided one day events in areas such a Negotiating Skills and Dealing with People. These ongoing courses and one to one coaching events are pragmatic in focus so that the learning can be easily transferable into the workplace ensuring the continuation of the new culture.

“I recommend any organisation to look at The Development Company as their preferred partner for the design, delivery and evaluation of any learning events. They have worked with staff with a diversity of roles and tailor each event to ensure the learning is transferred to the workplace. They have enabled me personally to achieve my goal of re-positioning learning and development as an integral part of the business plan.”

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Freudian Psychology

Case Studies of Sigmund Freud

Introduction to sigmund freud's case histories, including little hans, anna o and wolf man..

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Accounts of Freud ’s treatment of individual clients were key to his work, including the development of psychodynamic theory and stages of psychosexual development . Whilst the psychoanalyst’s use of case studies to support his ideas makes it difficult for us to prove or disprove Freud’s theories, they do provide fascinating insights into his day-to-day consultations with clients and offer clues as to the origins of his influential insights into how the human mind functions:

Little Hans

Perhaps the best known case study published by Freud was of Little Hans. Little Hans was the son of a friend and follower of Freud, music critic Max Graf. Graf’s son, Herbert, witnessed a tragic accident in which a horse carrying a heavily loaded cart collapsed in the street. Five year old Little Hans developed a fear of horses which led him to resist leaving the house for fear of seeing the animals. His father detailed his behavior in a series of letters to Freud and it was through these letters that the psychoanalyst directed the boy’s treatment. Indeed, the therapist and patient only met for a session on one occasion, but Freud published his case as a paper, Analysis of a Phobia in a Five-Year-Old Boy (1909), in support of his theory of the Oedipus complex and his proposed stages of psychosexual development.

Freud Cases

Rat Man: A Case of 'Obsessional Neurosis'
Dora Case Study
Inside the Mind of Daniel Schreber
The Case of Little Hans

Little Hans’ father relayed to Freud his development and noted that he had begun to show an intense interest in the male genitals, which the therapist attributed to him experiencing the phallic stage of psychosexual development. During this stage, the erogenous zone (the area of the body that one focuses on to derive pleasure) switches to the genitals. At this stage, signs of an Oedipus complex may also be observed, whereby a child competes with their father to retain their position as the central focus of their mother’s affection. Freud believed that this was supported by a fantasy which Little Hans had described, in which a giraffe and another, crumpled, giraffe entered the room. When the boy took the latter from the first giraffe, it objected. Freud believed that the giraffes symbolised his parents - the crumpled giraffe represented his mother, whom he would share a bed with when his father was absent, and the first giraffe was symbolic of his father. Children may also develop castration anxiety resulting from a fear that the father will castrate them in order to remove the threat that they pose to the parents’ relationship.

The boy’s fear of horses, according to Freud, was caused by a displacement of fear for his father onto the animals, whose blinkers made them resemble the man wearing his glasses.

Freud believed that Little Hans’ fear of horses disappeared as his described fantasies that indicated the resolution of his castration anxiety and an acceptance of his love for his mother.

Other Influential Accounts

Whilst Freud saw many clients at his practise in Vienna, and cases such as Wolf Man, Rat Man and Dora are well documented, the psychoanalyst also applied psychodynamic theory to his interpretation of other patients, such Anna O, a client of his friend, Josef Breuer. The autobiographical account of Dr. Daniel Schreber also formed the basis of a 1911 paper by Freud detailing his interpretation of the man’s fantasies.

Anna O (a pseudonym for Austrian feminist Bertha Pappenheim) was a patient of Freud’s close friend, physician Josef Breuer. Although Freud never personally treated her (Anna’s story was relayed to him by Breuer), the woman’s case proved to be influential in the development of his psychodynamic theories. Freud and Breuer published a joint work on hysteria, Studies on Hysteria , in 1895, in which Anna O’s case was discussed.

Seeking treatment from Breur for hysteria in 1880, Anna O experienced paralysis in her right arm and leg, hydrophobia (an aversion to water) which left her unable to drink for long periods, along with involuntary eye movements, including a squint. She also found herself mixing languages whilst speaking to carers and would see hallucinations such as those of black snakes and skeletons, and would wake anxiously from her daytime sleep with cries of “tormenting, tormenting”.

During her talks with Breuer, Anna enjoyed telling fairytale-like stories, which would often involve sitting next to the bedside of a sick person. A dream that she recalled was also of a similar nature: she was sat next to the bed of an ill person in bed when a black snake approached the invalid. Anna wanted to protect the person from the snake but felt paralysed and was unable to warn off the snake.

