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What is Literature? || Definition & Examples

"what is literature": a literary guide for english students and teachers.

View the full series: The Oregon State Guide to English Literary Terms

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What is Literature? Transcript (English and Spanish Subtitles Available in Video; Click HERE for Spanish Transcript)

By Evan Gottlieb & Paige Thomas

3 January 2022

The question of what makes something literary is an enduring one, and I don’t expect that we’ll answer it fully in this short video. Instead, I want to show you a few different ways that literary critics approach this question and then offer a short summary of the 3 big factors that we must consider when we ask the question ourselves.

Let’s begin by making a distinction between “Literature with a capital L” and “literature with a small l.”

“Literature with a small l” designates any written text: we can talk about “the literature” on any given subject without much difficulty.

“Literature with a capital L”, by contrast, designates a much smaller set of texts – a subset of all the texts that have been written.

what_is_literature_little_l.png

So what makes a text literary or what makes a text “Literature with a capital L”?

Let’s start with the word itself.  “Literature” comes from Latin, and it originally meant “the use of letters” or “writing.” But when the word entered the Romance languages that derived from Latin, it took on the additional meaning of “knowledge acquired from reading or studying books.” So we might use this definition to understand “Literature with a Capital L” as writing that gives us knowledge--writing that should be studied.

But this begs the further question: what books or texts are worth studying or close reading ?

For some critics, answering this question is a matter of establishing canonicity.  A work of literature becomes “canonical” when cultural institutions like schools or universities or prize committees classify it as a work of lasting artistic or cultural merit.

The canon, however, has proved problematic as a measure of what “Literature with a capital L” is because the gatekeepers of the Western canon have traditionally been White and male. It was only in the closing decades of the twentieth century that the canon of Literature was opened to a greater inclusion of diverse authors.

And here’s another problem with that definition: if inclusion in the canon were our only definition of Literature, then there could be no such thing as contemporary Literature, which, of course, has not yet stood the test of time.

And here’s an even bigger problem: not every book that receives good reviews or a wins a prize turns out to be of lasting value in the eyes of later readers.

On the other hand, a novel like Herman Melville’s Moby-Di ck, which was NOT received well by critics or readers when it was first published in 1851, has since gone on to become a mainstay of the American literary canon.

moby_dick_with_quote.png

As you can see, canonicity is obviously a problematic index of literariness.

So… what’s the alternative?  Well, we could just go with a descriptive definition: “if you love it, then it’s Literature!”

But that’s a little too subjective.  For example, no matter how much you may love a certain book from your childhood (I love The Very Hungry Caterpillar ) that doesn’t automatically make it literary, no matter how many times you’ve re-read it.

Furthermore, the very idea that we should have an emotional attachment to the books we read has its own history that cannot be detached from the rise of the middle class and its politics of telling people how to behave.

Ok, so “literature with a capital L” cannot always by defined by its inclusion in the canon or the fact that it has been well-received so…what is it then? Well, for other critics, what makes something Literature would seem to be qualities within the text itself.

According to the critic Derek Attridge, there are three qualities that define modern Western Literature:

1. a quality of invention or inventiveness in the text itself;

2.  the reader’s sense that what they are reading is singular. In other words, the unique vision of the writer herself.

3. a sense of ‘otherness’ that pushes the reader to see the world around them in a new way

Notice that nowhere in this three-part definition is there any limitation on the content of Literature. Instead, we call something Literature when it affects the reader at the level of style and construction rather than substance.

In other words, Literature can be about anything!

what_is_literature_caterpillar.png

The idea that a truly literary text can change a reader is of course older than this modern definition. In the English tradition, poetry was preferred over novels because it was thought to create mature and sympathetic reader-citizens.

Likewise, in the Victorian era, it was argued that reading so-called “great” works of literature was the best way for readers to realize their full spiritual potentials in an increasingly secular world.

But these never tell us precisely what “the best” is.  To make matters worse, as I mentioned already, “the best” in these older definitions was often determined by White men in positions of cultural and economic power.

So we are still faced with the question of whether there is something inherent in a text that makes it literary.

Some critics have suggested that a sense of irony – or, more broadly, a sense that there is more than one meaning to a given set of words – is essential to “Literature with a capital L.”

Reading for irony means reading slowly or at least attentively.  It demands a certain attention to the complexity of the language on the page, whether that language is objectively difficult or not.

In a similar vein, other critics have claimed that the overall effect of a literary text should be one of “defamiliarization,” meaning that the text asks or even forces readers to see the world differently than they did before reading it.

Along these lines, literary theorist Roland Barthes maintained that there were two kinds of texts: the text of pleasure, which we can align with everyday Literature with a small l” and the text of jouissance , (yes, I said jouissance) which we can align with Literature. Jouissance makes more demands on the reader and raises feelings of strangeness and wonder that surpass the everyday and even border on the painful or disorienting.

Barthes’ definition straddles the line between objectivity and subjectivity. Literature differs from the mass of writing by offering more and different kinds of experiences than the ordinary, non-literary text.

Literature for Barthes is thus neither entirely in the eye of the beholder, nor something that can be reduced to set of repeatable, purely intrinsic characteristics.

This negative definition has its own problems, though. If the literary text is always supposed to be innovative and unconventional, then genre fiction, which IS conventional, can never be literary.

So it seems that whatever hard and fast definition we attempt to apply to Literature, we find that we run up against inevitable exceptions to the rules.

As we examine the many problematic ways that people have defined literature, one thing does become clear. In each of the above examples, what counts as Literature depends upon three interrelated factors: the world, the text, and the critic or reader.

You see, when we encounter a literary text, we usually do so through a field of expectations that includes what we’ve heard about the text or author in question [the world], the way the text is presented to us [the text], and how receptive we as readers are to the text’s demands [the reader].

With this in mind, let’s return to where we started. There is probably still something to be said in favor of the “test of time” theory of Literature.

After all, only a small percentage of what is published today will continue to be read 10, 20, or even 100 years from now; and while the mechanisms that determine the longevity of a text are hardly neutral, one can still hope that individual readers have at least some power to decide what will stay in print and develop broader cultural relevance.

The only way to experience what Literature is, then, is to keep reading: as long as there are avid readers, there will be literary texts – past, present, and future – that challenge, excite, and inspire us.

Want to cite this?

MLA Citation: Gottlieb, Evan and Paige Thomas. "What is Literature?" Oregon State Guide to English Literary Terms, 3 Jan. 2022, Oregon State University, https://liberalarts.oregonstate.edu/wlf/what-literature-definition-examples. Accessed [insert date].

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1 What Is Literature and Why Do We Study It?

In this book created for my English 211 Literary Analysis introductory course for English literature and creative writing majors at the College of Western Idaho, I’ll introduce several different critical approaches that literary scholars may use to answer these questions.  The critical method we apply to a text can provide us with different perspectives as we learn to interpret a text and appreciate its meaning and beauty.

The existence of literature, however we define it, implies that we study literature. While people have been “studying” literature as long as literature has existed, the formal study of literature as we know it in college English literature courses began in the 1940s with the advent of New Criticism. The New Critics were formalists with a vested interest in defining literature–they were, after all, both creating and teaching about literary works. For them, literary criticism was, in fact, as John Crowe Ransom wrote in his 1942 essay “ Criticism, Inc., ” nothing less than “the business of literature.”

Responding to the concern that the study of literature at the university level was often more concerned with the history and life of the author than with the text itself, Ransom responded, “the students of the future must be permitted to study literature, and not merely about literature. But I think this is what the good students have always wanted to do. The wonder is that they have allowed themselves so long to be denied.”

We’ll learn more about New Criticism in Section Three. For now, let’s return to the two questions I posed earlier.

What is literature?

First, what is literature ? I know your high school teacher told you never to look up things on Wikipedia, but for the purposes of literary studies, Wikipedia can actually be an effective resource. You’ll notice that I link to Wikipedia articles occasionally in this book. Here’s how Wikipedia defines literature :

“ Literature  is any collection of  written  work, but it is also used more narrowly for writings specifically considered to be an  art  form, especially  prose   fiction ,  drama , and  poetry . [1]  In recent centuries, the definition has expanded to include  oral literature , much of which has been transcribed. [2] Literature is a method of recording, preserving, and transmitting knowledge and entertainment, and can also have a social, psychological, spiritual, or political role.”

This definition is well-suited for our purposes here because throughout this course, we will be considering several types of literary texts in a variety of contexts.

I’m a Classicist—a student of Greece and Rome and everything they touched—so I am always interested in words with Latin roots. The Latin root of our modern word literature  is  litera , or “letter.” Literature, then, is inextricably intertwined with the act of writing. But what kind of writing?

Who decides which texts are “literature”?

The second question is at least as important as the first one. If we agree that literature is somehow special and different from ordinary writing, then who decides which writings count as literature? Are English professors the only people who get to decide? What qualifications and training does someone need to determine whether or not a text is literature? What role do you as the reader play in this decision about a text?

Let’s consider a few examples of things that we would all probably classify as literature. I think we can all (probably) agree that the works of William Shakespeare are literature. We can look at Toni Morrison’s outstanding ouvre of work and conclude, along with the Nobel Prize Committee, that books such as Beloved   and  Song of Solomon   are literature. And if you’re taking a creative writing course and have been assigned the short stories of Raymond Carver or the poems of Joy Harjo , you’re probably convinced that these texts are literature too.

In each of these three cases, a different “deciding” mechanism is at play. First, with Shakespeare, there’s history and tradition. These plays that were written 500 years ago are still performed around the world and taught in high school and college English classes today. It seems we have consensus about the tragedies, histories, comedies, and sonnets of the Bard of Avon (or whoever wrote the plays).

In the second case, if you haven’t heard of Toni Morrison (and I am very sorry if you haven’t), you probably have heard of the Nobel Prize. This is one of the most prestigious awards given in literature, and since she’s a winner, we can safely assume that Toni Morrison’s works are literature.

Finally, your creative writing professor is an expert in their field. You know they have an MFA (and worked hard for it), so when they share their favorite short stories or poems with you, you trust that they are sharing works considered to be literature, even if you haven’t heard of Raymond Carver or Joy Harjo before taking their class.

(Aside: What about fanfiction? Is fanfiction literature?)

We may have to save the debate about fan fiction for another day, though I introduced it because there’s some fascinating and even literary award-winning fan fiction out there.

Returning to our question, what role do we as readers play in deciding whether something is literature? Like John Crowe Ransom quoted above, I think that the definition of literature should depend on more than the opinions of literary critics and literature professors.

I also want to note that contrary to some opinions, plenty of so-called genre fiction can also be classified as literature. The Nobel Prize winning author Kazuo Ishiguro has written both science fiction and historical fiction. Iain Banks , the British author of the critically acclaimed novel The Wasp Factory , published popular science fiction novels under the name Iain M. Banks. In other words, genre alone can’t tell us whether something is literature or not.

In this book, I want to give you the tools to decide for yourself. We’ll do this by exploring several different critical approaches that we can take to determine how a text functions and whether it is literature. These lenses can reveal different truths about the text, about our culture, and about ourselves as readers and scholars.

“Turf Wars”: Literary criticism vs. authors

It’s important to keep in mind that literature and literary theory have existed in conversation with each other since Aristotle used Sophocles’s play Oedipus Rex to define tragedy. We’ll look at how critical theory and literature complement and disagree with each other throughout this book. For most of literary history, the conversation was largely a friendly one.

But in the twenty-first century, there’s a rising tension between literature and criticism. In his 2016 book Literature Against Criticism: University English and Contemporary Fiction in Conflict, literary scholar Martin Paul Eve argues that twenty-first century authors have developed

a series of novelistic techniques that, whether deliberate or not on the part of the author, function to outmanoeuvre, contain, and determine academic reading practices. This desire to discipline university English through the manipulation and restriction of possible hermeneutic paths is, I contend, a result firstly of the fact that the metafictional paradigm of the high-postmodern era has pitched critical and creative discourses into a type of productive competition with one another. Such tensions and overlaps (or ‘turf wars’) have only increased in light of the ongoing breakdown of coherent theoretical definitions of ‘literature’ as distinct from ‘criticism’ (15).

One of Eve’s points is that by narrowly and rigidly defining the boundaries of literature, university English professors have inadvertently created a situation where the market increasingly defines what “literature” is, despite the protestations of the academy. In other words, the gatekeeper role that literary criticism once played is no longer as important to authors. For example, (almost) no one would call 50 Shades of Grey literature—but the salacious E.L James novel was the bestselling book of the decade from 2010-2019, with more than 35 million copies sold worldwide.

If anyone with a blog can get a six-figure publishing deal , does it still matter that students know how to recognize and analyze literature? I think so, for a few reasons.

• First, the practice of reading critically helps you to become a better reader and writer, which will help you to succeed not only in college English courses but throughout your academic and professional career.
• Second, analysis is a highly sought after and transferable skill. By learning to analyze literature, you’ll practice the same skills you would use to analyze anything important. “Data analyst” is one of the most sought after job positions in the New Economy—and if you can analyze Shakespeare, you can analyze data. Indeed.com’s list of top 10 transferable skills includes analytical skills , which they define as “the traits and abilities that allow you to observe, research and interpret a subject in order to develop complex ideas and solutions.”
• Finally, and for me personally, most importantly, reading and understanding literature makes life make sense. As we read literature, we expand our sense of what is possible for ourselves and for humanity. In the challenges we collectively face today, understanding the world and our place in it will be important for imagining new futures.

A note about using generative artificial intelligence

As I was working on creating this textbook, ChatGPT exploded into academic consciousness. Excited about the possibilities of this new tool, I immediately began incorporating it into my classroom teaching. In this book, I have used ChatGPT to help me with outlining content in chapters. I also used ChatGPT to create sample essays for each critical lens we will study in the course. These essays are dry and rather soulless, but they do a good job of modeling how to apply a specific theory to a literary text. I chose John Donne’s poem “The Canonization” as the text for these essays so that you can see how the different theories illuminate different aspects of the text.

I encourage students in my courses to use ChatGPT in the following ways:

• To generate ideas about an approach to a text.
• To better understand basic concepts.
• To assist with outlining an essay.
• To check grammar, punctuation, spelling, paragraphing, and other grammar/syntax issues.

If you choose to use Chat GPT, please include a brief acknowledgment statement as an appendix to your paper after your Works Cited page explaining how you have used the tool in your work. Here is an example of how to do this from Monash University’s “ Acknowledging the Use of Generative Artificial Intelligence .”

I acknowledge the use of [insert AI system(s) and link] to [specific use of generative artificial intelligence]. The prompts used include [list of prompts]. The output from these prompts was used to [explain use].

Here is more information about how to cite the use of generative AI like ChatGPT in your work. The information below was adapted from “Acknowledging and Citing Generative AI in Academic Work” by Liza Long (CC BY 4.0).

The Modern Language Association (MLA) uses a template of core elements to create citations for a Works Cited page. MLA  asks students to apply this approach when citing any type of generative AI in their work. They provide the following guidelines:

Cite a generative AI tool whenever you paraphrase, quote, or incorporate into your own work any content (whether text, image, data, or other) that was created by it. Acknowledge all functional uses of the tool (like editing your prose or translating words) in a note, your text, or another suitable location. Take care to vet the secondary sources it cites. (MLA)

Here are some examples of how to use and cite generative AI with MLA style:

Example One: Paraphrasing Text

Let’s say that I am trying to generate ideas for a paper on Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s short story “The Yellow Wallpaper.” I ask ChatGPT to provide me with a summary and identify the story’s main themes. Here’s a  link to the chat . I decide that I will explore the problem of identity and self-expression in my paper.

My Paraphrase of ChatGPT with In-Text Citation

The problem of identity and self expression, especially for nineteenth-century women, is a major theme in “The Yellow Wallpaper” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman (“Summarize the short story”).

Works Cited Entry

“Summarize the short story “The Yellow Wallpaper” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman. Include a breakdown of the main themes” prompt.  ChatGPT.  24 May Version, OpenAI, 20 Jul. 2023,  https://chat.openai.com/share/d1526b95-920c-48fc-a9be-83cd7dfa4be5 

Example Two: Quoting Text

In the same chat, I continue to ask ChatGPT about the theme of identity and self expression. Here’s an example of how I could quote the response in the body of my paper:

When I asked  ChatGPT  to describe the theme of identity and self expression, it noted that the eponymous yellow wallpaper acts as a symbol of the narrator’s self-repression. However, when prompted to share the scholarly sources that formed the basis of this observation,  ChatGPT  responded, “As an AI language model, I don’t have access to my training data, but I was trained on a mixture of licensed data, data created by human trainers, and publicly available data. OpenAI, the organization behind my development, has not publicly disclosed the specifics of the individual datasets used, including whether scholarly sources were specifically used” (“Summarize the short story”).

It’s worth noting here that ChatGPT can “ hallucinate ” fake sources. As a Microsoft training manual notes, these chatbots are “built to be persuasive, not truthful” (Weiss &Metz, 2023). The May 24, 2023 version will no longer respond to direct requests for references; however, I was able to get around this restriction fairly easily by asking for “resources” instead.

When I ask for resources to learn more about “The Yellow Wallpaper,” here is one source it recommends:

“Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s The Yellow Wallpaper: A Symptomatic Reading” by Elaine R. Hedges: This scholarly article delves into the psychological and feminist themes of the story, analyzing the narrator’s experience and the implications of the yellow wallpaper on her mental state. It’s available in the journal “Studies in Short Fiction.” (“Summarize the short story”).

Using Google Scholar, I look up this source to see if it’s real. Unsurprisingly, this source is not a real one, but it does lead me to another (real) source: Kasmer, Lisa. “Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s’ The Yellow Wallpaper’: A Symptomatic Reading.”  Literature and Psychology  36.3 (1990): 1.

Note: ALWAYS check any sources that ChatGPT or other generative AI tools recommend.

For more information about integrating and citing generative artificial intelligence tools such as ChatGPT, please see this section of  Write What Matters.

I acknowledge that ChatGPT does not respect the individual rights of authors and artists and ignores concerns over copyright and intellectual property in its training; additionally, I acknowledge that the system was trained in part through the exploitation of precarious workers in the global south. In this work I specifically used ChatGPT to assist with outlining chapters, providing background information about critical lenses, and creating “model” essays for the critical lenses we will learn about together. I have included links to my chats in an appendix to this book.

Critical theories: A targeted approach to writing about literature

Ultimately, there’s not one “right” way to read a text. In this book. we will explore a variety of critical theories that scholars use to analyze literature. The book is organized around different targets that are associated with the approach introduced in each chapter. In the introduction, for example, our target is literature. In future chapters you’ll explore these targeted analysis techniques:

• Author: Biographical Criticism
• Text: New Criticism
• Reader: Reader Response Criticism
• Gap: Deconstruction (Post-Structuralism)
• Context: New Historicism and Cultural Studies
• Power: Marxist and Postcolonial Criticism
• Mind: Psychological Criticism
• Gender: Feminist, Post Feminist, and Queer Theory
• Nature: Ecocriticism

Each chapter will feature the target image with the central approach in the center. You’ll read a brief introduction about the theory, explore some primary texts (both critical and literary), watch a video, and apply the theory to a primary text. Each one of these theories could be the subject of its own entire course, so keep in mind that our goal in this book is to introduce these theories and give you a basic familiarity with these tools for literary analysis. For more information and practice, I recommend Steven Lynn’s excellent Texts and Contexts: Writing about Literature with Critical Theory , which provides a similar introductory framework.

I am so excited to share these tools with you and see you grow as a literary scholar. As we explore each of these critical worlds, you’ll likely find that some critical theories feel more natural or logical to you than others. I find myself much more comfortable with deconstruction than with psychological criticism, for example. Pay attention to how these theories work for you because this will help you to expand your approaches to texts and prepare you for more advanced courses in literature.

P.S. If you want to know what my favorite book is, I usually tell people it’s Herman Melville’s Moby Dick . And I do love that book! But I really have no idea what my “favorite” book of all time is, let alone what my favorite book was last year. Every new book that I read is a window into another world and a template for me to make sense out of my own experience and better empathize with others. That’s why I love literature. I hope you’ll love this experience too.

writings in prose or verse, especially :  writings having excellence of form or expression and expressing ideas of permanent or universal interest (Merriam Webster)

Critical Worlds Copyright © 2024 by Liza Long is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Introduction to Literature: What? Why? How?

When is the last time you read a book or a story simply because it interested you? If you were to classify that book, would you call it fiction or literature? This is an interesting separation, with many possible reasons for it. One is that “fiction” and “literature” are regarded as quite different things. “Fiction,” for example, is what people read for enjoyment. “Literature” is what they read for school. Or “fiction” is what living people write and is about the present. “Literature” was written by people (often white males) who have since died and is about times and places that have nothing to do with us. Or “fiction” offers everyday pleasures, but “literature” is to be honored and respected, even though it is boring. Of course, when we put anything on a pedestal, we remove it from everyday life, so the corollary is that literature is to be honored and respected, but it is not to be read, certainly not by any normal person with normal interests.

Sadly, it is the guardians of literature, that is, of the classics, who have done so much to take the life out of literature, to put it on a pedestal and thereby to make it an irrelevant aspect of American life. People study literature because they love literature. They certainly don’t do it for the money. But what happens too often, especially in colleges, is that teachers forget what it was that first interested them in the study of literature. They forget the joy that they first felt (and perhaps still feel) as they read a new novel or a poem or as they reread a work and saw something new in it. Instead, they erect formidable walls around these literary works, giving the impression that the only access to a work is through deep learning and years of study. Such study is clearly important for scholars, but this kind of scholarship is not the only way, or even necessarily the best way, for most people to approach literature. Instead it makes the literature seem inaccessible. It makes the literature seem like the province of scholars. “Oh, you have to be smart to read that,” as though Shakespeare or Dickens or Woolf wrote only for English teachers, not for general readers.

What is Literature?

In short, literature evokes imaginative worlds through the conscious arrangement of words that tell a story. These stories are told through different genres, or types of literature, like novels, short stories, poetry, drama, and the essay. Each genre is associated with certain conventions. In this course, we will study poetry, short fiction, and drama (in the form of movies).

Some Misconceptions about Literature

Of course, there are a number of misconceptions about literature that have to be gotten out of the way before anyone can enjoy it. One misconception is that literature is full of  hidden meanings . There are certainly occasional works that contain hidden meanings. The biblical book of  Revelation , for example, was written in a kind of code, using images that had specific meanings for its early audience but that we can only recover with a great deal of difficulty. Most literary works, however, are not at all like that. Perhaps an analogy will illustrate this point. When I take my car to my mechanic because something is not working properly, he opens the hood and we both stand there looking at the engine. But after we have looked for a few minutes, he is likely to have seen what the problem is, while I could look for hours and never see it. We are looking at the same thing. The problem is not hidden, nor is it in some secret code. It is right there in the open, accessible to anyone who knows how to “read” it, which my mechanic does and I do not. He has been taught how to “read” automobile engines and he has practiced “reading” them. He is a good “close reader,” which is why I continue to take my car to him.

The same thing is true for readers of literature. Generally authors want to communicate with their readers, so they are not likely to hide or disguise what they are saying, but reading literature also requires some training and some practice. Good writers use language very carefully, and readers must learn how to be sensitive to that language, just as the mechanic must learn to be sensitive to the appearances and sounds of the engine. Everything that the writer wants to say, and much that the writer may not be aware of, is there in the words. We simply have to learn how to read them.

Another popular misconception is that a literary work has a  single “meaning”  (and that only English teachers know how to find that meaning). There is an easy way to dispel this misconception. Just go to a college library and find the section that holds books on Shakespeare. Choose one play,  Hamlet , for example, and see how many books there are about it, all by scholars who are educated, perceptive readers. Can it be the case that one of these books is correct and all the others are mistaken? And if the correct one has already been written, why would anyone need to write another book about the play? The answer is this:

Key Takeaways

There is no single correct way to read any piece of literature. 

Again, let me use an analogy to illustrate this point. Suppose that everyone at a meeting were asked to describe a person who was standing in the middle of the room. Imagine how many different descriptions there would be, depending on where the viewer sat in relation to the person. For example, an optometrist in the crowd might focus on the person’s glasses; a hair stylist might focus on the person’s haircut; someone who sells clothing might focus on the style of dress; a podiatrist might focus on the person’s feet. Would any of these descriptions be incorrect? Not necessarily, but they would be determined by the viewers’ perspectives. They might also be determined by such factors as the viewers’ ages, genders, or ability to move around the person being viewed, or by their previous acquaintance with the subject. So whose descriptions would be correct? Conceivably all of them, and if we put all of these correct descriptions together, we would be closer to having a full description of the person.

This is most emphatically NOT to say, however, that all descriptions are correct simply because each person is entitled to his or her opinion

If the podiatrist is of the opinion that the person is five feet, nine inches tall, the podiatrist could be mistaken. And even if the podiatrist actually measures the person, the measurement could be mistaken. Everyone who describes this person, therefore, must offer not only an opinion but also a basis for that opinion. “My feeling is that this person is a teacher” is not enough. “My feeling is that this person is a teacher because the person’s clothing is covered with chalk dust and because the person is carrying a stack of papers that look like they need grading” is far better, though even that statement might be mistaken.

So it is with literature. As we read, as we try to understand and interpret, we must deal with the text that is in front of us ; but we must also recognize (1) that language is slippery and (2) that each of us individually deals with it from a different set of perspectives. Not all of these perspectives are necessarily legitimate, and it is always possible that we might misread or misinterpret what we see. Furthermore, it is possible that contradictory readings of a single work will both be legitimate, because literary works can be as complex and multi-faceted as human beings. It is vital, therefore, that in reading literature we abandon both the idea that any individual’s reading of a work is the “correct” one and the idea that there is one simple way to read any work. Our interpretations may, and probably should, change according to the way we approach the work. If we read The Chronicles of Narnia as teenagers, then in middle age, and then in old age, we might be said to have read three different books. Thus, multiple interpretations, even contradictory interpretations, can work together to give us a fuller and possibly more interesting understanding of a work.

Why Reading Literature is Important

Reading literature can teach us new ways to read, think, imagine, feel, and make sense of our own experiences. Literature forces readers to confront the complexities of the world, to confront what it means to be a human being in this difficult and uncertain world, to confront other people who may be unlike them, and ultimately to confront themselves.

The relationship between the reader and the world of a work of literature is complex and fascinating. Frequently when we read a work, we become so involved in it that we may feel that we have become part of it. “I was really into that movie,” we might say, and in one sense that statement can be accurate. But in another sense it is clearly inaccurate, for actually we do not enter the movie or the story as IT enters US; the words enter our eyes in the form of squiggles on a page which are transformed into words, sentences, paragraphs, and meaningful concepts in our brains, in our imaginations, where scenes and characters are given “a local habitation and a name.” Thus, when we “get into” a book, we are actually “getting into” our own mental conceptions that have been produced by the book, which, incidentally, explains why so often readers are dissatisfied with cinematic or television adaptations of literary works.

