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APA Format for Students & Researchers

In this guide, students and researchers can learn the basics of creating a properly formatted research paper according to APA guidelines.

It includes information on how to conceptualize, outline, and format the basic structure of your paper, as well as practical tips on spelling, abbreviation, punctuation, and more. The guide concludes with a complete sample paper as well as a final checklist that writers can use to prepare their work for submission.

APA Paper Formatting Basics

• All text should be double-spaced
• Use one-inch margins on all sides
• All paragraphs in the body are indented
• Make sure that the title is centered on the page with your name and school/institution underneath
• Use 12-point font throughout
• All pages should be numbered in the upper right hand corner
• The manual recommends using one space after most punctuation marks
• A shortened version of the title (“running head”) should be placed in the upper left hand corner

Table of Contents

Here’s a quick rundown of the contents of this guide on how to do APA format.

Information related to writing and organizing your paper:

• Paper and essay categories

General paper length

• Margin sizes
• Title pages
• Running Heads
• APA Outline
• APA Abstract
• The body of papers
• APA headings and subheadings
• Use of graphics (tables and figures)

Writing style tips:

Proper tone.

• Reducing bias and labels
• Abbreviation do’s and don’ts
• Punctuation
• Number rules

Citing Your Sources:

• Citing Sources
• In-text Citations
• Reference Page

Proofing Your Paper:

• Final checklist
• Submitting your project

APA Information:

• What is APA
• APA 7 Updates

What you won’t find in this guide: This guide provides information related to the formatting of your paper, as in guidelines related to spacing, margins, word choice, etc. While it provides a general overview of APA references, it does not provide instructions for how to cite in APA format.

For step-by-step instructions for citing books, journals, how to cite a website in APA format, information on an APA format bibliography, and more, refer to these other EasyBib guides:

• APA citation (general reference guide)
• APA In-text citation
• APA article citation
• APA book citation
• APA citation website

Or, you can use our automatic generator. Our APA formatter helps to build your references for you. Yep, you read that correctly.

Writing and Organizing Your APA Paper in an Effective Way

This section of our guide focuses on proper paper length, how to format headings, spacing, and more! This information can be found in Chapter 2 of the official manual (American Psychological Association, 2020, pp. 29-67).

Categories of papers

Before getting into the nitty-gritty details related to APA research paper format, first determine the type of paper you’re about to embark on creating:

Empirical studies

Empirical studies take data from observations and experiments to generate research reports. It is different from other types of studies in that it isn’t based on theories or ideas, but on actual data.

Literature reviews

These papers analyze another individual’s work or a group of works. The purpose is to gather information about a current issue or problem and to communicate where we are today. It sheds light on issues and attempts to fill those gaps with suggestions for future research and methods.

Theoretical articles

These papers are somewhat similar to a literature reviews in that the author collects, examines, and shares information about a current issue or problem, by using others’ research. It is different from literature reviews in that it attempts to explain or solve a problem by coming up with a new theory. This theory is justified with valid evidence.

Methodological articles

These articles showcase new advances, or modifications to an existing practice, in a scientific method or procedure. The author has data or documentation to prove that their new method, or improvement to a method, is valid. Plenty of evidence is included in this type of article. In addition, the author explains the current method being used in addition to their own findings, in order to allow the reader to understand and modify their own current practices.

Case studies

Case studies present information related an individual, group, or larger set of individuals. These subjects are analyzed for a specific reason and the author reports on the method and conclusions from their study. The author may also make suggestions for future research, create possible theories, and/or determine a solution to a problem.

Since APA style format is used often in science fields, the belief is “less is more.” Make sure you’re able to get your points across in a clear and brief way. Be direct, clear, and professional. Try not to add fluff and unnecessary details into your paper or writing.  This will keep the paper length shorter and more concise.

Margin sizes in APA Format

When it comes to margins, keep them consistent across the left, right, top, and bottom of the page. All four sides should be the same distance from the edge of the paper. It’s recommended to use at least one-inch margins around each side. It’s acceptable to use larger margins, but the margins should never be smaller than an inch.