Freud and Breuer considered the subject of this dream to be linked to an earlier experience. Prior to her own illness, Anna’s father had contracted tuberculosis and she had spent considerable lengths of time caring for him by his bedside. During this period, Anna had fallen ill, preventing her from accompanying her father in his final days and he passed away on April 1881. The trauma of caring for her father may have affected Anna, and Breuer believed that the paralysis she experienced in reality was a result of that which she had experienced in the dream. Furthermore, he linked her hydrophobia to another traumatic event some time previously, when she had witnessed a dog drinking from a glass of water that she was supposed to use. The revulsion she felt had stayed with her and manifested in a later aversion to water.

The conscious realisation of the causes behind her suffering, according to Breuer, helped Anna to make a recovery in 1882. She valued the “talking therapy” that he had provided, describing their sessions as “chimney sweeping”.

Dr. Daniel Schreber

Freud’s interpretation of client’s past experiences and dreams was not limited to the patients he saw at his Vienna clinic. German judge Dr. Daniel Schreber (1842-1911) wrote a book, Memoirs of My Nervous Illness (1903) - in which he detailed the fantasies that he experienced during the second of three periods of illness - whilst confined in the asylum of Sonnenstein Castle.

Upon reading the book, Freud offered his own thoughts on the causes of Schreber’s fantasies, which were published in his 1911 paper Notes upon an autobiographical account of a case of paranoia (dementia paranoides) .

Initially suffering whilst standing as a candidate in the 1884 Reichstag elections, Schreber had begun to experience hypochondria, for which he sought the help of Professor Paul Flechsig. After six months, treatment ended, but he returned to Flechsig in 1893, bothered again by hypochondria and now sleeplessness also. Schreber recalled thoughts during a half-asleep state in which he noted that “it really must be very nice to be a woman submitting to the act of copulation” (Freud, 1911). He would eventually turn against Professor Flechsig, accusing him of being a “soul murderer”, and thoughts of emasculation also developed into extended fantasies - Schreber convinced himself that he had been assigned a role of savior of the world, and that he must be turned in a woman in order for God to impregnate with him, creating a new generation which would repopulate the planet.

In his response to Schreber’s account, Freud focussed on the religious nature of the fantasies. Whilst Schreber was agnostic, his thoughts suggested religious doubts and what Freud described as “redeemer delusion” - a sense of being elevated to the role of redeemer of the world. The process of emasculation that Schreber felt was necessary was attributed by Freud to “homosexual impulses”, which the psychoanalyst suggests were directed towards the man’s father and brother. However, feelings of guilt for experiencing such desires led to them being repressed.

Freud also understood Schreber’s sense of resentment towards Flechsig in terms of transference - his feelings towards his brother had been subconsciously transferred to the professor, whilst those towards his father had been transferred to a godly figure.

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Announcements
Copilot Studio

Microsoft Copilot Studio: Building copilots with agent capabilities

Omar Aftab , Vice President, Conversational AI , Tuesday, May 21, 2024

At Microsoft Build 2024 , we’re excited to announce a host of new powerful capabilities in Microsoft Copilot Studio —t he single conversational AI tool you can use to create your very own custom copilots or extend Microsoft C opilot experiences with your own enterprise data and scenarios.

The first of these are c opilots that can now act as independent agents— ones that can be triggered by events— not just conversation— and can automa te and orchestrate complex, long-running business processes with more autonomy and less human intervention.

For instance, consider the potential of a copilot that can react when an email arrives, look up the sender’s details, see their previous communications, and use generative AI to trigger the appropriate chain of actions in their response. From understanding the intent of the email, to look ing up the sender’s details and account , see ing their previous communications, checking inventory, responding to the sender asking for their preferences, and then taking the appropriate actions to close a ticket — orchestrating and shepherding an entire process over days.

With such capabilities, copilots are evolving from those that work with you to those that work for you. They can be designed to handle specific roles or functions, such as IT, marketing, sales, customer success, and finance across various industries, including travel, retail, and financial services.

With these new capabilities, here are some examples of the kinds of copilots our customers can build:

IT help desk . IT support is complex, involving tickets, order numbers, approvals, and stock levels . O pening and closing a ticket can be a long-running task that spans days. A copilot can now handle this process, interfacing with IT service management applications, resolving IT tickets with context and memory, creating purchase orders for device refresh, and reaching out and getting managers approvals — all independently .
Employee onboarding . Onboarding new employees is often expensive and slow. Now, imagine you’re a new hire. A copilot greets you, reasons over HR data, and answers your questions. It introduces you to your buddy, provides training and deadlines, assists with forms, and sets up your first week of meetings. Throughout all of this, the copilot is in touch, guiding you through the weeks -long onboarding and account set up processes.
Personal concierge for sales and service . Balancing exceptional customer experience while meeting ambitious revenue goals can be challenging. When a copilot serves guests, i t can use the memory of previous conversations with guests to remember their preferences, make reservations, handle complaints, and answer questions related to the products and services on offer. The copilot learns from its interactions and proposes new ways of handling customer scenarios. By doing so, copilots can increase upsell and attachment rates, driving revenue for the resort while simultaneously enhancing guest experience, satisfaction rates, and repeat business.