In fact, though it may seem a trite thing to say, writers are close observers of the world who are capable of communicating their visions, and the more perspectives we have to draw on, the better able we should be to make sense of our lives. In these terms, it makes no difference whether we are reading a Homeric epic poem like The Odysse y, a twelfth-century Japanese novel like  The Tale of Genji , or a Victorian novel by Dickens, or even, in a sense, watching someone’s TikTok video (a video or movie is also a kind of text that can be “read” or analyzed for multiple meanings). The more different perspectives we get, the better. And it must be emphasized that we read such works not only to be well-rounded (whatever that means) or to be “educated” or for antiquarian interest. We read them because they have something to do with us, with our lives. Whatever culture produced them, whatever the gender or race or religion of their authors, they relate to us as human beings; and all of us can use as many insights into being human as we can get. Reading is itself a kind of experience, and while we may not have the time or the opportunity or  or physical possibility  to experience certain things in the world, we can experience them through reading. So literature allows us to broaden our experiences.

Reading also forces us to focus our thoughts. The world around us is so full of stimuli that we are easily distracted. Unless we are involved in a crisis that demands our full attention, we flit from subject to subject. But when we read a book, even a book that has a large number of characters and covers many years, the story and the writing help us to focus, to think about what they show us in a concentrated manner. When I hold a book, I often feel that I have in my hand another world that I can enter and that will help me to understand the everyday world that I inhabit.

Literature invites us to  meet interesting characters and to visit interesting places, to use our imagination and to think about things that might otherwise escape our notice, to see the world from perspectives that we would otherwise not have.

Watch this video for a discussion of why reading fiction matters.

How to Read Literature: The Basics

• Read with a pen in hand! Yes, even if you’re reading an electronic text, in which case you may want to open a new document in which you can take notes. Jot down questions, highlight things you find significant, mark confusing passages, look up unfamiliar words/references, and record first impressions.
• Think critically to form a response. Here are some things to be aware of and look for in the story that may help you form an idea of meaning.
• Repetitions . You probably know from watching movies that if something is repeated, that means something. Stories are similar—if something occurs more than once, the story is calling attention to it, so notice it and consider why it is repeated. The repeated element can be a word or a phrase, an action, even a piece of clothing or gear.
• Not Quite Right : If something that happens that seems Not Quite Right to you, that may also have some particular meaning. So, for example, if a violent act is committed against someone who’s done nothing wrong, that is unusual, unexpected, that is, Not Quite Right. And therefore, that act means something.
• Address your own biases and compare your own experiences with those expressed in the piece.
• Test your positions and thoughts about the piece with what others think (we’ll do some of this in class discussions).

While you will have your own individual connection to a piece based on your life experiences, interpreting literature is not a willy-nilly process. Each piece of writing has purpose, usually more than one purpose–you, as the reader, are meant to uncover purpose in the text. As the speaker notes in  the video you watched about how to read literature, you, as a reader, also have a role to play. Sometimes you may see something in the text that speaks to you; whether or not the author intended that piece to be there, it still matters to you.

For example, I’ve had a student who had life experiences that she was reminded of when reading “Chonguita, the Monkey Bride” and another student whose experience was mirrored in part of “The Frog King or Iron Heinrich.” I encourage you to honor these perceptions if they occur to you and possibly even to use them in your writing assignments. I can suggest ways to do this if you’re interested.

But remember that when we write about literature, our observations must also be supported by the text itself. Make sure you aren’t reading into the text something that isn’t there. Value the text for what is and appreciate the experience it provides, all while you attempt to create a connection with your experiences.

Attributions:

• Content written by Dr. Karen Palmer and licensed  CC BY NC SA .
• Content adapted from  Literature, the Humanities, and Humanity  by Theodore L. Steinberg and licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

The Worry Free Writer  by Dr. Karen Palmer is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Introduction to Literature Copyright © by Judy Young is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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What Literature Can Teach Us

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Literature is a term used to describe written and sometimes spoken material. Derived from the Latin word  literature  meaning "writing formed with letters," literature most commonly refers to works of the creative imagination, including poetry, drama , fiction , nonfiction , and in some instances, journalism , and song. 

What Is Literature?

Simply put, literature represents the culture and tradition of a language or a people. The concept is difficult to precisely define, though many have tried; it's clear that the accepted definition of literature is constantly changing and evolving.

For many, the word literature suggests a higher art form; merely putting words on a page doesn't necessarily equate to creating literature. A canon is the accepted body of works for a given author. Some works of literature are considered canonical, that is, culturally representative of a particular genre (poetry, prose, or drama).

Literary Fiction vs. Genre Fiction

Some definitions also separate literary fiction from so-called "genre fiction," which includes types such as mystery, science fiction, western, romance, thriller, and horror. Think mass-market paperback.

Genre fiction typically does not have as much character development as literary fiction and is read for entertainment, escapism, and plot, whereas literary fiction explores themes common to the human condition and uses symbolism and other literary devices to convey the author's viewpoint on his or her chosen themes. Literary fiction involves getting into the minds of the characters (or at least the protagonist) and experiencing their relationships with others. The protagonist typically comes to a realization or changes in some way during the course of a literary novel.

(The difference in type does not mean that literary writers are better than genre fiction writers, just that they operate differently.)

Why Is Literature Important?

Works of literature, at their best, provide a kind of blueprint of human society. From the writings of ancient civilizations such as Egypt and China to Greek philosophy and poetry, from the epics of Homer to the plays of William Shakespeare, from Jane Austen and Charlotte Bronte to Maya Angelou , works of literature give insight and context to all the world's societies. In this way, literature is more than just a historical or cultural artifact; it can serve as an introduction to a new world of experience.

But what we consider to be literature can vary from one generation to the next. For instance, Herman Melville's 1851 novel " Moby Dick "   was considered a failure by contemporary reviewers. However, it has since been recognized as a masterpiece and is frequently cited as one of the best works of Western literature for its thematic complexity and use of symbolism. By reading "Moby Dick" in the present day, we can gain a fuller understanding of literary traditions in Melville's time. 

Debating Literature 

Ultimately, we may discover meaning in literature by looking at what the author writes or says and how he or she says it. We may interpret and debate an author's message by examining the words he or she chooses in a given novel or work or observing which character or voice serves as the connection to the reader.

In academia, this decoding of the text is often carried out through the use of  literary theory using a mythological, sociological, psychological, historical, or other approaches to better understand the context and depth of a work.

Whatever critical paradigm we use to discuss and analyze it, literature is important to us because it speaks to us, it is universal, and it affects us on a deeply personal level. 

School Skills

Students who study literature and read for pleasure have a higher vocabulary, better reading comprehension, and better communication skills, such as writing ability. Communication skills affect people in every area of their lives, from navigating interpersonal relationships to participating in meetings in the workplace to drafting intraoffice memos or reports.

When students analyze literature, they learn to identify cause and effect and are applying critical thinking skills. Without realizing it, they examine the characters psychologically or sociologically. They identify the characters' motivations for their actions and see through those actions to any ulterior motives.

When planning an essay on a work of literature, students use problem-solving skills to come up with a thesis and follow through on compiling their paper. It takes research skills to dig up evidence for their thesis from the text and scholarly criticism, and it takes organizational skills to present their argument in a coherent, cohesive manner.

Empathy and Other Emotions

Some studies say that people who read literature have more empathy for others, as literature puts the reader into another person's shoes. Having empathy for others leads people to socialize more effectively, solve conflicts peacefully, collaborate better in the workplace, behave morally, and possibly even become involved in making their community a better place.

Other studies note a correlation between readers and empathy but do not find causation . Either way, studies back the need for strong English programs in schools, especially as people spend more and more time looking at screens rather than books.

Along with empathy for others, readers can feel a greater connection to humanity and less isolated. Students who read literature can find solace as they realize that others have gone through the same things that they are experiencing or have experienced. This can be a catharsis and relief to them if they feel burdened or alone in their troubles.

Quotes About Literature

Here are some quotes about literature from literature giants themselves.

• Robert Louis Stevenson : "The difficulty of literature is not to write, but to write what you mean; not to affect your reader, but to affect him precisely as you wish."
• Jane Austen, "Northanger Abbey" : "The person, be it gentleman or lady, who has not pleasure in a good novel, must be intolerably stupid."
• William Shakespeare, "Henry VI" : “I’ll call for pen and ink and write my mind.”
• A List of Every Nobel Prize Winner in English Literature
• A Brief History of English Literature
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What Is Literature?

December 23, 2019 | yalepress | Literature

Terry Eagleton —

One of the things we mean by calling a piece of writing ‘literary’ is that it is not tied to a specific context. It is true that all literary works arise from particular conditions. Jane Austen’s novels spring from the world of the English landed gentry of the eighteenth and early nineteenth century, while Paradise Lost has as its backdrop the English Civil War and its aftermath. Yet though these works emerge from such contexts, their meaning is not confined to them. Consider the difference between a poem and a manual for assembling a table lamp. The manual makes sense only in a specific, practical situation. Unless we are really starved for inspiration, we do not generally turn to it in order to reflect on the mystery of birth or the frailty of humankind. A poem, by contrast, can still be meaningful outside its original context, and may alter its meaning as it moves from one place or time to another. Like a baby, it is detached from its author as soon as it enters the world. All literary works are orphaned at birth. Rather as our parents do not continue to govern our lives as we grow up, so the poet cannot determine the situations in which his or her work will be read, or what sense we are likely to make of it.

What we call works of literature differ in this way from roadsigns and bus tickets. They are peculiarly ‘portable’, able to be carried from one location to another, which is true of bus tickets only for those intent on defrauding the bus company. They are less dependent for their meaning on the circumstances from which they arose. Rather, they are inherently open ended, which is one reason why they can be subject to a whole range of interpretations. It is also one reason why we tend to pay closer attention to their language than we do with bus tickets. We do not take their language primarily as practical. Instead, we assume that it is intended to have some value in itself.

This is not so true of everyday language. A panic-stricken shout of ‘Man overboard!’ is rarely ambiguous. We do not normally treat it as a delectable piece of wordplay. If we hear this cry while on board ship, we are unlikely to linger over the way the vowel-sound of ‘board’ rings a subtle change on the vowel-sound of ‘Over’, or note the fact that the stresses of the shout fall on the first and last syllables. Nor would we pause to read some symbolic meaning into it. We do not take the word ‘Man’ to signify humanity as such, or the whole phrase as suggestive of our calamitous fall from grace. We might well do all this if the man overboard in question is our mortal enemy, aware that by the time we were through with our analysis he would be food for the fishes. Otherwise, however, we are unlikely to scratch our heads over what on earth these words could mean. Their meaning is made apparent by their environment. This would still be the case even if the cry was a hoax. If we were not at sea the cry might make no sense, but hearing the chugging of the ship’s engines settles the matter definitively.

In most practical settings, we do not have much of a choice over meaning. It tends to be determined by the setting itself. Or at least, the situation narrows down the range of possible meanings to a manageable few. When I see an exit sign over the door of a department store, I know from the context that it means ‘This is the way out when you want to leave’, not ‘Leave now!’ Otherwise such stores would be permanently empty. The word is descriptive rather than imperative. I take the instruction ‘One tablet to be taken three times daily’ on my bottle of aspirin to be addressed to me, not to all two hundred people in my apartment block. A driver who flashes his lights may mean either ‘Watch it!’ or ‘Come on!’, but this potentially fatal ambiguity results in fewer road accidents than one might expect, since the meaning is usually clear from the situation.

The problem with a poem or story, however, is that it does not arrive as part of a practical context. It is true that we know from words such as ‘poem’, ‘novel’, ‘epic’, ‘comedy’ and so on what sort of thing to expect, just as the way a literary work is packaged, advertised, marketed and reviewed plays an important part in determining our response to it. Beyond these vital signals, however, the work does not come to us with much of a setting at all. Instead, it creates its own setting as it goes along. We have to figure out from what it says a background against which what it says will make some sense. In fact, we are continually constructing such interpretative frames as we read, for the most part unconsciously. When we read Shakespeare’s line ‘Farewell! Thou art too dear for my possessing’, we think to ourselves, ‘Ah, he’s probably talking to his lover, and it looks as though they’re breaking up. Too dear for his possessing, eh? Maybe she’s been a bit too free with his money’. But there is nothing beyond the words themselves to inform us of this, as there is something beyond a cry of ‘Fire!’ to tell us how to make sense of it. (The smouldering hair of the person doing the shouting, for example.) And this makes the business of determining a literary work’s meaning rather more arduous.

From  How to Read Literature  by Terry Eagleton. Published by Yale University Press in 2019. Reproduced with permission.

Terry Eagleton  is Distinguished Visiting Professor of English Literature at Lancaster University and the author of more than fifty books in the fields of literary theory, postmodernism, politics, ideology, and religion.

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A body of written works related by subject-matter (e.g. the literature of computing), by language or place of origin (e.g. Russian literature), or by prevailing cultural standards of merit. In this last sense, ‘literature’ is taken to include oral, dramatic, and broadcast compositions that may not have been published in written form but which have been (or deserve to be) preserved. Since the 19th century, the broader sense of literature as a totality of written or printed works has given way to more exclusive definitions based on criteria of imaginative, creative, or artistic value, usually related to a work's absence of factual or practical reference (see autotelic). Even more restrictive has been the academic concentration upon poetry, drama, and fiction. Until the mid-20th century, many kinds of non-fictional writing—in philosophy, history, biography, criticism, topography, science, and politics—were counted as literature; implicit in this broader usage is a definition of literature as that body of works which—for whatever reason—deserves to be preserved as part of the current reproduction of meanings within a given culture (unlike yesterday's newspaper, which belongs in the disposable category of ephemera). This sense seems more tenable than the later attempts to divide literature—as creative, imaginative, fictional, or non-practical—from factual writings or practically effective works of propaganda, rhetoric, or didactic writing. The Russian Formalists' attempt to define literariness in terms of linguistic deviations is important in the theory of poetry, but has not addressed the more difficult problem of the non-fictional prose forms. See also belles-lettres , canon, paraliterature. For a fuller account, consult Peter Widdowson, Literature (1998).

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Definition of literature

Examples of literature in a sentence.

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'literature.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

Middle English, from Anglo-French, from Latin litteratura writing, grammar, learning, from litteratus

15th century, in the meaning defined at sense 4

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“Literature.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/literature. Accessed 3 Jun. 2024.

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2 (page 19) p. 19 What is literature and does it matter?

• Published: July 2011
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The question ‘What is literature?’ arises because critics and theorists hope, by saying what literature is, to promote what they consider the most pertinent critical methods and to dismiss methods that neglect the most basic and distinctive aspects of literature. In the context of recent theory, the question ‘What is literature?’ matters because theory has highlighted the literariness of texts of all sorts. To reflect on literariness is to keep before us, as resources for analysing these discourses, reading practices elicited by literature: the suspension of the demand for immediate intelligibility, reflection on the implications of means of expression, and attention to how meaning is made and pleasure produced.

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Literary English

What is Literature? Definition of Literature | English Literature

What is literature.

What is Literature? The word ‘ Literature’   is a modified form of a Latin word ( lit erra, litteratura or litteratus)  that means ‘ writing formed with letters’ . Let us look at what is literature in definition.

Literature can be any written work, but it especially is an artistic or intellectual work of writing. It is one of the Fine Arts, like Painting, Dance, Music, etc which provides aesthetic pleasure to the readers. It differs from other written works by only its one additional trait: that is aesthetic beauty. If a written work lacks aesthetic beauty and serves only utilitarian purpose it is not literature. The entire genre like poetry, drama, or prose is a blend of intellectual work and aesthetic beauty of that work. When there is no any aesthetic beauty in any written work that is not literature.

Definition of Literature according to different Writers

  Throughout the history of Literature, many of the great writers have defined it and expressed its meaning in their own way. Here are the few famous definitions by timeless celebrated authors.

Virginia Woolf : “Literature is strewn with the wreckage of those who have minded beyond reason the opinion of others.”

Ezra Pound : “Great literature is simply language charged with meaning to the utmost possible degree.”

Alfred North Whitehead : “It is in literature that the concrete outlook of humanity receives its expression.”

Salman Rushdie : “Literature is where I go to explore the highest and lowest places in human society and in the human spirit, where I hope to find not absolute truth but the truth of the tale, of the imagination and of the heart.”

Henry James : “It takes a great deal of history to produce a little literature.”

S. Lewis : “Literature adds to reality, it does not simply describe it. It enriches the necessary competencies that daily life requires and provides; and in this respect, it irrigates the deserts that our lives have already become.”

Oscar Wilde : “Literature always anticipates life. It does not copy it but moulds it to its purpose. The nineteenth century, as we know it, is largely an invention of Balzac.”

K. Chesterton : “Literature is a luxury; fiction is a necessity.”

M. Forster : “What is wonderful about great literature is that it transforms the man who reads it towards the condition of the man who wrote.”

These definitions of literature by great writers present different aspects of it, and shows that in how many ways it can be effective.

Aristotle’s role in Literature

Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and scientist. World know him as one of the great intellectuals in history. His contributions are numerous in almost every aspect of science; his contributions in literature are also notable. Aristotle was a student of Plato, but his point of view was differed from that of Plato’s. Aristotle almost wrote 200 treatises and many other things including all fields of science and philosophy. From those works, at least 80% has not survived in proper form. There are roughly 30 writings consisting of lecture notes and rough copies of scripts. Some ancient scholars, particularly the last head of the Lyceum, Andronicus of Rhodes edited the manuscript left. He did all the work of arranging, editing, and publishing the writings of Aristotle. Because of the large number of abbreviations, the writings were difficult to read, even for other philosophers,

The most widely known work of Aristotle in English Literature is his book named  The Poetics . In his book, he mostly gives responses to Plato’s ideas of poetry and talks about different genres of poetry. He has touched all the genres of poetry like comedy, tragic, epic, etc. The part of his work that dealt with comedic poetry is lost and the one about tragedy is available. The poetic genre of tragedy is the most developed among his works. (2)

Horace’s contributions

  Horace was a Roman poet.  The Art of Poetry  is his book in which he points out the factors for writing good poetry and drama. Horace’s approach to poetry is from a practical standpoint. He takes it as a craft instead of taking the theoretical approach of Plato or Aristotle. ( 3 ) Horace wrote only one important critical document in verse, that is,  Epistle to the Pisos,  later named  Ars Poetica  by Quintilian. It is another  Poetics  in Latin and brings to Horace the same reputation as to Aristotle in Greek. He followed Aristotle in his works.

Literature: A depiction of Society

It might sound strange that  what is literature’s  relation with a society could be. However, literature is an integral part of any society and has a profound effect on ways and thinking of people of that society. Actually, society is the only subject matter of literature. It literally shapes a society and its beliefs. Students, who study literature, grow up to be the future of a country. Hence, it has an impact on a society and it moulds it.

  Literature literally does the depiction of society; therefore, we call it ‘ mirror of   society’ . Writers use it effectively to point out the ill aspects of society that improve them. They also use it to highlight the positive aspects of a society to promote more goodwill in society.

The  essays  in literature often call out on the problems in a country and suggest solutions for it. Producers make  Films  and write  Novels  to touch subjects like morals, mental illnesses, patriotism, etc. Through such writings, they relate all matters to society. Other genre can also present the picture of society. We should keep in mind that the picture illustrated by literature is not always true. Writers can present it to change the society in their own ways.

The effects on society

 The effects of literature on a society can be both positive and negative. Because of this, the famous philosophers Aristotle and Plato have different opinions about its effect on society.

Plato was the one who started the idea of written dialogue. He was a moralist, and he did not approve of poetry because he deemed it immoral. He considered poetry as based on false ideas whereas the basis of philosophy came from reality and truth. ( 4 ) Plato claims that, “poetry inspires undesirable emotions in society. According to him, poetry should be censored from adults and children for fear of lasting detrimental consequences,” (Leitch & McGowan). He further explains it by saying, “Children have no ability to know what emotions should be tempered and which should be expressed as certain expressed emotions can have lasting consequences later in life”. He says, “Strong emotions of every kind must be avoided, in fear of them spiralling out of control and creating irreparable damage” (Leitch & McGowan). However, he did not agree with the type of poetry and wanted that to be changed.

Now Aristotle considers literature of all kinds to be an important part of children’s upbringing. Aristotle claims that, “poetry takes us closer to reality. He also mentioned in his writings that it teaches, warns, and shows us the consequences of bad deeds”. ( 5 ) He was of the view that it is not necessary that poetry will arouse negative feelings.

Therefore, the relation of literature with society is of utter importance. It might have a few negative impacts, through guided studying which we can avoid. Overall, it is the best way of passing information to the next generation and integral to learning.

Background to English Literature

• What is English Literature?
• History of English Literature
• Various Types of Literature
• What is Literary English?

What is Iambic Pentameter?

Literary Devices & Terms

An acrostic is a piece of writing in which a particular set of letters—typically the first letter of each line, word, or paragraph—spells out a word or phrase with special significance to the text. Acrostics... (read full acrostic explanation with examples) An acrostic is a piece of writing in which a particular set of letters—typically the first letter of each line,... (read more)

An allegory is a work that conveys a hidden meaning—usually moral, spiritual, or political—through the use of symbolic characters and events. The story of "The Tortoise and The Hare" is a well-known allegory with a... (read full allegory explanation with examples) An allegory is a work that conveys a hidden meaning—usually moral, spiritual, or political—through the use of symbolic characters and... (read more)

Alliteration is a figure of speech in which the same sound repeats in a group of words, such as the “b” sound in: “Bob brought the box of bricks to the basement.” The repeating sound... (read full alliteration explanation with examples) Alliteration is a figure of speech in which the same sound repeats in a group of words, such as the... (read more)

In literature, an allusion is an unexplained reference to someone or something outside of the text. Writers commonly allude to other literary works, famous individuals, historical events, or philosophical ideas, and they do so in... (read full allusion explanation with examples) In literature, an allusion is an unexplained reference to someone or something outside of the text. Writers commonly allude to... (read more)

An anachronism is a person or a thing placed in the wrong time period. For instance, if a novel set in Medieval England featured a trip to a movie-theater, that would be an anachronism. Although... (read full anachronism explanation with examples) An anachronism is a person or a thing placed in the wrong time period. For instance, if a novel set... (read more)

Anadiplosis is a figure of speech in which a word or group of words located at the end of one clause or sentence is repeated at or near the beginning of the following clause or... (read full anadiplosis explanation with examples) Anadiplosis is a figure of speech in which a word or group of words located at the end of one... (read more)

An analogy is a comparison that aims to explain a thing or idea by likening it to something else. For example, a career coach might say, "Being the successful boss or CEO of a company... (read full analogy explanation with examples) An analogy is a comparison that aims to explain a thing or idea by likening it to something else. For... (read more)

An anapest is a three-syllable metrical pattern in poetry in which two unstressed syllables are followed by a stressed syllable. The word "understand" is an anapest, with the unstressed syllables of "un" and "der" followed... (read full anapest explanation with examples) An anapest is a three-syllable metrical pattern in poetry in which two unstressed syllables are followed by a stressed syllable.... (read more)

Anaphora is a figure of speech in which words repeat at the beginning of successive clauses, phrases, or sentences. For example, Martin Luther King's famous "I Have a Dream" speech contains anaphora: "So let freedom... (read full anaphora explanation with examples) Anaphora is a figure of speech in which words repeat at the beginning of successive clauses, phrases, or sentences. For... (read more)

An antagonist is usually a character who opposes the protagonist (or main character) of a story, but the antagonist can also be a group of characters, institution, or force against which the protagonist must contend.... (read full antagonist explanation with examples) An antagonist is usually a character who opposes the protagonist (or main character) of a story, but the antagonist can... (read more)

Antanaclasis is a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is repeated within a sentence, but the word or phrase means something different each time it appears. A famous example of antanaclasis is... (read full antanaclasis explanation with examples) Antanaclasis is a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is repeated within a sentence, but the word... (read more)

Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human characteristics, emotions, and behaviors to animals or other non-human things (including objects, plants, and supernatural beings). Some famous examples of anthropomorphism include Winnie the Pooh, the Little Engine that Could, and Simba from... (read full anthropomorphism explanation with examples) Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human characteristics, emotions, and behaviors to animals or other non-human things (including objects, plants, and supernatural beings). Some famous... (read more)

Antimetabole is a figure of speech in which a phrase is repeated, but with the order of words reversed. John F. Kennedy's words, "Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you... (read full antimetabole explanation with examples) Antimetabole is a figure of speech in which a phrase is repeated, but with the order of words reversed. John... (read more)

Antithesis is a figure of speech that juxtaposes two contrasting or opposing ideas, usually within parallel grammatical structures. For instance, Neil Armstrong used antithesis when he stepped onto the surface of the moon in 1969... (read full antithesis explanation with examples) Antithesis is a figure of speech that juxtaposes two contrasting or opposing ideas, usually within parallel grammatical structures. For instance,... (read more)

An aphorism is a saying that concisely expresses a moral principle or an observation about the world, presenting it as a general or universal truth. The Rolling Stones are responsible for penning one of the... (read full aphorism explanation with examples) An aphorism is a saying that concisely expresses a moral principle or an observation about the world, presenting it as... (read more)

Aphorismus is a type of figure of speech that calls into question the way a word is used. Aphorismus is used not to question the meaning of a word, but whether it is actually appropriate... (read full aphorismus explanation with examples) Aphorismus is a type of figure of speech that calls into question the way a word is used. Aphorismus is... (read more)

Aporia is a rhetorical device in which a speaker expresses uncertainty or doubt—often pretended uncertainty or doubt—about something, usually as a way of proving a point. An example of aporia is the famous Elizabeth Barrett... (read full aporia explanation with examples) Aporia is a rhetorical device in which a speaker expresses uncertainty or doubt—often pretended uncertainty or doubt—about something, usually as... (read more)

Apostrophe is a figure of speech in which a speaker directly addresses someone (or something) that is not present or cannot respond in reality. The entity being addressed can be an absent, dead, or imaginary... (read full apostrophe explanation with examples) Apostrophe is a figure of speech in which a speaker directly addresses someone (or something) that is not present or... (read more)

Assonance is a figure of speech in which the same vowel sound repeats within a group of words. An example of assonance is: "Who gave Newt and Scooter the blue tuna? It was too soon!" (read full assonance explanation with examples) Assonance is a figure of speech in which the same vowel sound repeats within a group of words. An example... (read more)

An asyndeton (sometimes called asyndetism) is a figure of speech in which coordinating conjunctions—words such as "and", "or", and "but" that join other words or clauses in a sentence into relationships of equal importance—are omitted.... (read full asyndeton explanation with examples) An asyndeton (sometimes called asyndetism) is a figure of speech in which coordinating conjunctions—words such as "and", "or", and "but"... (read more)

A ballad is a type of poem that tells a story and was traditionally set to music. English language ballads are typically composed of four-line stanzas that follow an ABCB rhyme scheme. (read full ballad explanation with examples) A ballad is a type of poem that tells a story and was traditionally set to music. English language ballads... (read more)

A ballade is a form of lyric poetry that originated in medieval France. Ballades follow a strict rhyme scheme ("ababbcbc"), and typically have three eight-line stanzas followed by a shorter four-line stanza called an envoi.... (read full ballade explanation with examples) A ballade is a form of lyric poetry that originated in medieval France. Ballades follow a strict rhyme scheme ("ababbcbc"),... (read more)

Bildungsroman is a genre of novel that shows a young protagonist's journey from childhood to adulthood (or immaturity to maturity), with a focus on the trials and misfortunes that affect the character's growth. (read full bildungsroman explanation with examples) Bildungsroman is a genre of novel that shows a young protagonist's journey from childhood to adulthood (or immaturity to maturity),... (read more)

Blank verse is the name given to poetry that lacks rhymes but does follow a specific meter—a meter that is almost always iambic pentameter. Blank verse was particularly popular in English poetry written between the... (read full blank verse explanation with examples) Blank verse is the name given to poetry that lacks rhymes but does follow a specific meter—a meter that is... (read more)

A cacophony is a combination of words that sound harsh or unpleasant together, usually because they pack a lot of percussive or "explosive" consonants (like T, P, or K) into relatively little space. For instance, the... (read full cacophony explanation with examples) A cacophony is a combination of words that sound harsh or unpleasant together, usually because they pack a lot of... (read more)

A caesura is a pause that occurs within a line of poetry, usually marked by some form of punctuation such as a period, comma, ellipsis, or dash. A caesura doesn't have to be placed in... (read full caesura explanation with examples) A caesura is a pause that occurs within a line of poetry, usually marked by some form of punctuation such... (read more)

Catharsis is the process of releasing strong or pent-up emotions through art. Aristotle coined the term catharsis—which comes from the Greek kathairein meaning "to cleanse or purge"—to describe the release of emotional tension that he... (read full catharsis explanation with examples) Catharsis is the process of releasing strong or pent-up emotions through art. Aristotle coined the term catharsis—which comes from the... (read more)

Characterization is the representation of the traits, motives, and psychology of a character in a narrative. Characterization may occur through direct description, in which the character's qualities are described by a narrator, another character, or... (read full characterization explanation with examples) Characterization is the representation of the traits, motives, and psychology of a character in a narrative. Characterization may occur through... (read more)

Chiasmus is a figure of speech in which the grammar of one phrase is inverted in the following phrase, such that two key concepts from the original phrase reappear in the second phrase in inverted... (read full chiasmus explanation with examples) Chiasmus is a figure of speech in which the grammar of one phrase is inverted in the following phrase, such... (read more)

The word cinquain can refer to two different things. Historically, it referred to any stanza of five lines written in any type of verse. More recently, cinquain has come to refer to particular types of... (read full cinquain explanation with examples) The word cinquain can refer to two different things. Historically, it referred to any stanza of five lines written in... (read more)

A cliché is a phrase that, due to overuse, is seen as lacking in substance or originality. For example, telling a heartbroken friend that there are "Plenty of fish in the sea" is such a... (read full cliché explanation with examples) A cliché is a phrase that, due to overuse, is seen as lacking in substance or originality. For example, telling... (read more)

Climax is a figure of speech in which successive words, phrases, clauses, or sentences are arranged in ascending order of importance, as in "Look! Up in the sky! It's a bird! It's a plane! It's... (read full climax (figure of speech) explanation with examples) Climax is a figure of speech in which successive words, phrases, clauses, or sentences are arranged in ascending order of... (read more)

The climax of a plot is the story's central turning point—the moment of peak tension or conflict—which all the preceding plot developments have been leading up to. In a traditional "good vs. evil" story (like many superhero movies)... (read full climax (plot) explanation with examples) The climax of a plot is the story's central turning point—the moment of peak tension or conflict—which all the preceding plot... (read more)

Colloquialism is the use of informal words or phrases in writing or speech. Colloquialisms are usually defined in geographical terms, meaning that they are often defined by their use within a dialect, a regionally-defined variant... (read full colloquialism explanation with examples) Colloquialism is the use of informal words or phrases in writing or speech. Colloquialisms are usually defined in geographical terms,... (read more)

Common meter is a specific type of meter that is often used in lyric poetry. Common meter has two key traits: it alternates between lines of eight syllables and lines of six syllables, and it... (read full common meter explanation with examples) Common meter is a specific type of meter that is often used in lyric poetry. Common meter has two key... (read more)

A conceit is a fanciful metaphor, especially a highly elaborate or extended metaphor in which an unlikely, far-fetched, or strained comparison is made between two things. A famous example comes from John Donne's poem, "A... (read full conceit explanation with examples) A conceit is a fanciful metaphor, especially a highly elaborate or extended metaphor in which an unlikely, far-fetched, or strained... (read more)

Connotation is the array of emotions and ideas suggested by a word in addition to its dictionary definition. Most words carry meanings, impressions, or associations apart from or beyond their literal meaning. For example, the... (read full connotation explanation with examples) Connotation is the array of emotions and ideas suggested by a word in addition to its dictionary definition. Most words... (read more)

Consonance is a figure of speech in which the same consonant sound repeats within a group of words. An example of consonance is: "Traffic figures, on July Fourth, to be tough." (read full consonance explanation with examples) Consonance is a figure of speech in which the same consonant sound repeats within a group of words. An example... (read more)

A couplet is a unit of two lines of poetry, especially lines that use the same or similar meter, form a rhyme, or are separated from other lines by a double line break. (read full couplet explanation with examples) A couplet is a unit of two lines of poetry, especially lines that use the same or similar meter, form... (read more)

A dactyl is a three-syllable metrical pattern in poetry in which a stressed syllable is followed by two unstressed syllables. The word “poetry” itself is a great example of a dactyl, with the stressed syllable... (read full dactyl explanation with examples) A dactyl is a three-syllable metrical pattern in poetry in which a stressed syllable is followed by two unstressed syllables.... (read more)

Denotation is the literal meaning, or "dictionary definition," of a word. Denotation is defined in contrast to connotation, which is the array of emotions and ideas suggested by a word in addition to its dictionary... (read full denotation explanation with examples) Denotation is the literal meaning, or "dictionary definition," of a word. Denotation is defined in contrast to connotation, which is... (read more)

The dénouement is the final section of a story's plot, in which loose ends are tied up, lingering questions are answered, and a sense of resolution is achieved. The shortest and most well known dénouement, it could be... (read full dénouement explanation with examples) The dénouement is the final section of a story's plot, in which loose ends are tied up, lingering questions are answered, and... (read more)

A deus ex machina is a plot device whereby an unsolvable conflict or point of tension is suddenly resolved by the unexpected appearance of an implausible character, object, action, ability, or event. For example, if... (read full deus ex machina explanation with examples) A deus ex machina is a plot device whereby an unsolvable conflict or point of tension is suddenly resolved by... (read more)

Diacope is a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is repeated with a small number of intervening words. The first line of Anna Karenina by Leo Tolstoy, "Happy families are all alike;... (read full diacope explanation with examples) Diacope is a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is repeated with a small number of intervening... (read more)

Dialogue is the exchange of spoken words between two or more characters in a book, play, or other written work. In prose writing, lines of dialogue are typically identified by the use of quotation marks... (read full dialogue explanation with examples) Dialogue is the exchange of spoken words between two or more characters in a book, play, or other written work.... (read more)

Diction is a writer's unique style of expression, especially his or her choice and arrangement of words. A writer's vocabulary, use of language to produce a specific tone or atmosphere, and ability to communicate clearly... (read full diction explanation with examples) Diction is a writer's unique style of expression, especially his or her choice and arrangement of words. A writer's vocabulary,... (read more)

Dramatic irony is a plot device often used in theater, literature, film, and television to highlight the difference between a character's understanding of a given situation, and that of the audience. More specifically, in dramatic... (read full dramatic irony explanation with examples) Dramatic irony is a plot device often used in theater, literature, film, and television to highlight the difference between a... (read more)

A dynamic character undergoes substantial internal changes as a result of one or more plot developments. The dynamic character's change can be extreme or subtle, as long as his or her development is important to... (read full dynamic character explanation with examples) A dynamic character undergoes substantial internal changes as a result of one or more plot developments. The dynamic character's change... (read more)

An elegy is a poem of serious reflection, especially one mourning the loss of someone who died. Elegies are defined by their subject matter, and don't have to follow any specific form in terms of... (read full elegy explanation with examples) An elegy is a poem of serious reflection, especially one mourning the loss of someone who died. Elegies are defined... (read more)

End rhyme refers to rhymes that occur in the final words of lines of poetry. For instance, these lines from Dorothy Parker's poem "Interview" use end rhyme: "The ladies men admire, I’ve heard, / Would shudder... (read full end rhyme explanation with examples) End rhyme refers to rhymes that occur in the final words of lines of poetry. For instance, these lines from... (read more)

An end-stopped line is a line of poetry in which a sentence or phrase comes to a conclusion at the end of the line. For example, the poet C.P. Cavafy uses end-stopped lines in his... (read full end-stopped line explanation with examples) An end-stopped line is a line of poetry in which a sentence or phrase comes to a conclusion at the... (read more)

Enjambment is the continuation of a sentence or clause across a line break. For example, the poet John Donne uses enjambment in his poem "The Good-Morrow" when he continues the opening sentence across the line... (read full enjambment explanation with examples) Enjambment is the continuation of a sentence or clause across a line break. For example, the poet John Donne uses... (read more)

An envoi is a brief concluding stanza at the end of a poem that can either summarize the preceding poem or serve as its dedication. The envoi tends to follow the same meter and rhyme... (read full envoi explanation with examples) An envoi is a brief concluding stanza at the end of a poem that can either summarize the preceding poem... (read more)

Epanalepsis is a figure of speech in which the beginning of a clause or sentence is repeated at the end of that same clause or sentence, with words intervening. The sentence "The king is dead,... (read full epanalepsis explanation with examples) Epanalepsis is a figure of speech in which the beginning of a clause or sentence is repeated at the end... (read more)

An epigram is a short and witty statement, usually written in verse, that conveys a single thought or observation. Epigrams typically end with a punchline or a satirical twist. (read full epigram explanation with examples) An epigram is a short and witty statement, usually written in verse, that conveys a single thought or observation. Epigrams... (read more)

An epigraph is a short quotation, phrase, or poem that is placed at the beginning of another piece of writing to encapsulate that work's main themes and to set the tone. For instance, the epigraph of Mary... (read full epigraph explanation with examples) An epigraph is a short quotation, phrase, or poem that is placed at the beginning of another piece of writing to... (read more)

Epistrophe is a figure of speech in which one or more words repeat at the end of successive phrases, clauses, or sentences. In his Gettysburg Address, Abraham Lincoln urged the American people to ensure that,... (read full epistrophe explanation with examples) Epistrophe is a figure of speech in which one or more words repeat at the end of successive phrases, clauses,... (read more)

Epizeuxis is a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is repeated in immediate succession, with no intervening words. In the play Hamlet, when Hamlet responds to a question about what he's reading... (read full epizeuxis explanation with examples) Epizeuxis is a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is repeated in immediate succession, with no intervening... (read more)

Ethos, along with logos and pathos, is one of the three "modes of persuasion" in rhetoric (the art of effective speaking or writing). Ethos is an argument that appeals to the audience by emphasizing the... (read full ethos explanation with examples) Ethos, along with logos and pathos, is one of the three "modes of persuasion" in rhetoric (the art of effective... (read more)

Euphony is the combining of words that sound pleasant together or are easy to pronounce, usually because they contain lots of consonants with soft or muffled sounds (like L, M, N, and R) instead of consonants with harsh, percussive sounds (like... (read full euphony explanation with examples) Euphony is the combining of words that sound pleasant together or are easy to pronounce, usually because they contain lots of consonants with soft... (read more)

Exposition is the description or explanation of background information within a work of literature. Exposition can cover characters and their relationship to one another, the setting or time and place of events, as well as... (read full exposition explanation with examples) Exposition is the description or explanation of background information within a work of literature. Exposition can cover characters and their... (read more)

An extended metaphor is a metaphor that unfolds across multiple lines or even paragraphs of a text, making use of multiple interrelated metaphors within an overarching one. So while "life is a highway" is a... (read full extended metaphor explanation with examples) An extended metaphor is a metaphor that unfolds across multiple lines or even paragraphs of a text, making use of... (read more)

An external conflict is a problem, antagonism, or struggle that takes place between a character and an outside force. External conflict drives the action of a plot forward. (read full external conflict explanation with examples) An external conflict is a problem, antagonism, or struggle that takes place between a character and an outside force. External conflict... (read more)

The falling action of a story is the section of the plot following the climax, in which the tension stemming from the story's central conflict decreases and the story moves toward its conclusion. For instance, the traditional "good... (read full falling action explanation with examples) The falling action of a story is the section of the plot following the climax, in which the tension stemming from... (read more)

Figurative language is language that contains or uses figures of speech. When people use the term "figurative language," however, they often do so in a slightly narrower way. In this narrower definition, figurative language refers... (read full figurative language explanation with examples) Figurative language is language that contains or uses figures of speech. When people use the term "figurative language," however, they... (read more)

A figure of speech is a literary device in which language is used in an unusual—or "figured"—way in order to produce a stylistic effect. Figures of speech can be broken into two main groups: figures... (read full figure of speech explanation with examples) A figure of speech is a literary device in which language is used in an unusual—or "figured"—way in order to... (read more)

A character is said to be "flat" if it is one-dimensional or lacking in complexity. Typically, flat characters can be easily and accurately described using a single word (like "bully") or one short sentence (like "A naive... (read full flat character explanation with examples) A character is said to be "flat" if it is one-dimensional or lacking in complexity. Typically, flat characters can be easily... (read more)

Foreshadowing is a literary device in which authors hint at plot developments that don't actually occur until later in the story. Foreshadowing can be achieved directly or indirectly, by making explicit statements or leaving subtle... (read full foreshadowing explanation with examples) Foreshadowing is a literary device in which authors hint at plot developments that don't actually occur until later in the... (read more)

Formal verse is the name given to rhymed poetry that uses a strict meter (a regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables). This two-line poem by Emily Dickinson is formal verse because it rhymes and... (read full formal verse explanation with examples) Formal verse is the name given to rhymed poetry that uses a strict meter (a regular pattern of stressed and... (read more)

Free verse is the name given to poetry that doesn’t use any strict meter or rhyme scheme. Because it has no set meter, poems written in free verse can have lines of any length, from... (read full free verse explanation with examples) Free verse is the name given to poetry that doesn’t use any strict meter or rhyme scheme. Because it has... (read more)

Hamartia is a literary term that refers to a tragic flaw or error that leads to a character's downfall. In the novel Frankenstein, Victor Frankenstein's arrogant conviction that he can usurp the roles of God... (read full hamartia explanation with examples) Hamartia is a literary term that refers to a tragic flaw or error that leads to a character's downfall. In... (read more)

Hubris refers to excessive pride or overconfidence, which drives a person to overstep limits in a way that leads to their downfall. In Greek mythology, the legend of Icarus involves an iconic case of hubris:... (read full hubris explanation with examples) Hubris refers to excessive pride or overconfidence, which drives a person to overstep limits in a way that leads to... (read more)

Hyperbole is a figure of speech in which a writer or speaker exaggerates for the sake of emphasis. Hyperbolic statements are usually quite obvious exaggerations intended to emphasize a point, rather than be taken literally.... (read full hyperbole explanation with examples) Hyperbole is a figure of speech in which a writer or speaker exaggerates for the sake of emphasis. Hyperbolic statements... (read more)

An iamb is a two-syllable metrical pattern in poetry in which one unstressed syllable is followed by a stressed syllable. The word "define" is an iamb, with the unstressed syllable of "de" followed by the... (read full iamb explanation with examples) An iamb is a two-syllable metrical pattern in poetry in which one unstressed syllable is followed by a stressed syllable.... (read more)

An idiom is a phrase that conveys a figurative meaning that is difficult or impossible to understand based solely on a literal interpretation of the words in the phrase. For example, saying that something is... (read full idiom explanation with examples) An idiom is a phrase that conveys a figurative meaning that is difficult or impossible to understand based solely on... (read more)

Imagery, in any sort of writing, refers to descriptive language that engages the human senses. For instance, the following lines from Robert Frost's poem "After Apple-Picking" contain imagery that engages the senses of touch, movement,... (read full imagery explanation with examples) Imagery, in any sort of writing, refers to descriptive language that engages the human senses. For instance, the following lines... (read more)

Internal rhyme is rhyme that occurs in the middle of lines of poetry, instead of at the ends of lines. A single line of poetry can contain internal rhyme (with multiple words in the same... (read full internal rhyme explanation with examples) Internal rhyme is rhyme that occurs in the middle of lines of poetry, instead of at the ends of lines.... (read more)

Irony is a literary device or event in which how things seem to be is in fact very different from how they actually are. If this seems like a loose definition, don't worry—it is. Irony is a... (read full irony explanation with examples) Irony is a literary device or event in which how things seem to be is in fact very different from how... (read more)

Juxtaposition occurs when an author places two things side by side as a way of highlighting their differences. Ideas, images, characters, and actions are all things that can be juxtaposed with one another. For example,... (read full juxtaposition explanation with examples) Juxtaposition occurs when an author places two things side by side as a way of highlighting their differences. Ideas, images,... (read more)

A kenning is a figure of speech in which two words are combined in order to form a poetic expression that refers to a person or a thing. For example, "whale-road" is a kenning for... (read full kenning explanation with examples) A kenning is a figure of speech in which two words are combined in order to form a poetic expression... (read more)

A line break is the termination of one line of poetry, and the beginning of a new line. (read full line break explanation with examples) A line break is the termination of one line of poetry, and the beginning of a new line. (read more)

Litotes is a figure of speech and a form of understatement in which a sentiment is expressed ironically by negating its contrary. For example, saying "It's not the best weather today" during a hurricane would... (read full litotes explanation with examples) Litotes is a figure of speech and a form of understatement in which a sentiment is expressed ironically by negating... (read more)

Logos, along with ethos and pathos, is one of the three "modes of persuasion" in rhetoric (the art of effective speaking or writing). Logos is an argument that appeals to an audience's sense of logic... (read full logos explanation with examples) Logos, along with ethos and pathos, is one of the three "modes of persuasion" in rhetoric (the art of effective... (read more)

A metaphor is a figure of speech that compares two different things by saying that one thing is the other. The comparison in a metaphor can be stated explicitly, as in the sentence "Love is... (read full metaphor explanation with examples) A metaphor is a figure of speech that compares two different things by saying that one thing is the other.... (read more)

Meter is a regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables that defines the rhythm of some poetry. These stress patterns are defined in groupings, called feet, of two or three syllables. A pattern of unstressed-stressed,... (read full meter explanation with examples) Meter is a regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables that defines the rhythm of some poetry. These stress patterns... (read more)

Metonymy is a type of figurative language in which an object or concept is referred to not by its own name, but instead by the name of something closely associated with it. For example, in... (read full metonymy explanation with examples) Metonymy is a type of figurative language in which an object or concept is referred to not by its own... (read more)

The mood of a piece of writing is its general atmosphere or emotional complexion—in short, the array of feelings the work evokes in the reader. Every aspect of a piece of writing can influence its mood, from the... (read full mood explanation with examples) The mood of a piece of writing is its general atmosphere or emotional complexion—in short, the array of feelings the work evokes... (read more)

A motif is an element or idea that recurs throughout a work of literature. Motifs, which are often collections of related symbols, help develop the central themes of a book or play. For example, one... (read full motif explanation with examples) A motif is an element or idea that recurs throughout a work of literature. Motifs, which are often collections of... (read more)

A narrative is an account of connected events. Two writers describing the same set of events might craft very different narratives, depending on how they use different narrative elements, such as tone or point of view. For... (read full narrative explanation with examples) A narrative is an account of connected events. Two writers describing the same set of events might craft very different narratives,... (read more)

Onomatopoeia is a figure of speech in which words evoke the actual sound of the thing they refer to or describe. The “boom” of a firework exploding, the “tick tock” of a clock, and the... (read full onomatopoeia explanation with examples) Onomatopoeia is a figure of speech in which words evoke the actual sound of the thing they refer to or... (read more)

An oxymoron is a figure of speech in which two contradictory terms or ideas are intentionally paired in order to make a point—particularly to reveal a deeper or hidden truth. The most recognizable oxymorons are... (read full oxymoron explanation with examples) An oxymoron is a figure of speech in which two contradictory terms or ideas are intentionally paired in order to... (read more)

A paradox is a figure of speech that seems to contradict itself, but which, upon further examination, contains some kernel of truth or reason. Oscar Wilde's famous declaration that "Life is much too important to be... (read full paradox explanation with examples) A paradox is a figure of speech that seems to contradict itself, but which, upon further examination, contains some kernel... (read more)

Parallelism is a figure of speech in which two or more elements of a sentence (or series of sentences) have the same grammatical structure. These "parallel" elements can be used to intensify the rhythm of... (read full parallelism explanation with examples) Parallelism is a figure of speech in which two or more elements of a sentence (or series of sentences) have... (read more)

Parataxis is a figure of speech in which words, phrases, clauses, or sentences are set next to each other so that each element is equally important. Parataxis usually involves simple sentences or phrases whose relationships... (read full parataxis explanation with examples) Parataxis is a figure of speech in which words, phrases, clauses, or sentences are set next to each other so... (read more)

A parody is a work that mimics the style of another work, artist, or genre in an exaggerated way, usually for comic effect. Parodies can take many forms, including fiction, poetry, film, visual art, and... (read full parody explanation with examples) A parody is a work that mimics the style of another work, artist, or genre in an exaggerated way, usually... (read more)

Pathetic fallacy occurs when a writer attributes human emotions to things that aren't human, such as objects, weather, or animals. It is often used to make the environment reflect the inner experience of a narrator... (read full pathetic fallacy explanation with examples) Pathetic fallacy occurs when a writer attributes human emotions to things that aren't human, such as objects, weather, or animals.... (read more)

Pathos, along with logos and ethos, is one of the three "modes of persuasion" in rhetoric (the art of effective speaking or writing). Pathos is an argument that appeals to an audience's emotions. When a... (read full pathos explanation with examples) Pathos, along with logos and ethos, is one of the three "modes of persuasion" in rhetoric (the art of effective... (read more)

Personification is a type of figurative language in which non-human things are described as having human attributes, as in the sentence, "The rain poured down on the wedding guests, indifferent to their plans." Describing the... (read full personification explanation with examples) Personification is a type of figurative language in which non-human things are described as having human attributes, as in the... (read more)

Plot is the sequence of interconnected events within the story of a play, novel, film, epic, or other narrative literary work. More than simply an account of what happened, plot reveals the cause-and-effect relationships between... (read full plot explanation with examples) Plot is the sequence of interconnected events within the story of a play, novel, film, epic, or other narrative literary... (read more)

Point of view refers to the perspective that the narrator holds in relation to the events of the story. The three primary points of view are first person, in which the narrator tells a story from... (read full point of view explanation with examples) Point of view refers to the perspective that the narrator holds in relation to the events of the story. The... (read more)

Polyptoton is a figure of speech that involves the repetition of words derived from the same root (such as "blood" and "bleed"). For instance, the question, "Who shall watch the watchmen?" is an example of... (read full polyptoton explanation with examples) Polyptoton is a figure of speech that involves the repetition of words derived from the same root (such as "blood"... (read more)

Polysyndeton is a figure of speech in which coordinating conjunctions—words such as "and," "or," and "but" that join other words or clauses in a sentence into relationships of equal importance—are used several times in close... (read full polysyndeton explanation with examples) Polysyndeton is a figure of speech in which coordinating conjunctions—words such as "and," "or," and "but" that join other words... (read more)

The protagonist of a story is its main character, who has the sympathy and support of the audience. This character tends to be involved in or affected by most of the choices or conflicts that... (read full protagonist explanation with examples) The protagonist of a story is its main character, who has the sympathy and support of the audience. This character... (read more)

A pun is a figure of speech that plays with words that have multiple meanings, or that plays with words that sound similar but mean different things. The comic novelist Douglas Adams uses both types... (read full pun explanation with examples) A pun is a figure of speech that plays with words that have multiple meanings, or that plays with words... (read more)

A quatrain is a four-line stanza of poetry. It can be a single four-line stanza, meaning that it is a stand-alone poem of four lines, or it can be a four-line stanza that makes up... (read full quatrain explanation with examples) A quatrain is a four-line stanza of poetry. It can be a single four-line stanza, meaning that it is a... (read more)

A red herring is a piece of information in a story that distracts readers from an important truth, or leads them to mistakenly expect a particular outcome. Most often, the term red herring is used to refer... (read full red herring explanation with examples) A red herring is a piece of information in a story that distracts readers from an important truth, or leads them... (read more)

In a poem or song, a refrain is a line or group of lines that regularly repeat, usually at the end of a stanza in a poem or at the end of a verse in... (read full refrain explanation with examples) In a poem or song, a refrain is a line or group of lines that regularly repeat, usually at the... (read more)

Repetition is a literary device in which a word or phrase is repeated two or more times. Repetition occurs in so many different forms that it is usually not thought of as a single figure... (read full repetition explanation with examples) Repetition is a literary device in which a word or phrase is repeated two or more times. Repetition occurs in... (read more)

A rhetorical question is a figure of speech in which a question is asked for a reason other than to get an answer—most commonly, it's asked to make a persuasive point. For example, if a... (read full rhetorical question explanation with examples) A rhetorical question is a figure of speech in which a question is asked for a reason other than to... (read more)

A rhyme is a repetition of similar sounds in two or more words. Rhyming is particularly common in many types of poetry, especially at the ends of lines, and is a requirement in formal verse.... (read full rhyme explanation with examples) A rhyme is a repetition of similar sounds in two or more words. Rhyming is particularly common in many types... (read more)

A rhyme scheme is the pattern according to which end rhymes (rhymes located at the end of lines) are repeated in works poetry. Rhyme schemes are described using letters of the alphabet, such that all... (read full rhyme scheme explanation with examples) A rhyme scheme is the pattern according to which end rhymes (rhymes located at the end of lines) are repeated... (read more)

The rising action of a story is the section of the plot leading up to the climax, in which the tension stemming from the story's central conflict grows through successive plot developments. For example, in the story of "Little... (read full rising action explanation with examples) The rising action of a story is the section of the plot leading up to the climax, in which the tension stemming... (read more)

A character is said to be "round" if they are lifelike or complex. Round characters typically have fully fleshed-out and multi-faceted personalities, backgrounds, desires, and motivations. Jay Gatsby in F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby... (read full round character explanation with examples) A character is said to be "round" if they are lifelike or complex. Round characters typically have fully fleshed-out and... (read more)

Satire is the use of humor, irony, sarcasm, or ridicule to criticize something or someone. Public figures, such as politicians, are often the subject of satire, but satirists can take aim at other targets as... (read full satire explanation with examples) Satire is the use of humor, irony, sarcasm, or ridicule to criticize something or someone. Public figures, such as politicians,... (read more)

A sestet is a six-line stanza of poetry. It can be any six-line stanza—one that is, itself, a whole poem, or one that makes up a part of a longer poem. Most commonly, the term... (read full sestet explanation with examples) A sestet is a six-line stanza of poetry. It can be any six-line stanza—one that is, itself, a whole poem,... (read more)