Let’s dig deeper into a few of the underlying capabilities that make all this possible:

Asynchronous orchestration of complex tasks . The first is the ability to use generative AI- powered planning and reasoning to manage complex, multi step, long-running tasks. For example, reacting to a new order means determining the need to verify inventory, trigger ing the right payment processes, pinging a supervisor for approval if the amount is above a certain threshold, and replying with a confirmation. Many of these events can take hours—or even days— to complete, but the copilot will run through them , maintaining the necessary state and context to do so.
Memory and context . One of the frustrating things about support has traditionally been having to repeat information: who you are, what your policy number is, what your address is. There is no continuity of conversation. Copilots will now learn from previous conversations from the users and utilize this knowledge to continually personalize interactions . A copilot may not need to ask you for your laptop model or your address when you call again for the same issue. Conversations will thus become long-running, contextual, and deeply personalized.
Monitor, learn, and improve . Copilots can now learn and adapt, offering monitoring and teaching capabilities to make their interactions better. Each copilot records a comprehensive history of its activities, providing transparency into its performance, including user interactions, actions taken, and feedback received, and you can see what decisions it made — and correct and teach them — with just a few clicks.

Screenshot of the in-product experience for training copilots with agent capabilities in Microsoft Copilot Studio

Delegation with confidence and guardrails . When developing copilots with agent capabilities, establishing clear boundaries is paramount. Copilots operate strictly within the confines of the maker-defined instructions, knowledge, and actions. The data sources linked to the copilot adhere to stringent security measures and controls, managed through the unified admin center of Copilot Studio. This includes data loss prevention, robust authentication protocols, and more.

The se advanced new capabilities in Copilot Studio are currently accessible to customers participating in a limited private preview where organizations such as Centro de la Familia are excited to explore agent capabilities that support teachers and case workers, allowing them to spend less time on administrative tasks and more time working with children, ultimately leading to better child outcomes . Based on feedback from program participants, we will continue to iterate and refine these capabilities for broader access in a preview planned for later this year .

Additional innovations with Copilot Studio

There’s a lot more to share at Microsoft Build with Copilot Studio, and we’ll touch on just a few of our new capabilities here. To learn more — just sign up and try it out for yourself here .

It’s easier than ever to create c opilots . With Copilot Studio, creating and testing copilots is now incredibly simple. You can create your copilot with our brand new conversationally driven experience — simply describe what you want it to do, and what knowledge you want it to have, and Copilot Studio will create your very own c opilot. You can then immediately test it out, add additional capabilities, such as your own actions, APIs, and enterprise knowledge — and then publish it live with a few clicks.

Screenshot of the homepage of Microsoft Copilot Studio

Connect all your enterprise data with Copilot c onnectors . Customers want copilots connected with data from their own enterprises business systems and apps. Copilot connectors enable anyone to ground their copilot in business and collaboration data. This makes it possible for copilots to use various data sources, including public websites, SharePoint, OneDrive, Microsoft Dataverse tables, Microsoft Fabric OneLake (coming this calendar year), Microsoft Graph, as well as leading third-party apps. You can even create your own custom generative prompts to configure how a copilot handles a response from an API or connector.

Screenshot of the available knowledge sources in Microsoft Copilot Studio

Here are a few examples of how Copilot connectors can transform copilot experiences for specific personas or functions:

Legal and Compliance . Navigate complex legal landscapes with a Copilot extension that queries specific legal datasets, ensuring controlled and compliant responses without overwhelming users with extraneous information.
HR Helper . Assist employees with accessing essential resources for benefits and PTO policies, and even book time off directly through Copilot.
Incident Report Coordinator . Workers can locate the right documentation, report incidents, and track them efficiently, all within the context of the chat.

Starting in June 2024, developers can access the preview for Copilot connectors and stay informed on updates here .

Conversational analytics (private preview) : One of the most common asks from customers has been the need for deeper insight into what their copilot is doing, how generative AI is responding, when it was unable to give the right answers and why — and recommendations on what to do to improve it.