Setting is where and when a story or scene takes place. The where can be a real place like the city of New York, or it can be an imagined location, like Middle Earth in... (read full setting explanation with examples) Setting is where and when a story or scene takes place. The where can be a real place like the... (read more)

Sibilance is a figure of speech in which a hissing sound is created within a group of words through the repetition of "s" sounds. An example of sibilance is: "Sadly, Sam sold seven venomous serpents to Sally and... (read full sibilance explanation with examples) Sibilance is a figure of speech in which a hissing sound is created within a group of words through the repetition... (read more)

A simile is a figure of speech that directly compares two unlike things. To make the comparison, similes most often use the connecting words "like" or "as," but can also use other words that indicate... (read full simile explanation with examples) A simile is a figure of speech that directly compares two unlike things. To make the comparison, similes most often... (read more)

Traditionally, slant rhyme referred to a type of rhyme in which two words located at the end of a line of poetry themselves end in similar—but not identical—consonant sounds. For instance, the words "pact" and... (read full slant rhyme explanation with examples) Traditionally, slant rhyme referred to a type of rhyme in which two words located at the end of a line... (read more)

A soliloquy is a literary device, most often found in dramas, in which a character speaks to him or herself, relating his or her innermost thoughts and feelings as if thinking aloud. In some cases,... (read full soliloquy explanation with examples) A soliloquy is a literary device, most often found in dramas, in which a character speaks to him or herself,... (read more)

A sonnet is a type of fourteen-line poem. Traditionally, the fourteen lines of a sonnet consist of an octave (or two quatrains making up a stanza of 8 lines) and a sestet (a stanza of... (read full sonnet explanation with examples) A sonnet is a type of fourteen-line poem. Traditionally, the fourteen lines of a sonnet consist of an octave (or... (read more)

A spondee is a two-syllable metrical pattern in poetry in which both syllables are stressed. The word "downtown" is a spondee, with the stressed syllable of "down" followed by another stressed syllable, “town”: Down-town. (read full spondee explanation with examples) A spondee is a two-syllable metrical pattern in poetry in which both syllables are stressed. The word "downtown" is a... (read more)

A stanza is a group of lines form a smaller unit within a poem. A single stanza is usually set apart from other lines or stanza within a poem by a double line break or... (read full stanza explanation with examples) A stanza is a group of lines form a smaller unit within a poem. A single stanza is usually set... (read more)

A character is said to be "static" if they do not undergo any substantial internal changes as a result of the story's major plot developments. Antagonists are often static characters, but any character in a... (read full static character explanation with examples) A character is said to be "static" if they do not undergo any substantial internal changes as a result of... (read more)

Stream of consciousness is a style or technique of writing that tries to capture the natural flow of a character's extended thought process, often by incorporating sensory impressions, incomplete ideas, unusual syntax, and rough grammar. (read full stream of consciousness explanation with examples) Stream of consciousness is a style or technique of writing that tries to capture the natural flow of a character's... (read more)

A syllogism is a three-part logical argument, based on deductive reasoning, in which two premises are combined to arrive at a conclusion. So long as the premises of the syllogism are true and the syllogism... (read full syllogism explanation with examples) A syllogism is a three-part logical argument, based on deductive reasoning, in which two premises are combined to arrive at... (read more)

Symbolism is a literary device in which a writer uses one thing—usually a physical object or phenomenon—to represent something more abstract. A strong symbol usually shares a set of key characteristics with whatever it is... (read full symbolism explanation with examples) Symbolism is a literary device in which a writer uses one thing—usually a physical object or phenomenon—to represent something more... (read more)

Synecdoche is a figure of speech in which, most often, a part of something is used to refer to its whole. For example, "The captain commands one hundred sails" is a synecdoche that uses "sails"... (read full synecdoche explanation with examples) Synecdoche is a figure of speech in which, most often, a part of something is used to refer to its... (read more)

A theme is a universal idea, lesson, or message explored throughout a work of literature. One key characteristic of literary themes is their universality, which is to say that themes are ideas that not only... (read full theme explanation with examples) A theme is a universal idea, lesson, or message explored throughout a work of literature. One key characteristic of literary... (read more)

The tone of a piece of writing is its general character or attitude, which might be cheerful or depressive, sarcastic or sincere, comical or mournful, praising or critical, and so on. For instance, an editorial in a newspaper... (read full tone explanation with examples) The tone of a piece of writing is its general character or attitude, which might be cheerful or depressive, sarcastic or sincere, comical... (read more)

A tragic hero is a type of character in a tragedy, and is usually the protagonist. Tragic heroes typically have heroic traits that earn them the sympathy of the audience, but also have flaws or... (read full tragic hero explanation with examples) A tragic hero is a type of character in a tragedy, and is usually the protagonist. Tragic heroes typically have... (read more)

A trochee is a two-syllable metrical pattern in poetry in which a stressed syllable is followed by an unstressed syllable. The word "poet" is a trochee, with the stressed syllable of "po" followed by the... (read full trochee explanation with examples) A trochee is a two-syllable metrical pattern in poetry in which a stressed syllable is followed by an unstressed syllable.... (read more)

Understatement is a figure of speech in which something is expressed less strongly than would be expected, or in which something is presented as being smaller, worse, or lesser than it really is. Typically, understatement is... (read full understatement explanation with examples) Understatement is a figure of speech in which something is expressed less strongly than would be expected, or in which something... (read more)

Verbal irony occurs when the literal meaning of what someone says is different from—and often opposite to—what they actually mean. When there's a hurricane raging outside and someone remarks "what lovely weather we're having," this... (read full verbal irony explanation with examples) Verbal irony occurs when the literal meaning of what someone says is different from—and often opposite to—what they actually mean.... (read more)

A villanelle is a poem of nineteen lines, and which follows a strict form that consists of five tercets (three-line stanzas) followed by one quatrain (four-line stanza). Villanelles use a specific rhyme scheme of ABA... (read full villanelle explanation with examples) A villanelle is a poem of nineteen lines, and which follows a strict form that consists of five tercets (three-line... (read more)

A zeugma is a figure of speech in which one "governing" word or phrase modifies two distinct parts of a sentence. Often, the governing word will mean something different when applied to each part, as... (read full zeugma explanation with examples) A zeugma is a figure of speech in which one "governing" word or phrase modifies two distinct parts of a... (read more)

• PDF downloads of each of the 136 Lit Terms we cover
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What is a Literature Review? How to Write It (with Examples)

A literature review is a critical analysis and synthesis of existing research on a particular topic. It provides an overview of the current state of knowledge, identifies gaps, and highlights key findings in the literature. 1 The purpose of a literature review is to situate your own research within the context of existing scholarship, demonstrating your understanding of the topic and showing how your work contributes to the ongoing conversation in the field. Learning how to write a literature review is a critical tool for successful research. Your ability to summarize and synthesize prior research pertaining to a certain topic demonstrates your grasp on the topic of study, and assists in the learning process. 

Table of Contents

• What is the purpose of literature review? 
• a. Habitat Loss and Species Extinction: 
• b. Range Shifts and Phenological Changes: 
• c. Ocean Acidification and Coral Reefs: 
• d. Adaptive Strategies and Conservation Efforts: 

How to write a good literature review 

• Choose a Topic and Define the Research Question: 
• Decide on the Scope of Your Review: 
• Select Databases for Searches: 
• Conduct Searches and Keep Track: 
• Review the Literature: 
• Organize and Write Your Literature Review: 
• How to write a literature review faster with Paperpal? 
• Frequently asked questions 

What is a literature review?

A well-conducted literature review demonstrates the researcher’s familiarity with the existing literature, establishes the context for their own research, and contributes to scholarly conversations on the topic. One of the purposes of a literature review is also to help researchers avoid duplicating previous work and ensure that their research is informed by and builds upon the existing body of knowledge.

What is the purpose of literature review?

A literature review serves several important purposes within academic and research contexts. Here are some key objectives and functions of a literature review: 2  

1. Contextualizing the Research Problem: The literature review provides a background and context for the research problem under investigation. It helps to situate the study within the existing body of knowledge. 

2. Identifying Gaps in Knowledge: By identifying gaps, contradictions, or areas requiring further research, the researcher can shape the research question and justify the significance of the study. This is crucial for ensuring that the new research contributes something novel to the field. 

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3. Understanding Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks: Literature reviews help researchers gain an understanding of the theoretical and conceptual frameworks used in previous studies. This aids in the development of a theoretical framework for the current research. 

4. Providing Methodological Insights: Another purpose of literature reviews is that it allows researchers to learn about the methodologies employed in previous studies. This can help in choosing appropriate research methods for the current study and avoiding pitfalls that others may have encountered. 

5. Establishing Credibility: A well-conducted literature review demonstrates the researcher’s familiarity with existing scholarship, establishing their credibility and expertise in the field. It also helps in building a solid foundation for the new research. 

6. Informing Hypotheses or Research Questions: The literature review guides the formulation of hypotheses or research questions by highlighting relevant findings and areas of uncertainty in existing literature. 

Literature review example

Let’s delve deeper with a literature review example: Let’s say your literature review is about the impact of climate change on biodiversity. You might format your literature review into sections such as the effects of climate change on habitat loss and species extinction, phenological changes, and marine biodiversity. Each section would then summarize and analyze relevant studies in those areas, highlighting key findings and identifying gaps in the research. The review would conclude by emphasizing the need for further research on specific aspects of the relationship between climate change and biodiversity. The following literature review template provides a glimpse into the recommended literature review structure and content, demonstrating how research findings are organized around specific themes within a broader topic. 

Literature Review on Climate Change Impacts on Biodiversity:

Climate change is a global phenomenon with far-reaching consequences, including significant impacts on biodiversity. This literature review synthesizes key findings from various studies: 

a. Habitat Loss and Species Extinction:

Climate change-induced alterations in temperature and precipitation patterns contribute to habitat loss, affecting numerous species (Thomas et al., 2004). The review discusses how these changes increase the risk of extinction, particularly for species with specific habitat requirements. 

b. Range Shifts and Phenological Changes:

Observations of range shifts and changes in the timing of biological events (phenology) are documented in response to changing climatic conditions (Parmesan & Yohe, 2003). These shifts affect ecosystems and may lead to mismatches between species and their resources. 

c. Ocean Acidification and Coral Reefs:

The review explores the impact of climate change on marine biodiversity, emphasizing ocean acidification’s threat to coral reefs (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007). Changes in pH levels negatively affect coral calcification, disrupting the delicate balance of marine ecosystems. 

d. Adaptive Strategies and Conservation Efforts:

Recognizing the urgency of the situation, the literature review discusses various adaptive strategies adopted by species and conservation efforts aimed at mitigating the impacts of climate change on biodiversity (Hannah et al., 2007). It emphasizes the importance of interdisciplinary approaches for effective conservation planning. 

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Writing a literature review involves summarizing and synthesizing existing research on a particular topic. A good literature review format should include the following elements. 

Introduction: The introduction sets the stage for your literature review, providing context and introducing the main focus of your review. 

• Opening Statement: Begin with a general statement about the broader topic and its significance in the field. 
• Scope and Purpose: Clearly define the scope of your literature review. Explain the specific research question or objective you aim to address. 
• Organizational Framework: Briefly outline the structure of your literature review, indicating how you will categorize and discuss the existing research. 
• Significance of the Study: Highlight why your literature review is important and how it contributes to the understanding of the chosen topic. 
• Thesis Statement: Conclude the introduction with a concise thesis statement that outlines the main argument or perspective you will develop in the body of the literature review. 

Body: The body of the literature review is where you provide a comprehensive analysis of existing literature, grouping studies based on themes, methodologies, or other relevant criteria. 

• Organize by Theme or Concept: Group studies that share common themes, concepts, or methodologies. Discuss each theme or concept in detail, summarizing key findings and identifying gaps or areas of disagreement. 
• Critical Analysis: Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each study. Discuss the methodologies used, the quality of evidence, and the overall contribution of each work to the understanding of the topic. 
• Synthesis of Findings: Synthesize the information from different studies to highlight trends, patterns, or areas of consensus in the literature. 
• Identification of Gaps: Discuss any gaps or limitations in the existing research and explain how your review contributes to filling these gaps. 
• Transition between Sections: Provide smooth transitions between different themes or concepts to maintain the flow of your literature review. 

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Conclusion: The conclusion of your literature review should summarize the main findings, highlight the contributions of the review, and suggest avenues for future research. 

• Summary of Key Findings: Recap the main findings from the literature and restate how they contribute to your research question or objective. 
• Contributions to the Field: Discuss the overall contribution of your literature review to the existing knowledge in the field. 
• Implications and Applications: Explore the practical implications of the findings and suggest how they might impact future research or practice. 
• Recommendations for Future Research: Identify areas that require further investigation and propose potential directions for future research in the field. 
• Final Thoughts: Conclude with a final reflection on the importance of your literature review and its relevance to the broader academic community. 

Conducting a literature review

Conducting a literature review is an essential step in research that involves reviewing and analyzing existing literature on a specific topic. It’s important to know how to do a literature review effectively, so here are the steps to follow: 1  

Choose a Topic and Define the Research Question:

• Select a topic that is relevant to your field of study. 
• Clearly define your research question or objective. Determine what specific aspect of the topic do you want to explore? 

Decide on the Scope of Your Review:

• Determine the timeframe for your literature review. Are you focusing on recent developments, or do you want a historical overview? 
• Consider the geographical scope. Is your review global, or are you focusing on a specific region? 
• Define the inclusion and exclusion criteria. What types of sources will you include? Are there specific types of studies or publications you will exclude? 

Select Databases for Searches:

• Identify relevant databases for your field. Examples include PubMed, IEEE Xplore, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. 
• Consider searching in library catalogs, institutional repositories, and specialized databases related to your topic. 

Conduct Searches and Keep Track:

• Develop a systematic search strategy using keywords, Boolean operators (AND, OR, NOT), and other search techniques. 
• Record and document your search strategy for transparency and replicability. 
• Keep track of the articles, including publication details, abstracts, and links. Use citation management tools like EndNote, Zotero, or Mendeley to organize your references. 

Review the Literature:

• Evaluate the relevance and quality of each source. Consider the methodology, sample size, and results of studies. 
• Organize the literature by themes or key concepts. Identify patterns, trends, and gaps in the existing research. 
• Summarize key findings and arguments from each source. Compare and contrast different perspectives. 
• Identify areas where there is a consensus in the literature and where there are conflicting opinions. 
• Provide critical analysis and synthesis of the literature. What are the strengths and weaknesses of existing research? 

Organize and Write Your Literature Review:

• Literature review outline should be based on themes, chronological order, or methodological approaches. 
• Write a clear and coherent narrative that synthesizes the information gathered. 
• Use proper citations for each source and ensure consistency in your citation style (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.). 
• Conclude your literature review by summarizing key findings, identifying gaps, and suggesting areas for future research. 

Whether you’re exploring a new research field or finding new angles to develop an existing topic, sifting through hundreds of papers can take more time than you have to spare. But what if you could find science-backed insights with verified citations in seconds? That’s the power of Paperpal’s new Research feature!  

How to write a literature review faster with Paperpal?

Paperpal, an AI writing assistant, integrates powerful academic search capabilities within its writing platform. With the Research feature, you get 100% factual insights, with citations backed by 250M+ verified research articles, directly within your writing interface with the option to save relevant references in your Citation Library. By eliminating the need to switch tabs to find answers to all your research questions, Paperpal saves time and helps you stay focused on your writing.   

Here’s how to use the Research feature:  

• Ask a question: Get started with a new document on paperpal.com. Click on the “Research” feature and type your question in plain English. Paperpal will scour over 250 million research articles, including conference papers and preprints, to provide you with accurate insights and citations. 
• Review and Save: Paperpal summarizes the information, while citing sources and listing relevant reads. You can quickly scan the results to identify relevant references and save these directly to your built-in citations library for later access. 
• Cite with Confidence: Paperpal makes it easy to incorporate relevant citations and references into your writing, ensuring your arguments are well-supported by credible sources. This translates to a polished, well-researched literature review. 

The literature review sample and detailed advice on writing and conducting a review will help you produce a well-structured report. But remember that a good literature review is an ongoing process, and it may be necessary to revisit and update it as your research progresses. By combining effortless research with an easy citation process, Paperpal Research streamlines the literature review process and empowers you to write faster and with more confidence. Try Paperpal Research now and see for yourself.  

Frequently asked questions

A literature review is a critical and comprehensive analysis of existing literature (published and unpublished works) on a specific topic or research question and provides a synthesis of the current state of knowledge in a particular field. A well-conducted literature review is crucial for researchers to build upon existing knowledge, avoid duplication of efforts, and contribute to the advancement of their field. It also helps researchers situate their work within a broader context and facilitates the development of a sound theoretical and conceptual framework for their studies.

Literature review is a crucial component of research writing, providing a solid background for a research paper’s investigation. The aim is to keep professionals up to date by providing an understanding of ongoing developments within a specific field, including research methods, and experimental techniques used in that field, and present that knowledge in the form of a written report. Also, the depth and breadth of the literature review emphasizes the credibility of the scholar in his or her field.  

Before writing a literature review, it’s essential to undertake several preparatory steps to ensure that your review is well-researched, organized, and focused. This includes choosing a topic of general interest to you and doing exploratory research on that topic, writing an annotated bibliography, and noting major points, especially those that relate to the position you have taken on the topic. 

Literature reviews and academic research papers are essential components of scholarly work but serve different purposes within the academic realm. 3 A literature review aims to provide a foundation for understanding the current state of research on a particular topic, identify gaps or controversies, and lay the groundwork for future research. Therefore, it draws heavily from existing academic sources, including books, journal articles, and other scholarly publications. In contrast, an academic research paper aims to present new knowledge, contribute to the academic discourse, and advance the understanding of a specific research question. Therefore, it involves a mix of existing literature (in the introduction and literature review sections) and original data or findings obtained through research methods. 

Literature reviews are essential components of academic and research papers, and various strategies can be employed to conduct them effectively. If you want to know how to write a literature review for a research paper, here are four common approaches that are often used by researchers.  Chronological Review: This strategy involves organizing the literature based on the chronological order of publication. It helps to trace the development of a topic over time, showing how ideas, theories, and research have evolved.  Thematic Review: Thematic reviews focus on identifying and analyzing themes or topics that cut across different studies. Instead of organizing the literature chronologically, it is grouped by key themes or concepts, allowing for a comprehensive exploration of various aspects of the topic.  Methodological Review: This strategy involves organizing the literature based on the research methods employed in different studies. It helps to highlight the strengths and weaknesses of various methodologies and allows the reader to evaluate the reliability and validity of the research findings.  Theoretical Review: A theoretical review examines the literature based on the theoretical frameworks used in different studies. This approach helps to identify the key theories that have been applied to the topic and assess their contributions to the understanding of the subject.  It’s important to note that these strategies are not mutually exclusive, and a literature review may combine elements of more than one approach. The choice of strategy depends on the research question, the nature of the literature available, and the goals of the review. Additionally, other strategies, such as integrative reviews or systematic reviews, may be employed depending on the specific requirements of the research.

The literature review format can vary depending on the specific publication guidelines. However, there are some common elements and structures that are often followed. Here is a general guideline for the format of a literature review:  Introduction:   Provide an overview of the topic.  Define the scope and purpose of the literature review.  State the research question or objective.  Body:   Organize the literature by themes, concepts, or chronology.  Critically analyze and evaluate each source.  Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the studies.  Highlight any methodological limitations or biases.  Identify patterns, connections, or contradictions in the existing research.  Conclusion:   Summarize the key points discussed in the literature review.  Highlight the research gap.  Address the research question or objective stated in the introduction.  Highlight the contributions of the review and suggest directions for future research.

Both annotated bibliographies and literature reviews involve the examination of scholarly sources. While annotated bibliographies focus on individual sources with brief annotations, literature reviews provide a more in-depth, integrated, and comprehensive analysis of existing literature on a specific topic. The key differences are as follows: 

References 

• Denney, A. S., & Tewksbury, R. (2013). How to write a literature review.  Journal of criminal justice education ,  24 (2), 218-234. 
• Pan, M. L. (2016).  Preparing literature reviews: Qualitative and quantitative approaches . Taylor & Francis. 
• Cantero, C. (2019). How to write a literature review.  San José State University Writing Center . 

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Doki Doki Literature Club: How To Get The Good Ending

Doki Doki Literature Club is an indie horror visual novel disguised as a cutesy dating sim. Not only will players enjoy the main story, but they'll also uncover the secrets found in the game's heart — the game directory. It takes interactivity to the next level by allowing players to manipulate its game files so they can unlock its other endings. It's easily one of the most off-the-wall and amazing video games that any fan of unique experiences should definitely check out.

RELATED: Doki Doki Literature Club: How To Get The Normal Ending

Despite the unavoidable events in the game, there's a good ending in Doki Doki Literature Club , also known to be the special ending — it's a happy ending version of the game, and the players will receive a special letter from Dan Salvato, the genius behind Doki Doki Literature Club . Of course, the steps to unlock this ending can be quite extensive, but the end result makes it all worth it. Players who are struggling to unlock the events required to witness DDLC 's good ending can do some research beforehand, and they shouldn't feel guilty for doing the same — the manner in which players achieve this ending is pretty obtuse and not really something that most players would figure out easily.

Updated on August 6th, 2023, by Ritwik Mitra: The visual novel genre is unfairly labeled by many to be an uninteresting experience, with these video games basically telling players to read pages of text and make some decisions somewhere down the line. While classic visual novels may suffer from this one-dimensional gameplay, there are many modern franchises that have added their own interesting spins to this concept. These include titles like Phoenix Wright, Danganronpa, and, of course, Doki Doki Literature Club!

No one expected a free visual novel with a cute art style to turn into a horror title midway through, but that's part of the reason why this game is so special. The fandom for this game is massive, falling in love with the four main girls and developing many fangames that allow players to spend more time with these characters. As fun as this game is, getting the best ending possible can be a headscratcher if players have no clue what they need to do here.

What to Do in ACT 1

First, the player needs to reset their game back to the beginning to make sure they're starting a fresh New Game ( can be found here , at the end). Next, they'll have to unlock nine CGs in ACT 1 and at least two CGs in ACT 3 . While this might sound like a substantial task, save-scumming and repeated playthroughs can make these events quite attainable indeed.

Finish with Sayori's route before taking Yuri's and Natsuki's. The goal is to unlock three CGs from each of them before the end of ACT 1 .

If the player wants to skip directly to writing the first poem , go to Settings , mark Unseen Text and After Choices, then select Return and Skip .

Sayori's Route

• Save the game before writing the first poem.
• Write perfect poems for Sayori. There are three poems to write in Act 1. The player will be able to unlock two CGs of her before the Literature Club plans for the festival.
• Always choose Sayori first during the poem-sharing club activity.
• When Yuri and Natsuki fight , choose the option: 'Help me, Sayori!!'
• When asked who to walk home with , choose the option: 'I would still walk home with Sayori.'
• It doesn't matter who the player chooses to help during the weekend, although it's recommended to take the route of whoever is chosen after Sayori's to avoid confusion.
• When Sayori confesses her feelings on Sunday, choose the option: 'I love you' to unlock her final CG. Wait for them to release each other.
• Go to Settings , select Load Game, and go back to writing the first poem . If players have chosen to help Yuri, take her route next; otherwise, take Natsuki's.

Poem Words for Sayori

• A: adventure, alone, amazing, awesome
• B: bed, beauty, bliss, broken
• C: calm, charm, cheer, childhood, clumsy, color, comfort, cry
• D: dance, dark, daydream, dazzle, death, defeat, depression
• E: embrace, empty, excitement, extraordinary
• F: family, fear, feather, fireflies, flower, flying, forgive, friends, fun
• H: happiness, heart, holiday, hope, hopeless, hurt
• L: laugh, lazy, loud, love, lucky
• M: marriage, memories, misery, misfortune, music
• P: passion, peaceful, pain, party, play, prayer, precious, promise
• R: rainbow, raincloud, romance, rose
• S: sadness, scars, shame, silly, sing, smile, sparkle, special, sunset, sweet
• T: tears, together, tragedy, treasure
• U: unrequited
• V: vacation
• W: warm, wonderful

Yuri's Route

• Write three poems for her. Sometimes the player can't find any of her preferred words. In this event, the second-best words are mentioned in parentheses below, which can serve as a last-ditch solution for players who are striving to unlock Doki Doki Literature Club 's best ending .
• Always choose Yuri first during the poem-sharing club activity.
• During her fight with Natsuki , choose the option: 'Yuri.'
• When asked who to walk home with , choose the option: 'I would walk home with Yuri.'
• By now, players should have unlocked two CGs of her. When deciding who to help with during the weekends, choose the option: 'Yuri.' to unlock her final CG .
• During Sayori's confession, choose the option: 'You'll always be my dearest friend.' If the player still needs to romance Natsuki , go to Settings . Select Load Game , and go back to writing the first poem .
• If the player has already unlocked all nine CGs , they can continue to ACT 2 without any worries.

Yuri's Preferred Words

• A: afterimage, agonizing, ambient, analysis, anxiety, atone, aura, (alone)
• B: breathe, (broken)
• C: cage, captive, climax, contamination, covet, crimson, (calm, cry)
• D: desire, destiny, determination, disarray, disaster, disoriented, despise, disown, dream, (dark, daydream, death, defeat, depression)
• E: effulgent, electricity, entropy, essence, eternity, existence, explode, extreme, (embrace, empty)
• F: fester, fickle, flee, frightening, (fear, forgive)
• G: graveyard, (grief)
• H: heavensent, horror, (hope, hopeless, hurt)
• I: imagination, incapable, incongruent, infallible, inferno, infinite, insight, intellectual
• J: journey, judgment, (joy)
• L: lust, landscape
• M: massacre, meager, melancholy, (misery, misfortune)
• P: philosophy, portrait, (pain, peaceful, prayer)
• Q: question, raindrops
• S: secretive, sensation, starscape, suicide, (scars, shame)
• T: tenacious, time, (tears, tragedy)
• U: uncontrollable, uncanny, unending, universe, unrestrained, unstable, (unrequited)
• V: variance, vertigo, vibrant, vitality, vivacious, vivid
• W: whirlwind, wrath

Natsuki's Route

• Write three poems for her. Sometimes the player can't find any of her preferred words. In this event, the second-best words are mentioned in parentheses below.
• Always choose Natsuki first during the poem-sharing club activity.
• During her fight with Yuri , choose the option: 'Natsuki.'
• When asked who to walk home with , choose the option: 'I would walk home with Natsuki.'
• By now, players should have unlocked two CGs of her. When deciding who to help with during the weekends, choose the option: 'Natsuki.' to unlock her final CG .
• During Sayori's confession, choose the option: 'You'll always be my dearest friend.' If the player still needs to romance Yuri , go to Settings . Select Load Game , and go back to writing the first poem . One last time.
• But if the player has already unlocked all nine CGs , the player can continue to ACT 2 .

Poem Words for Natsuki

• A: anger, anime, (adventure, amazing, awesome)
• B: blanket, boop, bouncy, bubbles, bunny, (beauty, bed, bliss)
• C: candy, cheeks, chocolate, clouds, cute, (charm, cheer, childhood, clumsy, color, comfort)
• D: doki-doki, (dance, dazzle)
• E: email, (excitement, extraordinary)
• F: fantasy, fluffy, (family, feather, fireflies, fireworks, flower, flying, friends, fun)
• G: games, giggle
• H: hair, hop, headphones, heartbeat, (happiness, heart, holiday)
• J: jump, jumpy
• K: kawaii, kiss, kitty
• L: lipstick, lollipop, (laugh, lazy, loud, love, lucky)
• M: marshmallow, melody, milk, mouse, (marriage, memories, music)
• N: nibble, nightgown, (nature)
• P: papa, parfait, peace, pink, playground, poof, pout, pure, puppy, (party, passion, play, precious, promise)
• R: ribbon, (rainbow, raincloud, romance)
• S: skirt, swimsuit, shiny, shopping, skipping, socks, spinning, sticky, strawberry, sugar, summer, (sadness, silly, sing, smile, sparkle, special, sunny, sunset, sweet)
• T: twirl, (together, treasure)
• V: valentine, vanilla, (vacation)
• W: waterfall, whisper, whistle, (warm, wonderful)

What to Do in ACT 2

• Select the now scrambled New Game to begin ACT 2 .
• Players can play through it however they want. Or breeze through it using the Skip and Auto options.
• Wait for Monika to 'fix' the game to proceed to ACT 3 to unlock her first CG . Keep in mind that this event is going to be pretty jarring, so be prepared for the worst.

RELATED: Doki Doki Literature Club: How To Get Every Character Specific Ending

What to Do in ACT 3

Monika's route.

• Wait for her confession and choose the only option: 'Yes.'
• Listen as to how she was able to manipulate the game.
• Write one perfect poem for her.
• Read her poem.
• Delete her to unlock her second CG .
• Let her express her regrets and proceed to Act 4 .

Poem Words for Monika

• M: Mo ika, oni a, M o n a, onik , Monik , M nika, ni a, M n ka, M nik , o ka, M n k , Monika, M n a, M ka, Moni, Mo i , i a, M ni, o ika, onik , Mo ik , o i a, onika — don't worry, choose anything — it's all Monika.

RELATED: How To Delete Monika In Doki Doki Literature Club Plus

How to Delete Monika Through Steam

• Go to the Steam Library , and right-click on Doki Doki Literature Club .
• Select Manage , then select Browse Local Files .
• In the game directory , open the character folder, and delete monika.chr

How to Delete Monika Through the in-Game Library

Doki Doki Literature Club Plus! features an in-game desktop that streamlines the process of deleting Monika's file while also allowing players to check out a wealth of additional goodies, including an in-game music player!

• Exit to the in-game desktop of Doki Doki Literature Club Plus! and go to Files .
• Go to the Characters folder .
• Find and delete monika.chr.

What to Do in ACT 4

• Start a New Game without Monika.
• Let Sayori give her thanks and say goodbye .
• Listen to Monika's song and let the credits roll
• Receive a special letter from the one and only Dan Salvato.

If players follow all the steps, then congratulations are in order because they've successfully 100% completed Doki Doki Literature Club ! The game might turn from a cliched visual novel into one of the most horrifying video games of all time, but the manner in which it twists its events is so compelling that the game's quality reaches impressive levels as a result. 100% completion might not be necessary, but it's definitely worth it just to witness the amazing words of inspiration from Dan Salvato.

Doki Doki Literature Club was released on September 22nd, 2017, for PC. An enhanced version called Doki Doki Literature Club Plus! was released on June 30th, 2021, for PC, PS4, PS5, Xbox One, Xbox Series X/S, and Nintendo Switch.

MORE: Doki Doki Literature Club: How To Get The Quick Ending

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How Many Literary A.I. Characters and Plots Do You Know?

By J. D. Biersdorfer June 3, 2024

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Artificial intelligence is all over the news these days, but the concept has been a staple of science fiction for decades. This week’s Lit Trivia quiz tests your knowledge of books and authors who have used A.I. and cybernetic humans as plot devices or characters in their work.

In the five multiple-choice questions below, tap or click on the answer you think is correct. After the last question, you’ll find links to the books if you’d like to do some further reading.

The 1982 film “Blade Runner” is set in a world where synthetic human-like androids called replicants are bioengineered from organic material, often with superior strength and intelligence. Which work inspired the film?

“Ancillary Justice,” by Ann Leckie

“Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?” by Philip K. Dick

“I, Robot,” by Isaac Asimov

“The Left Hand of Darkness,” by Ursula K. Le Guin

In the A.I.-driven setting of “Klara and the Sun,” Kazuo Ishiguro’s 2021 novel, the robot narrator is employed as what?

As a butler for a wealthy English family

As a translator for an ambassador

As the navigator on a starship

As an “artificial friend” for a young girl

Which novel was one of the first works to introduce the word “cyberspace” to popular culture and helped establish the literary subgenre of science fiction known as “cyberpunk” — which typically blends computer-hacker culture, A.I. and other futuristic elements into technology-driven adventures?

“Snow Crash,” by Neal Stephenson

“Daemon,” by Daniel Suarez

“Neuromancer,” by William Gibson

“Midnight Robber,” by Nalo Hopkinson

The 2019 work “Emergency Skin” follows a protagonist with a synthetic body and an A.I. brain implant sent on a special mission. The story won the 2020 Hugo Award for best novelette and was written by the same author who won the Hugo for best novel three years in a row from 2016 to 2018. Who is it?

Samuel R. Delany

N.K. Jemisin

Orson Scott Card

Lois McMaster Bujold

In Jane Pek’s 2022 debut novel “The Verifiers,” Claudia Lin works at a detective agency that vets the human identities of people who use which type of online service?

Cybernetic augmentation

Organ harvesting

Cryptocurrency mining

Dating apps

Explore More in Books

Want to know about the best books to read and the latest news start here..

John S. Jacobs was a fugitive, an abolitionist — and the brother of the canonical author Harriet Jacobs. Now, his own fierce autobiography has re-emerged .

Don DeLillo’s fascination with terrorism, cults and mass culture’s weirder turns has given his work a prophetic air. Here are his essential books .

Jenny Erpenbeck’s “ Kairos ,” a novel about a torrid love affair in the final years of East Germany, won the International Booker Prize , the renowned award for fiction translated into English.

Kevin Kwan, the author of “Crazy Rich Asians,” left Singapore’s opulent, status-obsessed, upper crust when he was 11. He’s still writing about it .

Each week, top authors and critics join the Book Review’s podcast to talk about the latest news in the literary world. Listen here .

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Understanding health behavior change by motivation and reward mechanisms: a review of the literature

The global rise of lifestyle-related chronic diseases has engendered growing interest among various stakeholders including policymakers, scientists, healthcare professionals, and patients, regarding the effective management of health behavior change and the development of interventions that facilitate lifestyle modification. Consequently, a plethora of health behavior change theories has been developed with the intention of elucidating the mechanisms underlying health behavior change and identifying key domains that enhance the likelihood of successful outcomes. Until now, only few studies have taken into account neurobiological correlates underlying health behavior change processes. Recent progress in the neuroscience of motivation and reward systems has provided further insights into the relevance of such domains. The aim of this contribution is to review the latest explanations of health behavior change initiation and maintenance based on novel insights into motivation and reward mechanisms. Based on a systematic literature search in PubMed, PsycInfo, and Google Scholar, four articles were reviewed. As a result, a description of motivation and reward systems (approach/wanting = pleasure; aversion/avoiding = relief; assertion/non-wanting = quiescence) and their role in health behavior change processes is presented. Three central findings are discussed: (1) motivation and reward processes allow to distinguish between goal-oriented and stimulus-driven behavior, (2) approach motivation is the key driver of the individual process of behavior change until a new behavior is maintained and assertion motivation takes over, (3) behavior change techniques can be clustered based on motivation and reward processes according to their functional mechanisms into facilitating (= providing external resources), boosting (= strengthening internal reflective resources) and nudging (= activating internal affective resources). The strengths and limitations of these advances for intervention planning are highlighted and an agenda for testing the models as well as future research is proposed.

1. Introduction

The prevalence of lifestyle-related chronic diseases has increased dramatically in the last decades. Chronic diseases were responsible for 71% of all deaths occurring worldwide in 2019 ( World Health Organisation [WHO], 2022a ), of which about one third are premature deaths, i.e., happening to people aged between 30 and 69 years ( World Health Organisation [WHO], 2022a ). Diseases of the circulatory system like stroke and ischaemic heart disease accounted for 30% of all deaths in 2019 in OECD countries, followed by cancer (24%), diseases of the respiratory system (10%) and diabetes (3%) ( Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2021 ). Individuals living with these conditions also face a major stress burden due to disability, in some cases already at young ages. Indeed, averaged across 26 OECD countries, more than one third of individuals aged 16 and over have been found to be living with longstanding illness or health problems ( Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2021 ). In addition, comorbidities (multimorbidity) as well as individual physical and emotional suffering frequently occur ( Stewart et al., 1989 ; Moussavi et al., 2007 ; de Ridder et al., 2008 ), reducing overall quality of life ( Maresova et al., 2019 ).

These numbers and trends can in part be traced back to rising rates of obesity, sedentary behavior and poor nutrition, as well as other metabolic risk factors for chronic diseases including tobacco use and harmful alcohol intake. In addition, as diseases and comorbidities accumulate in older age, countries’ aging populations further influence these numbers ( Zhou et al., 2016 ). Indeed, most countries in the world have experienced, and will experience great demographic transitions. It has been estimated that between 2015 and 2050, the number of individuals aged 60 years and older will nearly double from 12 to 22%, with two billion people aged above 60 years by 2050 ( World Health Organisation [WHO], 2022b ). At the same time, life expectancy has risen from 67.5 years in 2000 to 72.9 years in 2020 at the world’s average ( The World Bank, 2022 ). Based on these projections, it can be assumed that the total number of individuals with longstanding illnesses or health problems will continue to rise.

The treatment of chronic diseases is often lengthy and intense, and is frequently accompanied by a reduced ability to work ( Seuring et al., 2015 ). While this can reduce the quality of life in patients further ( Jing et al., 2018 ), it can also affect an individual’s household financial resources ( Seuring et al., 2015 ). In low income settings, tremendous costs for treatment can quickly drain savings ( World Health Organisation [WHO], 2022a ). This, in return, may perpetuate people’s conditions, as it has been found that poverty is closely linked with the prevalence of chronic diseases: vulnerable and socially disadvantaged people tend to get ill quicker and have lower life expectancy than people of higher social positions ( World Health Organisation [WHO], 2022a ). The main reasons for this phenomenon are that economically vulnerable individuals are at greater risk of being exposed to harmful products, such as tobacco, tend to have unhealthy diets, and, in some countries, cities or neighborhoods, have limited access to health services. In fact, the average life expectancy at birth of people with low income is 4.4 (women) to 8.6 (men) years lower than of people in the highest of five income groups ( Lampert et al., 2019 ).

These costs on individuals are accompanied by costs for the healthcare system and society as a whole. Health expenditure related to diabetes, for example, is at least 966 billion USD per year worldwide, which represents a 316% increase over the last 15 years ( International Diabetes Federation [IDF], 2021 ). In Germany, the cost burden for diabetes type 2 treatment has been calculated to be on average 1.8 times higher than for other diseases ( Ulrich et al., 2016 ). Multimorbidity typically incurs greater health care costs ( Rizzo et al., 2015 ), measured by the use of medication as well as emergency department presentations and hospital admissions ( Chan et al., 2002 ). For example, Schneider et al. (2009) found that older adults in the United States with three or more chronic conditions utilized on average 25 times more hospital bed-days and had on average 14.6 times more hospital admissions than older adults without any chronic condition. Furthermore, with one additional chronic condition in older adults, the health care utilization costs increase near exponentially ( Lehnert et al., 2011 ). In addition to these financial impacts, chronic conditions tend to dwell on non-tangible resources, e.g., through time and energy spent on disease management by the patient and family members ( Ellrodt et al., 1997 ; Korff et al., 1998 ; Wagner, 2000 ). These circumstances call for shifting the focus to health care measures that help to prevent and improve chronic conditions according to patient needs in a cost-effective way.

There is compelling evidence to suggest that lifestyle changes can significantly improve the conditions of chronic diseases. Studies have demonstrated the positive impact of increased exercise, healthier nutrition, reduced alcohol intake, smoking cessation, and relaxation techniques on a range of chronic conditions ( Ornish et al., 1990 ; Knowler et al., 2002 ; Savoye et al., 2007 ; Alert et al., 2013 ; Cramer et al., 2014 ; Morris et al., 2019 ). These health behaviors can decrease the major metabolic risk factors for chronic diseases and premature deaths, including blood pressure, blood glucose, blood lipids, and obesity ( World Health Organisation [WHO], 2022a ). Remarkably, the risk of developing type 2 diabetes is predominantly attributable to lifestyle-related factors rather than genetic risks ( Langenberg et al., 2014 ). Moreover, lifestyle changes could prevent up to 70% of strokes and cases of colon cancer, 80% of coronary heart diseases, and 90% of diabetes cases ( Willett, 2002 ). Such findings highlight the tremendous potential of lifestyle modification interventions for public health outcomes.

It is widely recognized that individuals encounter challenges when endeavoring to attain their lifestyle goals. This is not unexpected, given that lifestyle change necessitates a series of individual choices that often require postponement of immediate pleasure in favor of prospective long-term health gains (a.k.a. delayed gratification, present bias, hyperbolic discounting, etc., see Stroebe et al., 2008 , 2013 ; Hall and Fong, 2015 ). Despite these obvious difficulties, practitioners, politicians and stakeholders aim to engage patients in health behavior change ( Esch, 2018 ). How consistently individuals pursue health behavior changes depends largely on how well they can overcome their innate present bias and on their endowment with other resources, such as their knowledge about health behavior change consequences, their beliefs in their ability to succeed, their self-regulation skills, self-efficacy, internal locus of control, engagement and empowerment ( Cane et al., 2012 ; Cheng et al., 2016 ; Sheeran et al., 2016 ; Ludwig et al., 2020 ; Cardoso Barbosa et al., 2021 ). Hence, a thorough understanding of health behavior change and interventions to support health behavior change taking into account individuals’ resources are necessary.

Numerous health behavior change theories have been devised, with a primary emphasis on reflective resources and willpower ( Kwasnicka et al., 2016 ). However, there is a scarcity of research on domains that are supported by, or rooted in, neuroscientific evidence. Notably, recent advances in the neuroscience of motivation and reward systems have revealed new insights into the importance of such domains ( Michaelsen and Esch, 2021 , 2022 ).

The aim of this contribution is to provide an overview of the latest explanations of health behavior change initiation and maintenance based on novel insights to motivation and reward mechanisms. Based on a literature search in PubMed (22 hits), PsycInfo (39 hits), and Google Scholar using the term “motivation AND reward AND (‘behavior change’ OR ‘behavior modification’)” in titles and abstracts in January 2023, we identified four articles which discuss neurobiological mechanisms of reward and motivation in relation to health behavior change ( Letzen et al., 2019 ; Ludwig et al., 2020 ; Michaelsen and Esch, 2021 , 2022 ). These are integrated into the social psychological literature on behavior change, previously reviewed in Michaelsen and Esch (2021 , 2022) . The review is structured as follows: the next chapter presents a summary of behavior change theories as discussed in social and health psychology in order to provide thorough ground for the discussion of the role of motivation and reward processes in health behavior change. This is followed by a description of motivation and reward processes as recently discussed in neurobiological science. After this, three models are presented which take into account motivation and reward mechanisms in health behavior change and thereby combine the two strands of literature and present interesting avenues for future health behavior change intervention planning and implementation. A discussion of the review and future research is presented at the end of the article.

2. Behavior change theories in social and health psychology

A large number of theories aiming to explain health behavior change have been published in recent decades, most of them grounded in social and health psychology. These theories differ in the views of human nature they hold ( Bandura, 1989 ) as well as in what they consider to be the fundamental drivers of behavior and the resources necessary for behavior change.

Established theories are concerned with the determinants of and motives for initiation of behavior change, and some also take into account the domains that enhance the likelihood of maintaining a new behavior after initiation ( Kwasnicka et al., 2016 ). Among the leading theories are Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory ( Bandura, 1989 ), Gollwitzer’s theory on Implementation Intentions ( Gollwitzer, 1999 ), and the Social Determination Theory by Ryan and Deci (2000) and Deci and Ryan (2008) . In Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory, individuals are assumed to learn new behaviors not only through trial-and-error but also through copying the behavior of others. Based on the existence of role models, the performance of the new behavior is enhanced by outcome expectancies (individuals understand the potential outcomes of their behavior), self-efficacy (individuals believe that they can achieve their desired behavioral goal), and identification (individuals identify with certain aspects of the role model) ( Bandura, 1989 ). In Gollwitzer’s (1999) theory on Implementation Intentions, individuals are suggested to make plans for anticipated situations, in which their desired behavior is at risk. These plans (implementation intentions) are assumed to delegate the control of goal-directed responses over these critical situations when encountered. Another prominent behavior change theory has been published by Ryan and Deci (2000) and Deci and Ryan (2008) . According to their Self-Determination Theory, for behavior change to be successful, three basic psychological needs require fulfillment: autonomy (being the causal agent of one’s own life), competence (ability to master skills important to oneself) and relatedness (feeling connected to others). A number of other theories have each determined a small, inconsistent number of domains supposedly relevant for behavior change initiation.

In a systematic review on 100 behavior change maintenance theories, Kwasnicka et al. (2016) highlight a deficiency in theoretical elaboration regarding the process of maintenance after initial change present in the literature. Theories that are concerned with the behavior change maintenance describe several stages of a behavior change process and the resources necessary to progress from one stage to another. A widely used theory is the Transtheoretical Model ( Prochaska et al., 2008 ), according to which an individual’s change process starts at a precontemplation stage, and continues with the contemplation, planning, implementation, maintenance and termination stages. Similar processes have been suggested by other authors ( Weinstein and Sandman, 1992 , 2002 ; Gollwitzer, 1999 ; Rothman et al., 2004 ; Schwarzer et al., 2011 ). For example, Weinstein and Sandman (2002) emphasize the stage before precontemplation where individuals may be unaware of the issue (e.g., that change in diet could improve their health conditions) and Rothman et al.’s (2004) model adds a habit stage where individuals have automated the new behavior. Michaelsen and Esch (2021) have provided the first comprehensive synthesis of behavior change models, a flexible seven-stage behavior change process, which allows to systematically relate motivation and reward mechanisms to these stages. In their process, individuals may experience the stages unawareness, awareness, contemplation, planning, initiation, continued action, and maintenance. These stages are categorized into three phases of engagement, namely, non-engagement, motivational engagement, and executive engagement, in which individuals’ actions are driven by different types of motivation and reward processes ( Michaelsen and Esch, 2021 , 2022 ), as explained in more detail below.

3. Motivation and reward systems involved in behavior change processes

Michaelsen and Esch (2021) have described three types of motivational states (approach motivation, avoidance motivation, and assertion motivation) and their corresponding rewards (pleasure, relief, and quiescence) that seem to play key roles in health behavior change processes (see Figure 1 ).

Three types of motivation and reward. Esch (2022) ; copyright: ©2022 by the author (TE). Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.

3.1. Approach motivation

Approach motivation, also known as appetitive or incentive salience, is focused on stimuli or goals that are associated with positive and pleasurable experiences ( Bozarth, 1994 ; Esch and Stefano, 2004 ; Elliot et al., 2013 ). This type of motivation is linked to the wanting-system, reward expectation, performance, and action ( Esch, 2022 ). The attainment of a desired stimulus or goal typically produces a sense of pleasure or reward, which may or may not be noticeable depending on the intensity of the experience. The reward is not derived from the stimulus or goal itself, but from the psychological and neurobiological processes that occur when there is a positive anticipation and response to a stimulus or goal ( Berridge and Kringelbach, 2008 ; Schultz, 2015 ). While it is challenging to categorize experiences into specific types of motivational processes, it is generally agreed that individuals tend to assess stimuli as positive or negative ( Elliot et al., 2013 ). These assessments are frequently referred to as fundamental affective experiences and include emotions such as joy, pleasure, and excitement ( Schneirla, 1959 ; Cacioppo et al., 1999 ; Elliot et al., 2013 ; Lang and Bradley, 2013 ; Rolls, 2013 ). Therefore, the essence of approach motivation lies in the anticipation of obtaining a reward that is characterized by positive emotions.

The underlying physiological mechanisms of motivation occur in specific brain areas distinct from other sensory and cognitive areas ( Kringelbach, 2005 ; Esch, 2022 ). The approach motivation and reward system is commonly described as being embedded in the central nervous system (CNS), involves nerve cells that originate in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and send projections to the frontal brain, specifically the nucleus accumbens (NAC), via the neurotransmitter dopamine ( Nestler, 2001 ; Nestler et al., 2001 ; Esch and Stefano, 2004 , 2010 ). The nucleus accumbens (NAC) plays a crucial role in the neural regulation of reward-seeking behavior by signaling the degree of effort necessary to acquire a reward and the desire to obtain it, thereby determining the appetitive motivational salience. Additionally, the ventral tegmental area-nucleus accumbens (VTA-NAC) pathway is responsible for measuring and regulating the rewarding aspects of an activity, transmitting pertinent information to other brain regions ( Esch and Stefano, 2004 ; Berridge, 2007 ; Smith et al., 2011 ; Esch, 2022 ). The magnitude of expected reward has been found to significantly influence the likelihood of an individual to retain and repeat a behavior ( Esch and Stefano, 2010 ). Furthermore, the hippocampus and amygdala have been identified as crucial components of the reward system, with the hippocampus serving as a gatekeeper for experiences to be recognized and stored in memory, while the amygdala assesses these experiences as either pleasurable or detrimental ( Esch and Stefano, 2004 ; Nestler and Malenka, 2004 ). The mesocortical dopamine pathway in the frontal cortex is also known to be involved in the evaluation of the “costs” and risks associated with the pursuit of rewards, ultimately shaping an individual’s behavioral response ( Esch and Stefano, 2010 ).

3.2. Avoidance motivation

The construct of avoidance motivation, also referred to as negatively-valenced fearful salience, pertains to the motivational system that drives the avoidance of punishment or potential harm, rather than the pursuit of reward. This type of motivation is intricately linked to the fight-flight-freeze response, which encompasses physiological and behavioral changes in response to perceived threat ( Bozarth, 1994 ; Esch and Stefano, 2004 ; Seymour et al., 2007 ; Esch, 2022 ). The phenomenon commonly known as avoidance behavior is typically evoked by an aversive or challenging stimulus, and elicits a motivated reaction of withdrawal, commonly manifested as the act of moving away from unpleasant conditions. It is noteworthy that avoidance behavior can be differentiated from punishment, which exerts a suppressing effect on the strength of the behavioral response (passive avoidance), and from negative reinforcement, which engenders an augmenting effect on the strength of the behavioral response (active avoidance) ( Schultz, 2015 ). In contrast to active reactions such as fighting or fleeing in response to a fear-inducing stimulus, there can also be the passive reactions of freezing ( Berridge, 2018 ). Emotions associated with avoidance motivation include anxiety, fear, and disgust ( Lang, 1995 ; Cacioppo et al., 1999 ; Watson et al., 1999 ; Elliot et al., 2013 ; Hirschberg and Manning, 2015 ; Esch, 2022 ).

Avoidance motivation is embedded in the stress system and involves increased sympathetic activity and the release of cortisol, adrenaline, opioids, and vasopressin ( Esch, 2022 ). This type of motivation is rooted in the lower limbic system, specifically the amygdala and hypothalamus. Upon the anticipation of an actual or imagined threat, two distinct pathways are instigated: one through the hypothalamus and pituitary gland, leading to the release of cortisol, and the other through the sympathetic nervous system, leading to the release of adrenaline ( Esch, 2022 ). The freeze reaction is also connected to the amygdala ( LeDoux, 1998 ). Successful avoidance can lead to relief, a positive, low-arousal emotion that can be experienced as relaxation or reward ( Levenson, 2011 ; Krisam et al., 2017 ; Esch, 2022 ). An incontrovertible interdependence between the approach and avoidance motivation systems exists, as akin brain regions are triggered during both relief and other positive affects ( Kim et al., 2007 ; Sangha, 2015 ).

3.3. Assertion motivation

The majority of research on motivation and reward does not differentiate between behavior driven by approach motivation and behavior driven by assertion motivation. In point of fact, these two categories of motivation are frequently confounded or amalgamated ( McCall and Singer, 2012 ), despite the divergent neurobiological mechanisms underlying them, their distinct loci in the brain, and their discrepant behavioral outcomes. Assertion motivation, or assertive salience, is linked to the “non-wanting” system and associated with inaction, acceptance, or contentment, homeostasis, and quiescence. It describes the motivation to maintain a certain condition or state ( McCall and Singer, 2012 ; Esch, 2022 ). Assertion motivation is different from approach motivation in terms of the emotions it evokes and the types of behavior it leads to McCall and Singer (2012) and Esch (2022) . Assertion motivation is associated with a lack of desire to change or move away from the current state, while approach motivation is associated with a desire to move toward something. Assertion motivation can be seen in instances where a person is content with their current situation, such as a newly habituated health behavior, and there is no inclination to change or move away from it.

Assertion motivation is linked to increased activity in the parasympathetic autonomous nervous system and is associated with neurotransmitters such as endogenous opiates, oxytocin, acetylcholine, serotonin, and endocannabinoids ( Esch, 2022 ). Brain areas involved in the activation of assertive motivation include the midbrain, vagus areas, cingulum, hippocampus, ventral striatum, hypothalamus, and pituitary gland ( Michaelsen and Esch, 2021 ). It is different from approach and avoidance motivation in terms of related affective qualities and behavioral outcomes and is not characterized by activation of dopaminergic activity.

4. Weaving together motivation and reward mechanisms with health behavior change theories

Weaving together psychological explanations of behavior change with neurobiological understandings of motivation and reward processes has produced three models explaining different aspects of behavior change. First, a model differentiating goal-directed and stimulus-driven behavior ( Michaelsen and Esch, 2021 ) will be explained. This is followed by the description of the Model of Engagement, that illustrates the role of the three types of motivation during a behavior change process ( Michaelsen and Esch, 2021 ). Finally, the behavior change resource model ( Michaelsen and Esch, 2022 ) that integrates the differentiation between goal-directed and stimulus-driven behavior with the Model of Engagement to explain the functional mechanisms of behavior change techniques is presented. The elaborations of Ludwig et al. (2020) concerning reward valuation and Letzen et al. (2019) on mesocorticolimbic function in behavior change are discussed within these sections.