Screenshot of the conversational analytics experience in Microsoft Copilot Studio

Templates : If simply describing your copilot to build it wasn’t easy enough, Copilot Studio will now also include a variety of pre-built copilot samples for departments and industries. Some templates — such as Safe Travels for comprehensive travel support, Organization Navigator for organizational clarity, Kudos Copilot for fostering recognition, Wellness for employee health insights — are available now, with many more releasing in the coming months.

Enhanced security and controls (public preview ) : Administrators can now configure advanced settings beyond the default security measures and controls. With Microsoft Purview , Copilot Studio administrators gain access to more detailed governance tools, including audit logs, inventory capabilities, and sensitivity labels. They will be able to review comprehensive audit logs that cover tenant-wide usage, inventory (with API support), and tenant hygiene (such as data loss prevention violations and inactive copilots), enabling them to effectively monitor business impact. Both creators and end-users will be able to view sensitivity labels when responses are generated using AI-powered answers based on SharePoint documents.

With all the amazing innovations, numerous organizations are using Copilot Studio to build transformative generative AI-powered solutions. Check out this story from Nsure on how they are using Copilot Studio:

Get started today with Copilot Studio

This is just a glimpse of all the exciting innovation around copilots and Copilot Studio — we have a host of exciting new capabilities to share in our sessions at Build. So, join us in watching the sessions below, and try out Copilot Studio yourself and build and share your very own copilot in minutes.

Watch the sessions at Microsoft Build:

“ Microsoft Build opening keynote ”
“ Next generation AI for developers with the Microsoft Cloud ”
“ Shaping next-gen development: the future of Copilot in Power Platform ”

Deeper dives:

Breakout: “ What’s new with Microsoft Copilot Studio ”
Breakout with demos: “ Build your own copilot with Microsoft Copilot Studio ”
Breakout with demos: “ Build Microsoft Copilot extensions with Copilot Studio ”
Demo (live only): “ Build your own Copilot extension with Microsoft Copilot Studio ”

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15+ Professional Case Study Examples [Design Tips + Templates]
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Sample Case Study
Personal Case Study Example
📚 Free Case Study Example on Child Development Theories
Personal Development Case Study Example

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Holmlea Primary School, Glasgow
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personal development case study 1 answer infosys springboard(springboard answer)#personaldevelopment
Data Base Management System Week 1 Assignment 1
Creating a Life of Purpose: Personal Development Practices
Continuing Professional Development Case Study