4.1. Goal-directed and stimulus-driven behavior

Kwasnicka et al.’s (2016) systematic review revealed that existing health behavior change theories largely focus on cognitive resources deemed necessary for achieving behavior change. Their findings indicated that only 10% of the theories reviewed took into account the relevance of automatic responses to relevant cues or stimuli, which has been identified as a limitation to existing theories ( Van Cappellen et al., 2018 ). This is because the manifestation of health behaviors in daily life is often influenced by implicit emotions and non-cognitive motives, rather than reflective cognitive willpower, as various dual-process models have emphasized (e.g., Kahneman and Tversky, 1982 ; Strack and Deutsch, 2004 ; Hall and Fong, 2007 ; Marteau et al., 2012 ; Sheeran et al., 2013 ). Dual-process models of decision-making have been developed to differentiate between two regulatory systems in the brain: reflective (cognitive, conscious) and affective (impulsive, intuitive, automatic) antecedents of behavior ( Chaiken, 1980 ; Petty and Cacioppo, 2012 ). The reflective system is based on conscious deliberation and control, which requires subjective effort. It draws upon an individual’s knowledge of probabilities and values and is based on rules of language and logic. The key processes of the reflective system are volition and reasoning, which can be intentionally accessed. However, the reflective process is relatively slow ( Strack and Deutsch, 2004 ; Sheeran et al., 2013 ). The reflective system typically supersedes the automatic system, which is quicker and more effortless, and operates by utilizing stored associations acquired through experiences, responding to habits and impulses. Strack and Deutsch (2004) posit that the automatic system is a significant impulsive process that engenders activation, in which perceptual inputs stimulate elements in the associative memory, subsequently activating other related elements. This form of information processing is characterized by its rapidity and operation beyond conscious awareness, as noted in the extant literature ( Strack and Deutsch, 2004 ; Evans, 2010 ; Sheeran et al., 2013 ). While this view has garnered both commendation and condemnation from scholars ( Evans, 2018 ), it nevertheless represents a significant contribution to the comprehension of health behavior and behavior change. Furthermore, a widespread view stemming from dual-process models is that the more rapid component governs behavior.

In reference to dual-process models and the differentiation between controlled goals and autonomous goals (or unnoticed stimuli), Michaelsen and Esch (2021) present a neurobiologically informed model of stimulus-driven and goal-directed behavior. In stimulus-driven behavior, a stimulus activates automatic processes and leads to behavior without the individual having noticed the stimulus. Once a stimulus has undergone cognitive processing and been transformed into a goal, the ensuing behavior is referred to as goal-directed behavior. The authors posit that both varieties of stimuli are capable of inciting appetitive, aversive, or assertive salience by means of reward anticipation. In this way, motivational salience, or the ability to attract and hold attention, can lead to action and engagement without conscious thought or planning ( Ryan and Deci, 2000 ; Carver, 2009 ; Kruglanski et al., 2014 ; Berridge, 2018 ). Both unnoticed stimuli and those that are deliberately processed can result in the same actions and engagement. However, in goal-directed behavior, the individual is aware of their actions and is actively involved in the process, as noted by Michaelsen and Esch (2021) . Figure 2 illustrates the difference between stimulus-driven and goal-directed behavior in a simplified way.

Goal-directed and stimulus-driven behavior ( Michaelsen and Esch, 2021 ).

The model can be expanded by the theory proposed by Ludwig et al. (2020) , who propose an approach to achieve sustainable behavior change through a combination of theories and research on autonomous motivation, reinforcement learning and mindfulness. The authors argue that behavior change can occur through increased awareness of the reward value of specific actions, which drives future behavior, in addition to the commonly proposed “mental gap” mechanism. The stability of a behavior depends on changes in its reward value over time and the accessibility of more rewarding behaviors. The reward value of a behavior may depend on both external and internal factors, such as subjective experience and goal achievement. The authors suggest that bringing present-moment or mindful awareness to current behavior can update the reward value of habitual behaviors and lead to new learning. This approach involves direct, in-the-moment, curious awareness and is not reliant on reflective thought processes. An increased awareness about stimuli that engender change through increased reward value would shift individuals, in the above model, from stimulus-driven to goal-directed behavior.

4.2. Motivational engagement in behavior change processes

Based on the synthesis of multi-stage behavior change theories, Michaelsen and Esch (2021) have derived three different phases of engagement, based on the role of motivational processes involved during the stages of behavior change. During the first phase, called non-engagement phase, individuals are either unaware that behavior change may improve their health conditions, or they are aware but have no intention to change an aspect of their health behavior. During this phase, any motivational mechanisms are yet absent. Stimuli like new information about the health benefits of a certain behavior change may activate motivational processes so that individuals progress into the motivational engagement phase, which is comprised of the contemplation and planning stages.

The nature of the contemplative phase is contingent on the sort of motivational salience that is evoked by the stimulus. Should an individual be satisfied with their present state, assertive salience becomes operational. Here, the likelihood of perpetuating the present condition is linked to positive valence that instigates sensations of quiescence, stillness, and/or relaxation stemming from the discharge, such as that of endogenous opiates, oxytocin and related neurotransmitters, as well as parasympathetic activity. Such a state leads to a lack of behavioral activity, resulting in the cessation of the process of behavior change. In the event that an individual desires a change, either appetitive or aversive salience is elicited. When appetitive salience is activated, information undergoes processing by the mesocortical dopamine pathway in the frontal cortex, and a preference for a new behavior is set ( Esch and Stefano, 2010 ; Michaelsen and Esch, 2021 ). On the other hand, should aversive salience be activated, information is routed through the stress response pathways, namely, the hypothalamic-pituitary (-adrenal) axis and the (amygdalar-) sympathetic nervous system axis ( Esch and Stefano, 2010 ).

The planning stage is defined by cognitive, goal-directed action (see Figure 3 ). In order to plan, the actions of thinking, reflecting, and evaluating are involved, and, neurobiologically, the upper limbic level. The cognitive task of planning is propelled by either appetitive or aversive motivational salience and may culminate in an intention, or a series of intentions (a plan). Michaelsen and Esch (2021) contend that, owing to its cognitive underpinnings, planning can only transpire in goal-directed behavioral processes, and not in stimulus-driven behavioral processes. They posit that both stages of motivational engagement can be bypassed if the presented stimulus and the evoked motivational salience go unnoticed (i.e., are stimulus-driven).

Model of Engagement ( Michaelsen and Esch, 2021 ).

The third engagement phase is called executive engagement and consists of the stages initiation, continued action and maintenance ( Michaelsen and Esch, 2021 ). According to the authors, initiation is the behavioral consequence of a response-outcome mechanism, whereby an individual actively reacts to the appetitive or aversive motivational salience that ensues from the encounter (and processing) of a stimulus. This reaction is propelled by the anticipation of pleasurable feelings (in the case of positive stimuli) or relief (in the case of negative stimuli). The appraisal of experiences as pleasurable or unpleasurable takes place within the endogenous reward system (such as the amygdala), which also encompasses the establishment of associations between an experience and other stimuli ( Michaelsen and Esch, 2021 ). Upon fulfillment of the expectation of a positive experience, said experience engenders a memory that, in turn, spawns an anticipation of a reward from the same activity, thereby enhancing the likelihood of the behavior being reiterated ( Van Cappellen et al., 2018 ). This phenomenon is referred to as reward responsiveness ( Carver and White, 1994 ).

The process of recording memories of experiences, which includes the context in which they occurred, such as the location, time, and social companionship, entails the involvement of the hippocampus ( Nestler, 2001 ; Nestler et al., 2001 ; Esch and Stefano, 2004 , 2010 ). This type of learning can lead to a reciprocal effect: as time passes, associations between positive affect and stimuli that predict it, and memories of it, may endow those stimuli with appetitive salience, making them more likely to capture attention in the future ( Fredrickson and Joiner, 2018 ; Van Cappellen et al., 2018 ). The phenomenon of learning encompasses two critical components, namely conditioning and expectation. In the context of stimulus-driven and goal-directed behavior, the experience of reward is not contingent on whether the stimulus was subjected to cognitive processing to be transformed into a goal. According to Michaelsen and Esch (2021) , the initiation of a new behavior through the activation of endogenous reward triggers a learning process, wherein the association between the new behavior and the experienced positive affect fosters reward expectancy, potentially resulting in continued action. The present study posits that the maintenance of response-outcome associations between pleasurable stimuli and their predictive cues is enhanced by sustained behavioral engagement. In this context, the authors assert that the probability of repetitive behavior, and consequently the degree of engagement therein, is contingent upon the magnitude of endogenous reward elicited by the new behavior ( Michaelsen and Esch, 2021 ). Following the repeated enactment of stimulus-driven or goal-directed behavioral actions, individuals ultimately transition into a maintenance stage, characterized by a sustained operant learning process that leads to habit formation ( Schultz, 2015 ). During this stage, the behavior is executed with regularity, and the assertive salience driven by the motivation and reward systems remains active, thereby strengthening the habitually performed action ( Michaelsen and Esch, 2021 ). The experience of quiescence, calm or contentment associated with the activation of the parasympathetic nervous system and other down-regulatory pathways serves as a powerful motivator for the maintenance of newly adopted behaviors. This state of contentment engenders a state of “non-wanting” with regard to further modifications of behavior ( Michaelsen and Esch, 2021 ). This Model of Engagement is presented in Figure 3 .

The findings can be integrated with the idea of Letzen et al. (2019) , who incorporate putative neurobiological mechanisms contributing to motivation for pain self-management into the Motivational Model for Pain Self-Management ( Jensen et al., 2003 ). The authors propose that an altered function in the mesocorticolimbic function would inhibit behavior change. The goal of this updated model is to determine whether potential neurobiological deficiencies contributing to poor motivation feed into observed non-adherence among patients with chronic pain. The authors hypothesize that mesocorticolimbic function subserves treatment-related learning history, contingency processing, and cost/benefit analysis, and individuals with mesocorticolimbic dysfunction will have lower perceived importance of symptom self-management and poorer self-efficacy for symptom self-management. They also suggest that magnitude of mesocorticolimbic dysfunction will correlate with reported treatment motivation, so that greater dysfunction is associated with poorer readiness for change, and that self-reported treatment motivation moderates the relationship between pre-treatment mesocorticolimbic function and adherence ( Letzen et al., 2019 ). The article also suggests that practice of a pain management strategy will be associated with mesocorticolimbic activity via reinforcement, and individuals with high reinforcement from this practice will have greater motivation for future practice, leading to better adherence ( Letzen et al., 2019 ). While the authors do not discuss pain management behavior as a process, by relating their hypothesis to the Model of Engagement, we can derive that mesocorticolimbic dysfunction would inhibit the progress to the stages contemplation, planning, initiation and/or continued action, and individuals with mesocorticolimbic dysfunction facing these stages within their health behavior change process would need specific support to progress.

4.3. The behavior change resource model

4.3.1. three types of behavior change resources.

The resources individuals need to progress from one health behavior change stage to another, as suggested in a number of health behavior change theories, have been summarized by Cane et al. (2012) , Kwasnicka et al. (2016) , and Carey et al. (2019) . Recently, the resources that facilitate changes in health behavior have been classified by Michaelsen and Esch (2022) into two broad categories, namely the socio-environmental resources external to the individual, and the bio-psychological resources that pertain to the internal state of the individual, with both types being characterized by changeable and non-changeable factors. While behavior change techniques (BCTs) cannot be leveraged to address non-changeable factors such as the weather, their utility is geared to targeting changeable resources ( Michaelsen and Esch, 2022 ).

Based on the distinction between reflective and affective aspects, Michaelsen and Esch (2022) have established a categorization of resources according to how these resources are accessed or generated in the brain. As such, resources are either external (socio-environmental), or internal (bio-psychological), whereby the latter can be either reflective or affective. Reflective resources are accessed, generated or refined through deliberate and effortful cognitive processing, including but not limited to goal-setting and behavioral regulation. In contrast, affective resources, such as emotions and their reinforcing valences, may be promptly elicited by environmental stimuli without the need for volitional engagement. External resources, such as environmental context and material resources, can be externally provided ( Michaelsen and Esch, 2022 ). These three types of changeable resources are depicted in Figure 4 .

Three types of changeable resources ( Michaelsen and Esch, 2022 ).

4.3.2. Behavior change techniques

Behavior change theories provide a foundation for developing effective behavior change techniques (BCTs) to support individuals in modifying their behaviors. Such theories have been employed in diverse ways, including the integration of social interactions based on Bandura’s (1989) Social Cognitive Theory, and assisting patients in generating implementation intentions, drawing on Gollwitzer’s (1999) theory on Implementation Intentions [see Bélanger-Gravel et al. (2013) for a meta-analysis of BCTs based on Gollwitzer’s (1999) theory on Implementation Intentions]. The extant literature has primarily focused on employing behavior change techniques (BCTs) that enhance cognitive resources, such as nutritional or psychological counseling ( Ball et al., 2013 ), or create situations that promote behavior modification, such as supervised walking groups ( Kassavou et al., 2013 ) or financial incentives ( Lee et al., 2019 ). However, these techniques often fail to account for patients’ individual differences in needs and circumstances ( Cecchini et al., 2010 ). The majority of interventions geared toward behavioral change tend to be financially costly and hence, not sustainable over a prolonged period of time or feasible to offer to a wide populace ( Forster et al., 2011 ). Some interventions have also yielded adverse side effects. For instance, monetary rewards for weight loss have been shown to be effective until the remuneration is obtained; however, subsequent weeks have reported higher odds of weight gain ( Paul-Ebhohimhen and Avenell, 2008 ). In contrast to BCTs that mainly, or solely, address cognitive, rational, or circumstantial/environmental resources and domains, modern BCTs primarily build on individual behavioral responses to various motivational stimuli, including affective components of a behavioral decision. Examples are the use of wearables (e.g., Piwek et al., 2016 ) and other digital innovations (e.g., Priesterroth et al., 2019 ) as well as reminders (e.g., Orr and King, 2015 ) among various forms of nudging. Nudging can be understood as shaping decision contexts in a way that encourages a particular behavior (e.g., Hansen and Jespersen, 2013 ) in a playful way through the activation of affective processes in the brain ( Michaelsen and Esch, 2022 ).

Despite a rapid growth in the implementation of interventions, most of these interventions are only successful in the short term, and often fail to demonstrate a significant improvement in the medium and long term (e.g., Marteau et al., 2012 ; International Diabetes Federation [IDF], 2013 ; Ulrich et al., 2016 ; Sainsbury et al., 2019 ). One reason for this may be the lack of comprehensive theories that allow developing successful BCTs. Another reason may be the insufficient use of theories in intervention development. In a scoping review pertaining to nudging interventions, it was discovered that only a quarter of the studies under review took into consideration the purported working mechanisms underlying the effectiveness of the intervention, while three-quarters focused solely on demonstrating its efficacy ( Szaszi et al., 2018 ). The working mechanisms, which involve the connections between BCTs and the targeted domains or resources, i.e., the specific BCT that addresses a particular resource, were elucidated upon by Carey et al. (2019) . A detailed list of resources relevant to behavior change initiation is presented by Michie et al. (2005) , who identified 112 behavior change theories and clustered the domains of behavior change mentioned therein into 12 categories. This Theoretical Domains Framework has been validated by Cane et al. (2012) , who extended the number of categories to 14 domains: “knowledge,” “skills,” “social/professional role and identity,” “beliefs about capabilities,” “optimism,” “beliefs about consequences,” “reinforcement,” “intentions,” “goals,” “memory,” “attention and decision processes,” “environmental context and resources,” “social influences,” “emotion,” and “self-regulation”. Kwasnicka et al. (2016) have summarized the domains that have been presented relevant for behavior change maintenance in their reviewed maintenance theories into five overarching categories; “maintenance motives,” “self-regulation,” “resources,” “habit,” and “environmental and social influences.” These inhibit significant overlaps with Cane et al.’s (2012) 14 domains. An analysis of these resources and the BCTs they are targeted by is presented by Michaelsen and Esch (2022) , as is further explained below.

4.3.3. Clustering BCTs

Based on the triad of behavior change resources, BCTs can be clustered according to how they address these resources and can thereby be described as the functional mechanisms of BCTs. In this way, Michaelsen and Esch (2022) derived three types of BCTs, namely those, that provide external resources (facilitating), those which strengthen internal reflective resources (boosting) and those that activate internal affective resources (nudging).

4.3.3.1. Facilitating

BCTs that focus on providing external resources enable individuals to engage in a desired behavior. These resources, which fall under categories such as “environmental context and resources” and “social influences” in the Theoretical Domains Framework ( Michie et al., 2005 ; Cane et al., 2012 ), can be provided by the individual, another person, or an organization. Illustrative of the aforementioned interventions are strategies that enhance the availability of healthy food alternatives within workplace canteens ( Geaney et al., 2013 ), incentivization programs that offer monetary rewards ( Petry et al., 2013 ), modification of the physical environment through initiatives such as the establishment of public fitness trails ( Cohen et al., 2012 ), and social support mechanisms including the facilitation of assisted walking groups ( Kassavou et al., 2013 ). These techniques can help facilitate behavior change, but the new behavior may not be sustained once the external resources are removed. However, when an individual has established a routine or habit of a specific new behavior, and their motivation to continue is strong, the end of the availability of the BCT may lead to a similar behavior that can be implemented independently of the original BCT. As an example, the termination of an organized walking group may prompt the participants to either sustain their walking activity on an individual basis or establish autonomous walking groups.

4.3.3.2. Boosting

Internal reflective resources can be addressed by involving cognitive processes. BCTs which target theses resources are called boosts. These enjoyable tasks foster the building up or strengthening of internal reflective resources that can support health behavior change. Examples are “beliefs about capabilities,” “beliefs about consequences,” “intentions,” “goals,” and “behavioral regulation” ( Cane et al., 2012 ). These types of interventions may include self-monitoring techniques, such as keeping a diary or practicing mindfulness ( Shomaker et al., 2019 ) to improve attention and awareness. Additionally, interventions like health education ( Gigerenzer et al., 2007 ) and nutritional counseling ( Ball et al., 2013 ) can increase an individual’s understanding of the consequences of their behavior and lead to a willingness to change. There are also other examples of boosting interventions (see, e.g., Grüne-Yanoff and Hertwig, 2016 ) that can similarly lead to an increased readiness to change and intentional implementation of a desired behavior ( Michaelsen and Esch, 2022 ). Having executed the desired behavior by means of one’s own effort, thus, leads to an experience of self-efficacy and the related positive affect. This in turn, can act as a reinforcement to pursue the behavior again. The generated effects potentially persist beyond the intervention, if those resources have become sufficiently strong or stable ( Hertwig and Grüne-Yanoff, 2017 ) and the reward, e.g., through the self-efficacy experience, has been sufficiently intense and therefore been stored in memory.

4.3.3.3. Nudging

Nudges are interventions that guide people toward a certain behavior without limiting their freedom of choice (e.g., Thaler and Sunstein, 2008 ; Alemanno and Sibony, 2015 ; Halpern and Sanders, 2016 ). This is achieved by manipulating aspects of the environment to create cues, stimuli, or triggers that make the desired behavior more appealing. Nudging activates the emotional aspects of decision-making, making the behavior more attractive, enjoyable and intrinsically rewarding, while still allowing individuals to make their own choices ( Michaelsen and Esch, 2021 , 2022 ). Nudging does not require cognitive skills or external resources, but it activates non-conscious or automatic resources to compensate for the lack of external or reflective resources needed for behavior change ( van Gestel et al., 2020 ). Felsen and Reiner (2015) provided a neuroscientific explanation of how nudges exert their effects based on diffusion-to-bound models. In diffusion-to-bound models, it is assumed that a decision is made within a decision space bounded by the available choices. A decision variable that is comprised of multiple factors that influence the decision including current sensory stimulation, stored memory about past experience, and the subjective value of each option, moves further or closer to each bound depending on the strength of these factors until one bound is reached and the corresponding decision is made ( Felsen and Reiner, 2015 ). Nudges can be considered to shift the decision variable toward the bound of the preferred choice, i.e., making the preferred choice more likely ( Felsen and Reiner, 2015 ).

In a systematic review, nudging interventions have been shown to lead to medium size effects in behavior change ( Mertens et al., 2022 ). Examples are variations in the manner of presenting food items ( Bucher et al., 2016 ; Broers et al., 2017 ; van Gestel et al., 2020 ), reminders or reinforcement-based learning schemes ( Orr and King, 2015 ; Yom-Tov et al., 2017 ), lotteries ( Volpp et al., 2008 ), and point systems ( Priesterroth et al., 2019 ), all of which serve to augment the expectation of rewards. The underlying premise is that the magnitude of the anticipated reward is positively correlated with the likelihood of remembering and repeating it ( Esch and Stefano, 2004 ). These nudges are believed to only have temporary effects on behavior, as the increased motivation from the nudge is not sustained once the nudge is removed. For example, a study that used point-of-decision prompts to encourage stair use in a university dormitory found that the effects were not sustained once the prompts were removed ( Howie and Young, 2011 ). However, with frequent repetition, the behavior being nudged may become a habit that continues even after the nudge is removed because of neurobiological learning processes ( Verplanken and Aarts, 1999 ; Lieberoth et al., 2018 ; van Rookhuijzen et al., 2021 ).

4.3.4. Summary of the behavior change resource model

The classification of BCTs based on the behavior change resources they address, may be sufficient to define all existing BCTs and explain their functional mechanism. This means that any BCT, such as those listed in Michie et al. (2013) can be categorized as facilitating, boosting, or nudging. Michaelsen and Esch (2022) have defined resource-driven behavior change as a process that increases the likelihood of a preferred behavior by focusing on the resources needed for that particular behavior to occur. Resource-driven behavior change is accomplished via the implementation of one or a blend of three BCT types that provide external resources (facilitating), build up internal reflective resources (boosting) or activate internal affective resources (nudging). Upon achieving a certain level of efficacy, the BCTs can prompt the initiation or maintenance of a new behavior, which can subsequently yield a positive response (affect) as a reward. Such reward can serve as a cue or stimulus to augment resources, known as vantage resources ( Van Cappellen et al., 2018 ). Exemplifying this notion, a positive affect can function as a reinforcement, thereby acting as a subtle prompting mechanism (nudging), as the experience of a pleasurable affect is deemed vital in predicting the likelihood of subsequent behavioral engagement ( Michaelsen and Esch, 2022 ). Furthermore, successful implementation or repetition of the desired behavior can also reinforce other desirable cognitive and affective states, such as strengthening one’s belief in one’s own abilities (i.e., self-efficacy), which can serve as a boosting strategy. Neurobiologically, these emotional influences on reward experiences and subsequent decisions are mediated in the medial prefrontal cortex, as evidence from human and animal model studies indicates ( Euston et al., 2012 ). Therefore, the functional mechanisms of BCTs are not independent, but interrelated with neurobiological motivation and reward proceedings. Recognizing these multidirectional causal relationships, Michaelsen and Esch (2022) propose a new framework for understanding the functional mechanisms of BCTs, called the behavior change resource model (BCRM). The BCRM and its relation to the Model of Engagement is illustrated in Figure 5 .

Behavior change resource model and its relation to the Model of Engagement ( Michaelsen and Esch, 2021 , 2022 ).

5. Discussion

5.1. understanding health behavior change by motivation and reward mechanisms.

Despite being essential to enhance health, behavior change support is rarely covered by health care systems around the world ( Chauhan et al., 2017 ; Grabovac et al., 2019 ). It is therefore even more important to support the development of interventions, which are powerful in terms of efficiency and preservation of individuals’ autonomy in order to be applied in low-resource settings or independently of political decision-makers. Behavior change has been studied primarily from a social psychology perspective, focusing on cognitive, or reflective, resources and domains relevant to behavior change, including circumstantial/environmental aspects. Neurobiological advances in automatic functioning as well as motivation and reward systems, however, fit neatly into the discussion of how humans act and how behavior can be changed. Integrating motivation and reward mechanisms into the behavior change literature and presenting new models to understand behavior change potentially helps policy makers to identify the necessary and sufficient environmental, economic, and psychological conditions that make healthy choices possible and easy.

A framework with a similar purpose as the behavior change resource model is the behavior change wheel (BCW) ( Michie et al., 2011 ). The BCW is based on a review of 19 behavior change frameworks from various fields (e.g., health, environmental behavior). Its core is a “behavior system” with three essential conditions: capability, opportunity, and motivation. These three conditions can be interpreted as attributes of behavior change resources. They overlap slightly with the categorization of resources made by Michaelsen and Esch (2022) , in the sense that opportunity to behavior change is present when external resources are available, capability is fulfilled when the necessary internal reflective resources are strong enough, and motivation can be seen as an internal affective resource. In the BCW, motivation represents a psychological resource (referring to intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation) and is not discussed or integrated in terms of its neurobiological underpinnings. In a second step, Michie et al. (2011) developed intervention functions, which are essentially a categorization of BCTs into nine groups: education, persuasion, incentivization, coercion, training, restriction, environmental restructuring, modeling and enablement. The three conditions are then linked to the intervention’s functions without a specific explanation of how the conditions relate to the interventions, i.e., their functional mechanisms are not explained.

5.2. Practical implications of the presented literature

The understanding of the role of motivational salience in health behavior change processes presented by the Model of Engagement could be applied to develop suitable cues and stimuli, e.g., nudges that direct people’s actions into their desired outcome. General examples are fruit placement experiments ( Wansink et al., 2011 ; Hansen et al., 2016 ) or goal formation through social comparison ( Custers and Aarts, 2005 , 2010 ). The findings can also be used in a more differentiated way. Considering the seven stages of the behavior change process, findings imply that different BCTs are required depending on where at the change process an individual is. At the unawareness stage, individuals are not aware that behavior change could contribute to their health status. Therefore, to move to the next stage, individuals require knowledge, insight or possibly a shift in health locus of control from external to more internal (i.e., perceiving the reward from one’s behavior as contingent on one’s own behavior, see Rotter, 1966 , or Cheng et al., 2016 for a meta-analysis on health locus of control and specific health behaviors). Knowledge can be provided, for example, through large-scale policy campaigns. Once an individual is aware that a change in behavior could positively affect their current or future health, a number of other resources may be required to spike interest in behavior change and to move into the motivational engagement phase. For example, hearing or reading about personal experiences from peers (e.g., friends, colleagues) could lead to goal formation. Thus, an individual could be incentivized to talk with peers about their health behavior goals and achievements. To move from the contemplation to the planning stage, information about various offers of health promotion courses could be beneficial. In general, the findings can be applied using these three steps:

• 1. Determining at which stage of their individual change process an individual is.
• 2. Identifying the resource(s) needed to reach the next relevant stage.
• 3. Selecting a BCT that targets the lacking, weak or inactive resource.

Step 1 can be done by applying motivational interviewing ( Rollnick and Miller, 1995 ) or the set of questions developed by Michie et al. (2005) . For step 2, the Theoretical Domains Framework by Cane et al. (2012) or any other framework that lists health behavior change resources, can be used. Once the lacking, weak or inactive resources for successful behavior change have been identified, one or more suitable BCTs can be selected and applied (step 3). Michaelsen and Esch (2022) provide guidance for the third step in their application guide of the BCRM. In this table, the potential target groups for each type of BCT, based on the seven-stage behavior change process described above, are explained and numerous examples for various settings and stakeholders are given. This can assist health/behavior therapists, intervention planners and patients in selecting appropriate measures to achieve the desired health behavior change.

From a public health perspective, the findings of the studies can also contribute to improve health literacy of specific patient groups, e.g., the chronically ill, or specific populations, such as vulnerable families, e.g., in low-income settings. By identifying the needs of these groups in relation to their health, knowing which type of motivation to foster and which resource to provide, strengthen, or activate with which measures, health behavior (e.g., diet) and disease management (e.g., regularly measuring blood sugar) can be improved. Thus, the findings can also be used in prevention and health promotion contexts and potentially help to close the gap in life expectancy between low- and high-income communities.

Furthermore, the findings have the potential to improve intervention effectiveness by better matching the goals of the intervention and the goals of the patients or individuals for whom they are developed. Interventions with a better fit promise better outcomes ( Michie and Prestwich, 2010 ; Prestwich et al., 2014 ; Beard et al., 2019 ; Carey et al., 2019 ) and could therefore be more cost-effective, thereby relying less on scarce financial resources of providers, such as health insurances, local governments, or states.

5.3. Avenues for future research

The results presented in this review are theoretical in nature and therefore require empirical verification. In addition, a number of aspects contained in the studies need to be explored further or discussed in more detail. Some of these points for future research are highlighted in the following.

First, for a number of research strands processed in this review, systematic rather than convenience literature searches could help to substantiate the claims made. While systematic literature searches have been conducted and reviews published on behavior change resources and BCTs (e.g., Cane et al., 2012 ; Prestwich et al., 2014 ; Kwasnicka et al., 2016 ), as well as on behavior change frameworks that served as a basis in the presented analyses (e.g., Kwasnicka et al., 2016 ; Carey et al., 2019 ), conducting new systematic searches and reviews could help to integrate the knowledge gained since the reviews were published. Especially the growing literature on single- or multi-system models (as alternatives to dual-process models) of behavior would benefit from a systematic overview and discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of the views published so far. On this basis, the BCRM potentially requires refinement. The literature on health promotion and behavior change is growing rapidly, so more up-to-date reviews could help to increase the granularity and accuracy of the findings. For example, a future systematic search of the behavior change resource literature could be done to map the resources identified in the literature to the three types of resources generated in this review. A comprehensive list of internal affective, internal reflective and external resources could be the result. This list could then be augmented by neurobiological analyses of the functional mechanisms proposed. In addition, a systematic search and analysis of empirically tested BCTs can result in a list and discussion of BCTs in the light of their functional mechanisms. Providing such lists would facilitate the application of the BCRM such that users could easily identify resources they need and the BCTs that help to address them.

Second, the Model of Engagement could be tested in the “real world” with patients, e.g., in primary care settings, through interviews that help patients to describe how they perceive their own behavior change process, at which stage they assume to be and what they require to move forwards. These descriptions are presumably very diverse and depend on patient characteristics, such as age, disease or cultural background. Qualitative interviews are potentially the right starting point for the development of a more general questionnaire to test the model in a larger population and with specific target groups.

Third, the BCRM, and aspects of it, is proposed based on several implicit hypotheses that need empirical verification. The first hypothesis is that it is possible to determine uniquely the stage in the behavior change process for each individual patient. This hypothesis could be tested through a new questionnaire that builds upon motivational interviewing ( Rollnick and Miller, 1995 ) or the set of questions developed by Michie et al. (2005) with specific reference to the stages developed in the Model of Engagement. The second hypothesis is that motivation and reward systems are required to process along the stages. This could be tested by interviewing individuals who have successfully progressed along their stage process with respect to their own description of their affective states (pleasure, relief, quiescence) that were present while progressing. The third hypothesis is that resources can uniquely be classified into internal affective, internal reflective and external resources. Neuroscientific methods such as brain imaging could be used to analyze the affective and motivational components associated with these resources and potentially involved in various BCTs. The fourth hypothesis is that certain BCTs influence resources through the three described functional mechanisms of facilitating, boosting, or nudging. Qualitative research methodologies may provide a means to expound upon the perceptions of individuals who have undergone specific interventions, in relation to the mechanisms that either support or impede their engagement in behavior change processes.

Future research should explore the specific functional mechanisms of BCTs in more detail. So far, the literature presents only a general understanding of the functional mechanisms of BCTs. The BCRM should be subject to further scrutiny by investigating the intricate affective processes that underlie nudging interventions, through the assessment of affective states before, during, and after decision-making. Gaining insight into the neurobiological mechanisms that underpin the three functional components of the BCRM, and their respective roles in determining motivational salience and reward intensity, would undoubtedly enhance the scientific knowledge base and prove invaluable in the development and implementation of future interventions in everyday settings.

Finally, the application process of the three steps with patients or communities could be accompanied by research on its applicability, feasibility and effectiveness to optimize the model and its features for future use.

6. Conclusion

Previous theories of health behavior change have overemphasized either cognitive, rational, or relational aspects, while largely neglecting the emotional-affective or motivational processes involved in behavior change. Recent literature has integrated neuroscientific evidence and evidence-informed models into the explanations of how health behavior can be changed, short-term and long-term. Thereby, classifications of behavior change resources and behavior change techniques have been developed and the mechanisms of behavior change techniques have been explained. All in all, the literature has potential to be enriched by more neuroscientific evidence, e.g., more details of the functional mechanisms of health behavior change techniques for particular behavior change resources. Other interesting avenues for future research have been described in this review.

Author contributions

MM was responsible for initial literature search, article screening, interpretation of the existing research, conducting the analysis, as well as writing, and critical revision of the manuscript. TE provided support from the idea through the conception and design of the review and also provided suggestions for revising the manuscript. Both authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

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Who is papalii sia figiel, accused killer of tulsi gabbard’s aunt.

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The woman accused of murdering the aunt of former US Rep. Tulsi Gabbard is a celebrated Samoan author, prestigious playwright — and close associate of her alleged victim.

Papalii Sia Figiel, 57, is now in police custody for allegedly taking a hammer and knife to Dr. Caroline Sinavaiana-Gabbard, a poet, retired former college professor and the aunt of the Trump veep hopeful and ex-Democratic Hawaiian congresswoman.

Sinavaiana-Gabbard, 78, was found dead May 25 inside Figiel’s Vaivase-Uta home, according to local news reports .

She had been beaten with a hammer and stabbed multiple times, reportedly after an argument between the two women in the home, which doubles as the local community theater, GaluMoana Theater.

Figiel is said to have fled to a friend’s house after the vicious attack before turning herself in to police.

She was initially charged with manslaughter, but the charges have since been upgraded to murder.

Local media reported that the women, who were both involved in the literary world, were close associates. Sinavaiana-Gabbard was described in many reports as Figiel’s mentor.

Samoan Police Commissioner Auapaau Logoitino Filipo said investigators have yet to determine why Sinavaiana-Gabbard was killed.

“We do not know what the motive is of the offending, but from reports, the incident occurred on Saturday, and the suspect left the deceased at her home while she went out to Lotofaga and spent time with a friend,” Filipo added.

Figiel attended school in her native Samoa as well as New Zealand, where she started her Bachelor of Arts, a degree she’d later attain at Whitworth University in Spokane, Wash.

Her poetry took top honors in the Polynesian Literary Competition in 1994, and her debut novel, “Where We Once Belonged,” earned her a Best First Book award in the South East Asia/South Pacific Region of the Commonwealth Writers’ Prize in 1997, according to her online author bios.

She has published two books of prose poetry, 1996’s “Girl in the Moon Circle” and 1998’s “Contemplation.” She regularly would perform her poems at literary festivals, and her work has been translated into numerous foreign languages.

Figiel has held residencies at the Institucio de les Lletres Catalanes in Spain, the Pacific Writing Forum at the University of the South Pacific, the University of Technology, Sydney, and the East West Center-Center for Pacific Islands Studies, University of Hawaii.

Sinavaiana-Gabbard taught creative writing at the University of Hawaii for nearly 20 years and was an associate professor of Pacific literature at the University of Hawaii at Mānoa, according to Samoa News .

In 2003, Figiel learned she had type two diabetes, the same disease that killed both of her parents.

Although she hid her diagnosis from the public at first — not wanting to be perceived as weak — she later became a vocal advocate for those battling the chronic condition.

Details are still emerging about Figiel and Sinavaiana-Gabbard’s relationship.

A friend of the slain professor told The Samoa Observer that she had been a brilliant writer and a supporter of other writers.

“[She was] someone who did not deserve to die like that. She was a very private person despite being a giant in the literary world,” the pal said.

Figiel is due to make her next court appearance later this month.

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1.1: What is Literature?

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• Page ID 37255

• Heather Ringo & Athena Kashyap
• City College of San Francisco via ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative

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Defining Literature

In order for us to study literature with any kind of depth, first we must decide what constitutes literature. While works like William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet and Harper Lee’s To Kill a Mockingbird are almost universally accepted as literature, other works are hotly debated, or included or excluded based on the context. For example, while most consider Toni Morrison’s Beloved literature, others debate whether more recent publications such as David Mitchell’s Cloud Atlas or Rupi Kaur’s Instagram poetry constitute literature. And what about the stories told through tweets, like Jennifer Egan’s “Black Box” ? What about video games, like Skyrim , or memes, like Grumpy Cat?

Students often throw their hands up in the air over such distinctions, arguing literature is subjective. Isn't it up to individual opinion? Anything can be literature, such students argue. At first glance, it could seem such distinctions are, at best, arbitrary. At worst, such definitions function as a means of enforcing cultural erasure.

However, consider a story about Kim Kardashian’s plastic surgery in People Magazine . Can this be considered on the same level of literary achievement as Hamlet ? Most would concede there is a difference in quality between these two texts. A blurb about Kim Kardashian’s latest plastic surgery, most would agree, does not constitute literature. So how can we differentiate between such works?

Literature vs. literature

As illustrated in the somewhat silly example above, one way we can define what constitutes literature is by identifying what is definitely not literature. For our intents and purposes of defining most terms in this textbook, we will use the Oxford English Dictionary ’s definitions. Many professors who teach Literature use the concept of Big L Literature vs. little l literature (Rollison).

While the definition of little l literature is fairly easy to understand and apply, the definition of Big L Literature remains amorphous. What makes a work “artistic”? How do we define “superior” or “lasting”?

Let’s break down some of the defining qualities of literature in a bit more detail, starting with the word “artistic.”

Exercise 1.1.1

Consider the following works of art. Which of these images do you feel is higher quality or more “artistic”? Which is lower-quality or less artistic? Why? Justify your position by analyzing the elements of each artwork.

While there may be some debate, most students usually respond that Friedrich's painting is more artistic. This is due to several composition differences between the two works:

• Artist’s skill: it certainly appears as if the first image was produced by an artist with superior skill
• Fame: for anyone who knows art history, the first image is famous while the other is not
• Lasting quality: the first image has survived the test of time, remaining popular over two hundred years!
• Meaning: the first image likely conjures deeper feelings, themes, or ideas, such as isolation and the primacy of nature. This is why this image has become the face of Romanticism.

But what about the images demonstrate the artists’ superior skills? While the second image appears to be produced with a simple doodle, and quickly composed, the first indicates more complexity, attention-to-detail, and craft. Freidrich leverages different colors, textures, shapes, and symbols to evoke a feeling in the viewer. Skilled artists will use different techniques, like the way they move the paintbrush, the pressure they exert or the direction of the brush. They will use textured paintbrushes for a specific effect, such as the difference between the light fluffy clouds and dark mountain rocks. They will use different color pallets to project, as accurately as possible, the feelings they are trying to evoke. In short, while anyone can paint, true artists leverage many different skills, techniques, and materials to render what is in their imagination into a real-life product.

So how does this relate to our attempts to define literature?

Literature is art, but with words.

While the artist uses different colors, paintbrushes, mediums, canvases, and techniques, the writer uses different genres and literary techniques called literary devices . Just like different types of paint, paintbrushes, and artistic tools, there are literally hundreds of literary devices, but some of the most common are metaphor, simile, personification, and imagery. Genre is the type or style of literature. Each genre has its own conventions. Literary genres include creative nonfiction, fiction, drama, and poetry . Works that are literary tend to masterfully use genre conventions and literary devices to create a world in the mind of the reader. Works that are less literary tend to be for practical and/or entertainment purposes, and the writer dedicates less focused energy towards artfully employing literary devices.

However, just because a work is not as literary as another does not mean it cannot be enjoyed. Just like a stick figure or cartoon character might be perfectly fine if intended for a particular audience or purpose, readers can still enjoy People Magazine even though it is not of the same literary quality as Hamlet .

So, to use an example from earlier:

While some literature falls into clear designations of literature or not literature, most works are open to debate. Given the sometimes difficult task of determining whether a work falls into one camp or the other, it may be more helpful to think of Literature less as a dichotomy than a spectrum, with popular magazines on one end and works like Hamlet and Beloved on the other, and most written works falling somewhere between the two extremes.

The Literary Spectrum

This spectrum can be a helpful way to think about literature because it provides a more open-ended way to discuss writing as art than simply labeling works as literary or not. After viewing the above chart, why do you think popular magazines and a Calculus textbook are considered "less literary"? In terms of popular magazines, they do not fit the definition of literature as "lasting" in the sense that they usually fade from relevancy quickly after publication. Additionally, the authors of such magazines are striving for quick entertainment rather than leaving a meaningful impression on the reader. They tend not to use literary devices, such as metaphor, in a masterful way. On the other end, Shakespeare's Hamlet definitely fits the definition of "lasting," in that it has survived hundreds of years. It is full of literary devices used for rhetorical effect and, one would argue, it touches upon deep themes such as death, the afterlife, murder, vengeance, and love, rather than trifling issues such as a starlet's most recent plastic surgery.

Certainly, works of literature are up for debate: that is the quintessential question literary scholars might ask. What makes certain literary works survive the test of time? What makes a story, poem, or drama "good"? While literary scholars are less interested in proving a certain work is "good" or not -- and more focused on analyzing the ways to illuminate a given work -- it can be helpful for you to consider what kinds of literature you like and why you like it. What about the way it was written causes you to feel the way you do about it?

Who Decides What is Literature?

Now that we have at least somewhat clarified the definition of literature, who decides what works are or are not literature? Historically speaking, kings, queens, publishers, literary critics, professors, colleges, and readers (like you!) have decided which works survive and which works do not.

Aristotle was one of the first writers to attempt to decide what works fall into the category of literature, and what works do not. While Aristotle was most famous for his contributions to science and philosophy, he is also considered one of the first literary critics. A literary critic is a person who studies and analyzes literature. A literary critic produces scholarship called literary criticism . An example of this would be Aristotle’s Poetics , in which he identifies the defining qualities of a “good” Tragedy. Aristotle’s analysis of Tragedy was so influential that it is still used today, over two thousand years later!

When a work is officially decided to constitute literature, it enters something called the Canon. Not to be confused with the large metal tube that shoots bombs popular in the 16th through the 19th centuries (cannon), the Literary Canon is a collection of works that are considered by the powers that be to constitute literature. A work that falls into this designation is called canonical. So, to use an example from Aristotle’s Poetics , Aristotle defined Sophocles’ Oedipus Trilogy as the pinnacle of the Tragic Genre. From there, in part due to Aristotle's influence, Greek society valued Oedipus so much that they kept discussing, reading, referencing, and teaching it. Thus, it became a kind of shining example of the Tragic Canon, one which has lasted thousands of years and continues to be read and lauded to this day. Other tragedies, fairly or not, are often judged on their quality in comparison to Sophocles' works. Wild to think that someone who died thousands of years ago still influences what we consider literature today!

Memes and Video Games: Today's Literature?

All this talk of thousands-of-years-old texts might seem out of touch. A lot of people think "old and boring" and literature are synonymous. Students are often surprised to hear that comic books and video games can arguably be considered literature, too. There are plenty of arguments to be made that comic books, such as Maus by Art Spiegalman (1991) or Fun Home by Alison Bechdel (2006) are literature. Cutting edge literary scholars argue video games like Kentucky Route Zero by Cardboard Computer (2015) can be considered literary. There is also literature that is published in tweets, like Jennifer Egan's "Black Box" (2012). Some might even consider memes literature!

Generative question: do you think memes can be literary?

A meme is an image or video containing cultural values or ideas, often represented through allusion (implied reference to another work, without naming that work or its author). Memes can spread rapidly spreads through social media. Why? Because the best ones are #relatable; that is, they speak to a common human experience.

Usually memes take the form of text superimposed on an image. For example, the meme above conveys the dramatic reaction students sometimes give when I assign an essay. This is done primarily through a literary device called hyperbole , or exaggeration for rhetorical effect. It conveys its message comically through certain conventions that come along with the meme genre, such as the syntactic structure "me, a [insert noun]" and asterisks, which convey action. Just like in the Shakespearean drama, the colon indicates what each character (me and the students, in this case) is saying or doing. My chihuahua's face looks silly and very dramatic. Through this use of image, text, format, and convention, the meaning I intended to convey was that I was making fun of my students for being over-dramatic about what to me seems like a fairly simple assignment. While some might dismiss memes as shallow, when you start to unravel the layers of meaning, they can actually be very complex and even, dare I say, literary!

Think about a recent meme you have seen, or your favorite meme of all time. Imagine explaining this meme to someone who has no idea what it means. What is the message or idea behind the meme? What cultural reference points does it use to convey its message? In what ways might this meme be considered literature? How might this compare to a short poem, like a haiku?

Not Literature

Let's say you come to the conclusion that a meme, a gossip magazine, or the Twilight Series is not literary. Does that mean you have to feel guilty and give up reading it forever? Or that it is not "good"?

Just because a work is not literary does not mean it is "bad," that it does not have value, or that one cannot enjoy it. Indeed, there are plenty of examples of written works that are on the less literary side of the spectrum but are still fun and enriching to read. Joe Dirt i s not on the same artistic level of cinema as Schindler's List , but my husband still loves watching it. Nothing Taylor Swift has produced is as deep as Tupac Shakur's "Changes" (1992) or Mitski's "Last Words of a Shooting Star" (2014), but listening to Taylor Swift is my guilty pleasure. This is all to say that whether a text is literary or not is not as important as the methods of analyzing texts. In fact, texts which were excluded from literature are often argued into the literary canon through such analysis. Part of what makes analyzing literature so fun is that it means the definition of literature is always up for debate! This is especially important given the history of the canon.

The Problem with the Canon

In an ideal world, literature would be celebrated purely based on its artistic merit. Well-written works would last, poorly-written works would wither from public memory. However, that is not always the case. Works often achieve public prominence or survive based on qualities unrelated to skill or aesthetics, such as an author's fame, wealth, connections, or acceptance by the dominant culture. William Wordsworth, for example, was named Poet Laureate of England and has been taught as one of the "Big Six" major Romantic-era authors ever since. Indeed, he is accepted as part of the Romanticism literary canon. One would be hard-pressed to find a Literature anthology that does not feature William Wordsworth . However, how many people have read or heard of Dorothy Wordsworth , William Wordsworth's sister, who arguably depicted Romantic themes with equal skill and beauty? Or James Hogg, a Scottish contemporary of Wordsworth who was a lower-class shepherd? Similarly, while most readers have encountered F. Scott Fitzgerald or Edgar Allen Poe in their high school literature classes, how many have read Frederick Douglass in these same classes? In short, all artistic skill (arguably) considered equal, why do some authors predominantly feature in the Canon while others do not?

Let’s perform an experimental activity.

• Find a piece of paper or a whiteboard. On this piece of paper or whiteboard, write down as many works of literature that you feel constitute “Big L Literature.” Perhaps they are works you read in high school, works which have been made into films, or works you have been taught or told are literary masterworks. Don’t turn the page until you have written them down. Try to think of at least 10, but a larger sample size is better. Once you are finished, continue to the next paragraph.
• Alright, now look at your list. If you know the author of the literary texts you named, write their name next to the work. If you do not know the author, Google the information and write it down. Continue doing this until you have named the author of each work. Once you are finished, read on to the next paragraph.
• Now, as uncomfortable as it seems, label the gender/race/age/presumed sexual orientation of the authors you listed. After you have categorized them to the best of your ability, consider the following questions:
• What percentage of the authors are male?
• What percentage of the authors are white?
• What percentage of the authors are old/dead?
• What patterns do you notice? Why do you think this is?

I have replicated this experiment dozens of times in the classroom, and, in most classes, the vast majority of what students have been taught are “Literary Masterworks” are written by (pardon my colloquialism) dead white males. Although, as time progresses, it seems there is increasing but not proportionate representation on average. For example, while women make up about half of the population, over 80% of the most popular novels were written by men ("Battle"). While there are many possible reasons for this discrepancy in representation (which could be the focus of an entire textbook), what does this mean for scholars of literature? For students? For instructors? For society?

As a cultural relic, similar to art, many scholars suggest literature is a reflection of the society which produces it. This includes positive aspects of society (championing values such as love, justice, and good triumphing over evil), but it can also reflect negative aspects of society (such as discrimination, racism, sexism, homophobia, historical lack of opportunity for marginalized authors).

For example, enslaved Africans were often prevented from learning to read and write as a form of control. When Phillis Wheatley published her book of poetry, Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral (1773) she had to defend the fact that she wrote it, due to popularly held racist views that slaves were incapable of writing poetry. Later, Frederick Douglass wrote about how his enslavers banned him from reading and writing, as they realized "education and slavery were incompatible with each other" (Douglass). He later championed his learning to read and write as the means which conveyed him to freedom. However, even when trying to publish The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass ( 1845) his publishers were forced to prove that it was, in fact, an enslaved person who wrote the story and not a white man who wrote it for him. Slave owners actively attempted to keep this book from circulation as it threatened the institution of slavery upon which they depended. Indeed, to this day, Douglass' book continues to be banned in some prisons for its potential to incite revolution (Darby, Gilroy).

How could Black writers enter the canon en masse if they were not allowed to read or write? Or if they were forced to spend all of their waking hours working? And if those who had the means to read and write had to jump through absurd hoops just to have their works published? And if even those texts which were published were banned?

Similarly, throughout much of Western history, women have been discouraged from pursuing reading and writing, as it distracted from society's expectations for women to focus on motherly and household duties. Until the 1700s, women were not allowed to go to college. Even then, very few went: only the extremely wealthy. It was not until the 19th century that women attended college in representative numbers. Virginia Woolf wrote in A Room of One's Own that if there are fewer works of literature written by women, it is only because society, historically, has not given women the time, education, funding, or space to do so. In this extended essay, she describes an imaginary sister of William Shakespeare who could have been just as great of a writer had she the same opportunities as her brother.

I told you in the course of this paper that Shakespeare had a sister; but do not look for her in Sir Sidney Lee's life of the poet. She died young—alas, she never wrote a word. She lies buried where the omnibuses now stop, opposite the Elephant and Castle. Now my belief is that this poet who never wrote a word and was buried at the cross-roads still lives. She lives in you and in me, and in many other women who are not here tonight, for they are washing up the dishes and putting the children to bed. But she lives; for great poets do not die; they are continuing presences; they need only the opportunity to walk among us in the flesh. This opportunity, as I think, it is now coming within your power to give her.

Woolf argues that in our time those who have been excluded from literature can now join the canon by adding their voices. The inequity of representation in literature -- which has arguably improved, but in many ways persists today -- can be remedied if more people from a wide array of backgrounds and walks of life are empowered to study and create Literature. That is one reason why the current study of literature is so exciting. As a student and budding literary scholar, you have the power to influence culture through your reading and analysis of literature! For one author and scholar's perspective on this topic, please watch this the following TED Talk by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie to see the ways in which such misrepresentations are harmful, and why it is important to veer away from the historically parochial Canon into what Chinua Achebe calls "a balance of stories" (qtd. Bacon).

• Original video available on TED Talk website
• Transcript of video

What "single stories" do you know? What are the "single stories" people have told about you? What story would you tell if you could? What kinds of stories do you want to read? Throughout this class, you will get the opportunity to encounter many different voices and stories from all over the world. While we faced hurdles of copyright permissions, the authors of this textbook attempted to embody the values espoused in this TED Talk & Chinua Achebe's conception of the "balance of stories." As you read the textbook, consider the stories which were omitted, why they were omitted, and what works of Literature you would include in this class if you could.

Works Cited

Bacon, Katie. "An African Voice." The Atlantic , 2000.

"Battle of the Authors: Are The Most Popular Rated Fiction Books Written by Men or Women?" Wordery , 1 Mar. 2019.

Darby, Luke. "Illinois Prison Bans Frederick Douglass's Memoir and Other "Racial" Books." GQ , 20 August 2019.

Douglass, Frederick. The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass. 1845.

Friedrich, Caspar David. "Wanderer Above the Sea of Fog." Hamburger Kunsthalle Museum , 1818.

Gilroy, Paul. "Banned Books of Guantánamo: 'An American Slave' by Frederick Douglass." Vice , 14 Nov. 2014.

"literature, n.; 3b & 5" OED Online , Oxford University Press, September 2019, www.oed.com/view/Entry/109080. Accessed 6 September 2019.

Rollison, David. "Big L vs Little L Literature." Survey of World Literature I. College of Marin, 2008. Lecture.

Wheatley, Phillis. Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral . 1773.

Woolf, Virginia. A Room of One's Own. 1929.

• Open access
• Published: 30 May 2024

Differential attainment in assessment of postgraduate surgical trainees: a scoping review

• Rebecca L. Jones 1 , 2 ,
• Suwimol Prusmetikul 1 , 3 &
• Sarah Whitehorn 1  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  597 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Introduction

Solving disparities in assessments is crucial to a successful surgical training programme. The first step in levelling these inequalities is recognising in what contexts they occur, and what protected characteristics are potentially implicated.

This scoping review was based on Arksey & O’Malley’s guiding principles. OVID and Embase were used to identify articles, which were then screened by three reviewers.

From an initial 358 articles, 53 reported on the presence of differential attainment in postgraduate surgical assessments. The majority were quantitative studies (77.4%), using retrospective designs. 11.3% were qualitative. Differential attainment affects a varied range of protected characteristics. The characteristics most likely to be investigated were gender (85%), ethnicity (37%) and socioeconomic background (7.5%). Evidence of inequalities are present in many types of assessment, including: academic achievements, assessments of progression in training, workplace-based assessments, logs of surgical experience and tests of technical skills.

Attainment gaps have been demonstrated in many types of assessment, including supposedly “objective” written assessments and at revalidation. Further research is necessary to delineate the most effective methods to eliminate bias in higher surgical training. Surgical curriculum providers should be informed by the available literature on inequalities in surgical training, as well as other neighbouring specialties such as medicine or general practice, when designing assessments and considering how to mitigate for potential causes of differential attainment.