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Personal development plans: insights from a case based approach
Abstract. Purpose - In light of contemporary shifts away from annual appraisals, this study aims to explore the. implications of using a personal development plan (PDP) as a means of focussing ...
Personal Development & Career: Articles, Research, & Case Studies on
New research on personal development and careers from Harvard Business School faculty on issues including self improvement, work-life balance, and life-long learning. ... who tackles tricky scenarios in a series of case studies and offers his advice from the field.
PDF Personal Development Plans: Case Studies of Practice
2. Case Studies 14 2.1 Detailed Case Studies 14 Case Study 1: Royal Mail Anglia 15 Case Study 2: Guardian Royal Exchange 17 Case Study 3: Scottish Power 20 Case Study 4: TSB Bank plc 23 Case Study 5: BP Chemicals 26 Case Study 6: Marks and Spencer 29 Case Study 7: The Wellcome Foundation 32
Personal growth and transformation
Organizational Development Magazine Article. Paul J. Brouwer. Self-image is an important element in a manager's development. Personal growth is a direct result of an individual's changing self ...
How to Create a Personal Development Plan: 3 Examples
Bandura's social cognitive theory. Albert Bandura's (1977) theory highlights the role of social learning and self-efficacy in personal development. It emphasizes that individuals can learn and grow through observation, imitation, and belief in their ability to effect change. 5. Self-determination theory.
(PDF) The case for personal development
2. The Case for Personal Development. This paper examines the use of matrices and strategies in mapping personal. (professional) development in an individual's ca reer. In order to optimise ...
PDF Personal Development Planning in Practice A series of case studies
These Case Studies reflect the variety of potential contexts for PDP, including work-based learning contracts, disciplinary based processes linking learning with personal and professional development, credit bearing modules, web-based and paper-based recording formats. Common features of the Case Studies include emphasis on
Personal Development Plans: Case Studies of Practice
By the mid 1990s Personal Development Plans had rapidly gained in popularity as a tool for encouraging employees to think through their own development needs and action plan for their careers and skill development. This report, based on case study research of leaders in this field, gives practitioners clear descriptions of what PDPs really are ...
The case for personal development
The case for personal development Search in: Advanced search. Perspectives: Policy and Practice in Higher ... This paper examines the use of matrices and strategies in mapping personal (professional) development in an individual's career. In order to optimise opportunities, identify positive steps, and make impactful career moves, we must ...
Personal development plans: insights from a case based approach
In light of contemporary shifts away from annual appraisals, this study aims to explore the implications of using a personal development plan (PDP) as a means of focussing on continuous feedback and development to improve individual performance and ultimately organisational performance.,Data were collected through an employee survey in one ...
Self-case study as a catalyst for personal development in cognitive
Personal development is a vital requirement of counsellor development, and educators need to consider how best to promote and support students' personal development throughout training. 'Self-case study' can provide both learning and personal development opportunities for counselling students. This qualitative narrative study explores ...
Frontiers
Both events represent a personal development milestone for the transition into adulthood and are typically associated with great educational or occupational challenges (Arnett, 2000; Pusch et al., 2018). Few studies have highlighted these two events and how they influence life trajectories in emerging adulthood.
STAR Method: Creating Powerful Personal Case Studies
"Documenting an experience that illustrates notable personal development." A personal case study deserves more space than a resume or an interview. A Linkedin article or blog post works well in building a story around the achievement. Unlike the popular Harvard business case studies that can be 20 to 100 pages long, the STAR Method offers a ...
(PDF) Case study on personality development using Mirror Reflection
School of Management, IMS Unison University, Makkawala Greens, Mussorie Road, Dehradun, Uttarakhand. Telephone No: +91-8860002148. Email Id: [email protected]. Case study on personality ...
Personal Development Plans: Case Studies of Practice. Report 280
The use and effectiveness of personal development plans (PDPs) in planning career and skill development activities for individuals within employing organizations in the United Kingdom was examined through case studies of seven firms and telephone interviews with representatives of seven other firms. The case studies/interviews focused on the following key issues for practitioners involved in ...
Personal development plans : case studies of practice
Career development -- Case studies, Plan de carrière -- Études de cas, Career development, Labour relations, Management, administration, and business studies, Education and training, Labour studies, Education & training Publisher Brighton [England] : Institute for Employment Studies Collection internetarchivebooks; inlibrary; printdisabled ...
Case Study-Based Learning
Case studies are a form of problem-based learning, where you present a situation that needs a resolution. A typical business case study is a detailed account, or story, of what happened in a particular company, industry, or project over a set period of time. The learner is given details about the situation, often in a historical context.
Case studies / Personal Development Planning for Lifelong Learning
Case study tags: e-portfolios, bournemouth university, e-portfolios for application, ... The context for PDP4Life is the requirement for Progress Files and Personal Development Planning (PDP) in higher education and the development of the regional Lifelong Learning Networks (LLN) in support of learner progression between and through learning ...
Case Study: Definition, Examples, Types, and How to Write
Intrinsic case studies: This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children are good examples of how an intrinsic case study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.
PDF The Influence of Social Environment on Personal Character Development
is a case study, aiming to explore the profound influence of the social environment on personal character development, according to of different life stages Pip. Albert Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory and Lawrence Kohlberg's Moral Development Theory can be combined to interpret Pip's character development and moral evolution.
Personal Development Case Studies
Case Study - Institute of Logistics and Transport (Institute) Negotiating Skills. A two day standard course to give Managers the understanding of what negotiating is and the concept of win/win negotiating. Role plays in small groups with large group and individual feedback combined to layer the learning.
7 Ways To Improve Your Personal Development Skills
2. Read. Reading can expand your knowledge and vocabulary and keep you informed. It can also stimulate your mind and can improve your critical thinking skills. Try reading at least one educational or motivational article a day or book a month. 3. Learn something new.
Case Studies of Sigmund Freud
Accounts of Freud's treatment of individual clients were key to his work, including the development of psychodynamic theory and stages of psychosexual development.Whilst the psychoanalyst's use of case studies to support his ideas makes it difficult for us to prove or disprove Freud's theories, they do provide fascinating insights into his day-to-day consultations with clients and offer ...
Microsoft Copilot Studio: Building copilots with agent capabilities
When developing copilots with agent capabilities, establishing clear boundaries is paramount. Copilots operate strictly within the confines of the maker-defined instructions, knowledge, and actions. The data sources linked to the copilot adhere to stringent security measures and controls, managed through the unified admin center of Copilot Studio.
Department of Human Services (DHS)
Our mission is to assist Pennsylvanians in leading safe, healthy, and productive lives through equitable, trauma-informed, and outcome-focused services while being an accountable steward of commonwealth resources. DHS Executive Leadership.