Peer Review reports

Diversity in the surgical workforce has been a hot topic for the last 10 years, increasing in traction following the BlackLivesMatter movement in 2016 [ 1 ]. In the UK this culminated in publication of the Kennedy report in 2021 [ 2 ]. Before this the focus was principally on gender imbalance in surgery, with the 2010 Surgical Workforce report only reporting gender percentages by speciality, with no comment on racial profile, sexuality distribution, disability occurrence, or socioeconomic background [ 3 ].

Gender is not the only protected characteristic deserving of equity in surgery; many groups find themselves at a disadvantage during postgraduate surgical examinations [ 4 ] and at revalidation [ 5 ]. This phenomenon is termed ‘differential attainment’ (DA), in which disparities in educational outcomes, progression rates, or achievements between groups with protected characteristics occur [ 4 ]. This may be due to the assessors’ subconscious bias, or a deficit in training and education before assessment.

One of the four pillars of medical ethics is “justice”, emphasising that healthcare should be provided in a fair, equitable, and ethical manner, benefiting all individuals and promoting the well-being of society as a whole. This applies not only to our patients but also to our colleagues; training should be provided in a fair, equitable, and ethical manner, benefiting all. By applying the principle of justice to surgical trainees, we can create an environment that is supportive, inclusive, and conducive to professional growth and well-being.

A diverse consultant body is crucial for providing high-quality healthcare to a diverse patient population. It has been shown that patients are happier when cared for by a doctor with the same ethnic background [ 6 ]. Takeshita et al. [ 6 ] proposed this is due to a greater likelihood of mutual understanding of cultural values, beliefs, and preferences and is therefore more likely to cultivate a trusting relationship, leading to accurate diagnosis, treatment adherence and improved patient understanding. As such, ensuring that all trainees are justly educated and assessed throughout their training may contribute to improving patient care by diversifying the consultant body.

Surgery is well known to have its own specific culture, language, and social rules which are unique even within the world of medicine [ 7 , 8 ]. Through training, graduates develop into surgeons, distinct from other physicians and practitioners [ 9 ]. As such, research conducted in other medical domains is not automatically applicable to surgery, and behavioural interventions focused on reducing or eliminating bias in training need to be tailored specifically to surgical settings.

Consequently, it’s important that the surgical community asks the questions:

Does DA exist in postgraduate surgical training, and to what extent?

Why does DA occur?

What groups or assessments are under-researched?

How can we apply this knowledge, or acquire new knowledge, to provide equity for trainees?

The following scoping review hopes to provide the surgical community with robust answers for future of surgical training.

Aims and research question

The aim of this scoping review is to understand the breadth of research about the presence of DA in postgraduate surgical education and to determine themes pertaining to causes of inequalities. A scoping review was chosen to provide a means to map the available literature, including published peer-reviewed primary research and grey literature.

Following the methodological framework set out by Arksey and O’Malley [ 10 ], our research was intended to characterise the literature addressing DA in HST, including Ophthalmology, Obstetrics & Gynaecology (O&G). We included literature from English-language speaking countries, including the UK and USA.

Search strategy

We used search terms tailored to our target population characteristics (e.g., gender, ethnicity), concept (i.e., DA) and context (i.e., assessment in postgraduate surgical education). Medline and Embase were searched with the assistance of a research librarian, with addition of synonyms. This was conducted in May 2023, and was exported to Microsoft Excel for further review. The reference lists of included articles were also searched to find any relevant data sources that had yet to be considered. In addition, to identify grey literature, a search was performed for the term “differential attainment” and “disparity” on the relevant stakeholders’ websites (See supplemental Table 1 for full listing). Stakeholders were included on the basis of their involvement in governance or training of surgical trainees.

Study selection

To start we excluded conference abstracts that were subsequently published as full papers to avoid duplications ( n  = 337). After an initial screen by title to exclude obviously irrelevant articles, articles were filtered to meet our inclusion and exclusion criteria (Table  1 ). The remaining articles ( n  = 47) were then reviewed in their entirety, with the addition of five reports found in grey literature. Following the screening process, 45 studies were recruited for scoping review (Fig.  1 ).

Charting the data

The extracted data included literature title, authors, year of publication, country of study, study design, population characteristic, case number, context, type of assessment, research question and main findings (Appendix 1). Extraction was performed initially by a single author and then subsequently by a second author to ensure thorough review. Group discussion was conducted in case of any disagreements. As charting occurred, papers were discovered within reference lists of included studies which were eligible for inclusion; these were assimilated into the data charting table and included in the data extraction ( n  = 8).

Collating, summarizing and reporting the results

The included studies were not formally assessed in their quality or risk of bias, consistent with a scoping review approach [ 10 ]. However, group discussion was conducted during charting to aid argumentation and identify themes and trends.

We conducted a descriptive numerical summary to describe the characteristics of included studies. Then thematic analysis was implemented to examine key details and organise the attainment quality and population characteristics based on their description. The coding of themes was an iterative process and involved discussion between authors, to identify and refine codes to group into themes.

We categorised the main themes as gender, ethnicity, country of graduation, individual and family background in education, socioeconomic background, age, and disability. The number of articles in each theme is demonstrated in Table  2 . Data was reviewed and organised into subtopics based on assessment types included: academic achievement (e.g., MRCS, FRCS), assessments for progression (e.g., ARCP), workplace-based assessment (e.g., EPA, feedback), surgical experience (e.g., case volume), and technical skills (e.g., visuo-spatial tasks).

PRISMA flow diagram

44 articles defined the number of included participants (89,399 participants in total; range of participants across individual studies 16–34,755). Two articles reported the number of included studies for their meta-analysis (18 and 63 included articles respectively). Two reports from grey literature did not define the number of participants they included in their analysis. The characteristics of the included articles are displayed in Table  2 .

Growth in published literature on differential attainment over the past 40 years

Academic achievement

In the American Board of Surgery Certifying Exam (ABSCE), Maker [ 11 ] found there to be no significant differences in terms of gender when comparing those who passed on their first attempt and those who did not in general surgery training, a finding supported by Ong et al. [ 12 ]. Pico et al. [ 13 ] reported that in Orthopaedic training, Orthopaedic In-Training Examination (OITE) and American Board of Orthopaedic Surgery (ABOS) Part 1 scores were similar between genders, but that female trainees took more attempts in order to pass. In the UK, two studies reported significantly lower Membership of the Royal College of Surgeons (MRCS) pass rates for female trainees compared to males [ 4 , 14 ]. However, Robinson et al. [ 15 ] presented no significant gender differences in MRCS success rates. A study assessing Fellowship of the Royal College of Surgeons (FRCS) examination results found no significant gender disparities in pass rates [ 16 ]. In MRCOG examination, no significant gender differences were found in Part 1 scores, but women had higher pass rates and scores in Part 2 [ 17 ].

Assessment for Progression

ARCP is the annual process of revalidation that UK doctors must perform to progress through training. A satisfactory progress outcome (“outcome 1”) allows trainees to advance through to the next training year, whereas non-satisfactory outcomes (“2–5”) suggest inadequate progress and recommends solutions, such as further time in training or being released from the training programme. Two studies reported that women received 60% more non-satisfactory outcomes than men [ 16 , 18 ]. In contrast, in O&G men had higher non-satisfactory ARCP outcomes without explicit reasons for this given [ 19 ].

Regarding Milestone evaluations based from the US Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME), Anderson et al. [ 20 ] reported men had higher ratings of knowledge of diseases at postgraduate year 5 (PGY-5), while women had lower mean score achievements. This was similar to another study finding that men and women had similar competencies at PGY-1 to 3, and that it was only at PGY-5 that women were evaluated lower than men [ 21 ]. However, Kwasny et al. [ 22 ] found no difference in trainers’ ratings between genders, but women self-rated themselves lower. Salles et al. [ 23 ] demonstrated significant improvement in scoring in women following a value-affirmation intervention, while this intervention did not affect men.

Workplace-based Assessment

Galvin et al. [ 24 ] reported better evaluation scores from nurses for PGY-2 male trainees, while females received fewer positive and more negative comments. Gerull et al. [ 25 ] demonstrated men received compliments with superlatives or standout words, whereas women were more likely to receive compliments with mitigating phrases (e.g., excellent vs. quite competent).

Hayward et al. [ 26 ] investigated assessment of attributes of clinical performance (ethics, judgement, technical skills, knowledge and interpersonal skills) and found similar scoring between genders.

Several authors have studied autonomy given to trainees in theatre [ 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 ]. Two groups found no difference in level of granted autonomy between genders but that women rated lower perceived autonomy on self-evaluation [ 27 , 28 ]. Other studies found that assessors consistently gave female trainees lower autonomy ratings, but only in one paper was this replicated in lower performance scores [ 29 , 30 , 31 ].

Padilla et al. [ 32 ] reported no difference in entrustable professional activity assessment (EPA) levels between genders, yet women rated themselves much lower, which they regarded as evidence of imposter syndrome amongst female trainees. Cooney et al. [ 33 ] found that male trainers scored EPAs for women significantly lower than men, while female trainers rated both genders similarly. Conversely, Roshan et al. [ 34 ] found that male assessors were more positive in feedback comments to female trainees than male trainees, whereas they also found that comments from female assessors were comparable for each gender.

Surgical Experience

Gong et al. [ 35 ] found significantly fewer cataract operations were performed by women in ophthalmology residency programmes, which they suggested could be due to trainers being more likely to give cases to male trainees. Female trainees also participated in fewer robotic colorectal procedures, with less operative time on the robotic console afforded [ 36 ]. Similarly, a systematic review highlighted female trainees in various specialties performed fewer cases per week and potentially had limited access to training facilities [ 37 ]. Eruchalu et al. [ 38 ] found that female trainees performed fewer cases, that is, until gender parity was reached, after which case logs were equivalent.

Technical skills

Antonoff et al. [ 39 ] found higher scores for men in coronary anastomosis skills, with women receiving more “fail” assessments. Dill-Macky et al. [ 40 ] analysed laparoscopic skill assessment using blinded videos of trainees and unblinded assessments. While there was no difference in blinded scores between genders, when comparing blinded and unblinded scores individually, assessors were less likely to agree on the scores of women compared to men. However, another study about laparoscopic skills by Skjold-Ødegaard et al. [ 41 ] reported higher performance scores in female residents, particularly when rated by women. The lowest score was shown in male trainees rated by men. While some studies showed disparities in assessment, several studies reported no difference in technical skill assessments (arthroscopic, knot tying, and suturing skills) between genders [ 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 ].

Several studies investigated trainees’ abilities to complete isolated tasks associated with surgical skills. In laparoscopic tasks, men were initially more skilful in peg transfer and intracorporeal knot tying than women. Following training, the performance was not different between genders [ 47 ]. A study on microsurgical skills reported better initial visual-spatial and perceptual ability in men, while women had better fine motor psychomotor ability. However, these differences were not significant, and all trainees improved significantly after training [ 48 ]. A study by Milam et al. [ 49 ] revealed men performed better in mental rotation tasks and women outperformed in working memory. They hypothesised that female trainees would experience stereotype threat, fear of being reduced to a stereotype, which would impair their performance. They found no evidence of stereotype threat influencing female performance, disproving their hypothesis, a finding supported by Myers et al. [ 50 ].

Ethnicity and country of graduation

Most papers reported ethnicity and country of graduation concurrently, for example grouping trainees as White UK graduates (WUKG), Black and minority ethnicity UK graduates (BME UKG), and international medical graduates (IMG). Therefore, these areas will be addressed together in the following section.

When assessing the likelihood of passing American Board of Surgery (ABS) examinations on first attempt, Yeo et al. [ 51 ] found that White trainees were more likely than non-White. They found that the influence of ethnicity was more significant in the end-of-training certifying exam than in the start-of-training qualifying exam. This finding was corroborated in a study of both the OITE and ABOS certifying exam, suggesting widening inequalities during training [ 52 ].

Two UK-based studies reported significantly higher MRCS pass rates in White trainees compared to BMEs [ 4 , 14 ]. BMEs were less likely to pass MRCS Part A and B, though this was not true for Part A when variations in socioeconomic background were corrected for [ 14 ]. However, Robinson et al. [ 53 ] found no difference in MRCS pass rates based on ethnicity. Another study by Robinson et al. [ 15 ] demonstrated similar pass rates between WUKGs and BME UKGs, but IMGs had significantly lower pass rates than all UKGs. The FRCS pass rates of WUKGs, BME UKGs and IMGs were 76.9%, 52.9%, and 53.9%, respectively, though these percentages were not statistically significantly different [ 16 ].

There was no difference in MRCOG results based on ethnicity, but higher success rates were found in UKGs [ 19 ]. In FRCOphth, WUKGs had a pass rate of 70%, higher than other groups of trainees, with a pass rate of only 45% for White IMGs [ 52 ].

By gathering data from training programmes reporting little to no DA due to ethnicity, Roe et al. [ 54 ] were able to provide a list of factors they felt were protective against DA, such as having supportive supervisors and developing peer networks.

Assessment for progression

RCOphth [ 55 ] found higher rates of satisfactory ARCP outcomes for WUKGs compared to BME UKGs, followed by IMGs. RCOG [ 19 ] discovered higher rates of non-satisfactory ARCP outcomes from non-UK graduates, particularly amongst BMEs and those from the European Economic Area (EEA). Tiffin et al. [ 56 ] considered the difference in experience between UK graduates and UK nationals whose primary medical qualification was gained outside of the UK, and found that the latter were more likely to receive a non-satisfactory ARCP outcome, even when compared to non-UK nationals.

Woolf et al. [ 57 ] explored reasons behind DA by conducting interview studies with trainees. They investigated trainees’ perceptions of fairness in evaluation and found that trainees felt relationships developed with colleagues who gave feedback could affect ARCP results, and might be challenging for BME UKGs and IMGs who have less in common with their trainers.

Workplace-based assessment

Brooks et al. [ 58 ] surveyed the prevalence of microaggressions against Black orthopaedic surgeons during assessment and found 87% of participants experienced some level of racial discrimination during workplace-based performance feedback. Black women reported having more racially focused and devaluing statements from their seniors than men.

Surgical experience

Eruchalu et al. [ 38 ] found that white trainees performed more major surgical cases and more cases as a supervisor than did their BME counterparts.

Dill-Macky et al. [ 40 ] reported no significant difference in laparoscopic surgery assessments between ethnicities.

Individual and family background in education

Two studies [ 4 , 16 ] concentrated on educational background, considering factors such as parental occupation and attendance of a fee-paying school. MRCS part A pass rate was significantly higher for trainees for whom Medicine was their first Degree, those with university-educated parents, higher POLAR (Participation In Local Areas classification group) quintile, and those from fee-paying schools. Higher part B pass rate was associated with graduating from non-Graduate Entry Medicine programmes and parents with managerial or professional occupations [ 4 ]. Trainees with higher degrees were associated with an almost fivefold increase in FRCS success and seven times more scientific publications than their counterparts [ 16 ].

Socioeconomic background

Two studies used Index of Multiple Deprivation quintile, the official measure of relative deprivation in England based on geographical areas for grading socioeconomic level. The area was defined at the time of medical school application. Deprivation quintiles (DQ) were calculated, ranging from DQ1 (most deprived) to DQ5 (least deprived) [ 4 , 14 ].

Trainees with history of less deprivation were associated with higher MRCS part A pass rate. More success in part B was associated with history of no requirement for income support and less deprived areas [ 4 ]. Trainees from DQ1 and DQ2 had lower pass rates and higher number of attempts to pass [ 14 ]. A general trend of better outcomes in examination was found from O&G trainees in less deprived quintiles [ 19 ].

Trainees from DQ1 and DQ2 received significantly more non-satisfactory ARCP outcomes (24.4%) than DQ4 and DQ5 (14.2%) [ 14 ].

Trainees who graduated at age less than 29 years old were more likely to pass MRCS than their counterparts [ 4 ].

Authors [ 18 , 56 ] found that older trainees received more non-satisfactory ARCP outcomes. Likewise, there was higher percentage of non-satisfactory ARCP outcomes in O&G trainees aged over 45 compared with those aged 25–29 regardless of gender [ 19 ].

Trainees with disability had significantly lower pass rates in MRCS part A compared to candidates without disability. However, the difference was not significant for part B [ 59 ].

What have we learnt from the literature?

It is heartening to note the recent increase in interest in DA (27 studies in the last 4 years, compared to 26 in the preceding 40) (Fig.  2 ). The vast majority (77%) of studies are quantitative, based in the US or UK (89%), focus on gender (85%) and relate to clinical assessments (51%) rather than examination results. Therefore, the surgical community has invested primarily in researching the experience of women in the USA and UK.

Interestingly, a report by RCOG [ 19 ] showed that men were more likely to receive non-satisfactory ARCP outcomes than women, and a study by Rushd et al. [ 17 ] found that women were more likely to pass part 2 of MRCOG than men. This may be because within O&G men are the “out-group” (a social group or category characterised by marginalisation or exclusion by the dominant cultural group) as 75% of O&G trainees are female [ 60 ].

This contrasts with other specialities in which men are the in-group and women are seen to underperform. Outside of O&G, in comparison to men, women are less likely to pass MRCS [ 4 , 14 ], receive satisfactory ARCP outcome [ 16 , 18 ], or receive positive feedback [ 24 ], whilst not performing the same number of procedures as men [ 34 , 35 ]. This often leads to poor self-confidence in women [ 32 ], which can then worsen performance [ 21 ].

It proves difficult to comment on DA for many groups due to a lack of evidence. The current research suggests that being older, having a disability, graduate entry to medicine, low parental education, and living in a lower socioeconomic area at the time of entering medical school are all associated with lower MRCS pass rates. Being older and having a lower socioeconomic background are also associated with non-satisfactory ARCP outcomes, slowing progression through training.

These characteristics may provide a compounding negative effect – for example having a previous degree will automatically make a trainee older, and living in a lower socioeconomic area makes it more likely their parents will have a non-professional job and not hold a higher degree. When multiple protected characteristics interact to produce a compounded negative effect for a person, it is often referred to as “intersectional discrimination” or “intersectionality” [ 61 ]. This is a concept which remains underrepresented in the current literature.

The literature is not yet in agreement over the presence of DA due to ethnicity. There are many studies that report perceived discrimination, however the data for exam and clinical assessment outcomes is equivocal. This may be due to the fluctuating nature of in-groups and out-groups, and multiple intersecting characteristics. Despite this, the lived experience of BME surgeons should not be ignored and requires further investigation.

What are the gaps in the literature?

The overwhelming majority of literature exploring DA addresses issues of gender, ethnicity or country of medical qualification. Whilst bias related to these characteristics is crucial to recognise, studies into other protected characteristics are few and far between. The only paper on disability reported striking differences in attainment between disabled and non-disabled registrars [ 59 ]. There has also been increased awareness about neurodiversity amongst doctors and yet an exploration into the experience of neurodiverse surgeons and their progress through training has yet to be published [ 62 ].

The implications of being LGBTQ + in surgical training have not been recognised nor formally addressed in the literature. Promisingly, the experiences of LGBTQ + medical students have been recognised at an undergraduate level, so one can hope that this will be translated into postgraduate education [ 63 , 64 ]. While this is deeply entwined with experiences of gender discrimination, it is an important characteristic that the surgical community would benefit from addressing, along with disability. To a lesser extent, the effect of socioeconomic background and age have also been overlooked.

Characterising trainees for the purpose of research

Ethnicity is deeply personal, self-defined, and may change over time as personal identity evolves, and therefore arbitrarily grouping diverse ethnic backgrounds is unlikely to capture an accurate representation of experiences. There are levels of discrimination even within minority groups; colourism in India means dark-skinned Indians will experience more discrimination than light-skinned Indians, even from those within in their own ethnic group [ 65 ]. Therefore, although the studies included in the scoping review accepted self-definitions of ethnicity, this is likely not enough to fully capture the nuances of bias and discrimination present in society. For example, Ellis et al. [ 4 ] grouped participants as “White”, “Mixed”, “Asian”, “Black” and “Other”, however they could have also assigned a skin tone value such as the NIS Skin Colour Scale [ 66 ], thus providing more detail.

Ethnicity is more than genetic heritage; it is also cultural expression. The experience of an IMG in UK postgraduate training will differ from that of a UKG, an Indian UKG who grew up in India, and an Indian UKG who grew up in the UK. These are important distinctions which are noted in the literature (e.g. by Woolf et al., 2016 [ 57 ]) however some do not distinguish between ethnicity and graduate status [ 15 ] and none delve into an individual’s cultural expression (e.g., clothing choice) and how this affects the perception of their assessors.

Reasons for DA

Despite the recognition of inequalities in all specialties of surgery, there is a paucity of data explicitly addressing why DA occurs. Reasons behind the phenomenon must be explored to enable change and eliminate biases. Qualitative research is more attuned to capturing the complexities of DA through observation or interview-based studies. Currently most published data is quantitative, and relies on performance metrics to demonstrate the presence of DA while ignoring the causes. Promisingly, there are a gradually increasing number of qualitative, predominantly interview-based, studies (Fig.  2 ).

To create a map of DA in all its guises, an analysis of the themes reported to be contributory to its development is helpful. In our review of the literature, four themes have been identified:

Training culture

In higher surgical training, for there to be equality in outcomes, there needs to be equity in opportunities. Ellis et al. [ 4 ] recognised that variation in training experiences, such as accessibility of supportive peers and senior role models, can have implications on attainment. Trainees would benefit from targeted support at times of transition, such as induction or at examinations, and it may be that currently the needs of certain groups are being met before others, reinforcing differential attainment [ 4 ].

Experience of assessment

Most literature in DA relates to the presence (or lack of) an attainment gap in assessments, such as ARCP or MRCS. It is assumed that these assessments of trainee development are objective and free of bias, and indeed several authors have described a lack of bias in these high-stakes examinations (e.g., Ong et al., 2019 [ 12 ]; Robinson et al., 2019 [ 53 ]). However, in some populations, such as disabled trainees, there are differences in attainment [ 59 ]. This is demonstrated despite legislation requiring professional bodies to make reasonable adjustments to examinations for disabled candidates, such as additional time, text formatting amendments, or wheelchair-accessible venues [ 67 ]. Therefore it would be beneficial to investigate the implementation of these adjustments across higher surgical examinations and identify any deficits.

Social networks

Relationships between colleagues may influence DA in multiple ways. Several studies identified that a lack of a relatable and inspiring mentor may explain why female or BME doctors fail to excel in surgery [ 4 , 55 ]. Certain groups may receive preferential treatment due to their perceived familiarity to seniors [ 35 ]. Robinson et al. [ 15 ] recognised that peer-to-peer relationships were also implicated in professional development, and the lack thereof could lead to poor learning outcomes. Therefore, a non-discriminatory culture and inclusion of trainees within the social network of training is posited as beneficial.

Personal characteristics

Finally, personal factors directly related to protected characteristics have been suggested as a cause of DA. For example, IMGs may perform worse in examinations due to language barriers, and those from disadvantaged backgrounds may have less opportunity to attend expensive courses [ 14 , 16 ]. Although it is impossible to exclude these innate deficits from training, we may mitigate their influence by recognising their presence and providing solutions.

The causes of DA may also be grouped into three levels, as described by Regan de Bere et al. [ 68 ]: macro (the implications of high-level policy), meso (focusing on institutional or working environments) and micro (the influence of individual factors). This can intersect with the four themes identified above, as training culture can be enshrined at both an institutional and individual level, influencing decisions that relate to opportunities for trainees, or at a macro level, such as in the decisions made on nationwide recruitment processes. These three levels can be used to more deeply explore each of the four themes to enrich the discovery of causes of DA.

Discussions outside of surgery

Authors in General Practice (e.g., Unwin et al., 2019 [ 69 ]; Pattinson et al., 2019 [ 70 ]), postgraduate medical training (e.g., Andrews, Chartash, and Hay, 2021 [ 71 ]), and undergraduate medical education (e.g., Yeates et al., 2017 [ 72 ]; Woolf et al., 2013 [ 73 ]) have published more extensively in the aetiology of DA. A study by Hope et al. [ 74 ] evaluating the bias present in MRCP exams used differential item functioning to identify individual questions which demonstrated an attainment gap between male and female and Caucasian and non-Caucasian medical trainees. Conclusions drawn about MRCP Part 1 examinations may be generalisable to MRCS Part A or FRCOphth Part 1: they are all multiple-choice examinations testing applied basic science and usually taken within the first few years of postgraduate training. Therefore it is advisable that differential item functioning should also be applied to these examinations. However, it is possible that findings in some subspecialities may not be generalisable to others, as training environments can vary profoundly. The RCOphth [ 55 ] reported that in 2021, 53% of ophthalmic trainees identified as male, whereas in Orthopaedics 85% identified as male, suggesting different training environments [ 5 ]. It is useful to identify commonalities of DA between surgical specialties and in the wider scope of medical training.

Limitations of our paper

Firstly, whilst aiming to provide a review focussed on the experience of surgical trainees, four papers contained data about either non-surgical trainees or medical students. It is difficult to draw out the surgeons from this data and therefore it is possible that there are issues with generalisability. Furthermore, we did not consider the background of each paper’s authors, as their own lived experience of attainment gap could form the lens through which they commented on surgical education, colouring their interpretation. Despite intending to include as many protected characteristics as possible, inevitably there will be lived experiences missed. Lastly, the experience of surgical trainees outside of the English-speaking world were omitted. No studies were found that originated outside of Europe or North America and therefore the presence or characteristics of DA outside of this area cannot be assumed.

Experiences of inequality in surgical assessment are prevalent in all surgical subspecialities. In order to further investigate DA, researchers should ensure all protected characteristics are considered - and how these interact - to gain insight into intersectionality. Given the paucity of current evidence, particular focus should be given to the implications of disability, and specifically neurodiversity, in progress through training as they are yet to be explored in depth. In defining protected characteristics, future authors should be explicit and should avoid generalisation of cultural backgrounds to allow authentic appreciation of attainment gap. Few authors have considered the driving forces between bias in assessment and DA, and therefore qualitative studies should be prioritised to uncover causes for and protective factors against DA. Once these influences have been identified, educational designers can develop new assessment methods that ensure equity across surgical trainees.

Data availability

All data provided during this study are included in the supplementary information files.

Abbreviations

Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education

American Board of Orthopaedic Surgery

American Board of Surgery

American Board of Surgery Certifying Exam

Annual Review of Competence Progression

Black, Asian, and Minority Ethnicity

Council on Resident Education in Obstetrics and Gynecology

Differential Attainment

Deprivation Quintile

European Economic Area

Entrustable Professional Activities

Fellowship of The Royal College of Ophthalmologists

Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons

General Medical Council

Higher Surgical Training

International Medical Graduate

In-Training Evaluation Report

Member of the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists

Member of the Royal College of Physicians

Member of the Royal College of Surgeons

Obstetrics and Gynaecology

Orthopaedic In-Training Examination

Participation In Local Areas

Postgraduate Year

The Royal College of Ophthalmologists

The Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists

The Royal College of Surgeons of England

United Kingdom Graduate

White United Kingdom Graduate

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Jones, R.L., Prusmetikul, S. & Whitehorn, S. Differential attainment in assessment of postgraduate surgical trainees: a scoping review. BMC Med Educ 24 , 597 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05580-2

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