Title pages in APA Format

The title page, or APA format cover page, is the first page of a paper or essay. Some teachers and professors do not require a title page, but some do. If you’re not sure if you should include one or not, ask your teacher. Some appreciate the page, which clearly displays the writer’s name and the title of the paper.

The APA format title page for student papers includes six main components:

• the title of the APA format paper
• names of all authors
• institutional affiliation
• course number and title
• instructor’s name

Title pages for professional papers  also require a running head; student papers do not.

Some instructors and professional publications also ask for an author’s note. If you’re required or would like to include an author’s note, place it below the institutional affiliation. Examples of information included in an author’s note include an ORCID iD number, a disclosure, and an acknowledgement.

Here are key guidelines to developing your title page:

• The title of the paper should capture the main idea of the essay, but should not contain abbreviations or words that serve no purpose. For example, instead of using the title “A Look at Amphibians From the Past,” title the paper “Amphibians From the Past.” Delete the unnecessary fluff!
• Center the title on the page and place it about 3-4 lines from the top.
• The title should be bolded, in title case, and the same font size as your other page text. Do not underline or italicize the title. Other text on the page should be plain (not bolded , underlined, or italicized ). 
• All text on the title page should be double-spaced. The APA format examples paper below displays proper spacing, so go take a look!
• Do not include any titles in the author’s name such as Dr. or Ms. In contrast, for your instructor’s name, use the form they prefer (e.g., Sagar Parekh, PhD; Dr. Minako Asato; Professor Nathan Ian Brown; etc.).
• The institutional affiliation is the school the author attends or the location where the author conducted the research.

In a hurry? Try the  EasyBib title page maker to easily create a title page for free.

Sample of an APA format title page for a student paper:

Sample of title page for a professional paper:

Running heads in APA Format

The 7th edition of the American Psychological Association Publication Manual (p. 37) states that running heads are not required for student papers unless requested by the instructor. Student papers still need a page number included in the upper right-hand corner of every page. The 6th edition required a running head for student papers, so be sure to confirm with your instructor which edition you should follow. Of note, this guide follows the 7th edition.

Running heads are required for professional papers (e.g., manuscripts submitted for publication). Read on for instructions on how to create them.

Are you wondering what is a “running head”? It’s basically a page header at the top of every page. To make this process easier, set your word processor to automatically add these components onto each page. You may want to look for “Header” in the features.

A running head/page header includes two pieces:

• the title of the paper
• page numbers.

Insert page numbers justified to the right-hand side of the APA format paper (do not put p. or pg. in front of the page numbers).

For all pages of the paper, including the APA format title page, include the “TITLE OF YOUR PAPER” justified to the left in capital letters (i.e., the running head). If your full title is long (over 50 characters), the running head title should be a shortened version.

Preparing outlines in APA Format

Outlines are extremely beneficial as they help writers stay organized, determine the scope of the research that needs to be included, and establish headings and subheadings.

There isn’t an official or recommended “APA format for outline” structure. It is up to the writer (if they choose to make use of an outline) to determine how to organize it and the characters to include. Some writers use a mix of roman numerals, numbers, and uppercase and lowercase letters.

Even though there isn’t a required or recommended APA format for an outline, we encourage writers to make use of one. Who wouldn’t want to put together a rough outline of their project? We promise you, an outline will help you stay on track.

Here’s our version of how APA format for outlines could look:

Don’t forget, if you’re looking for information on APA citation format and other related topics, check out our other comprehensive guides.

How to form an abstract in APA

An APA format abstract (p. 38) is a summary of a scholarly article or scientific study. Scholarly articles and studies are rather lengthy documents, and abstracts allow readers to first determine if they’d like to read an article in its entirety or not.

You may come across abstracts while researching a topic. Many databases display abstracts in the search results and often display them before showing the full text of an article or scientific study. It is important to create a high quality abstract that accurately communicates the purpose and goal of your paper, as readers will determine if it is worthy to continue reading or not.

Are you wondering if you need to create an abstract for your assignment? Usually, student papers do not require an abstract. Abstracts are not typically seen in class assignments, and are usually only included when submitting a paper for publication. Unless your teacher or professor asked for it, you probably don’t need to have one for your class assignment.

If you’re planning on submitting your paper to a journal for publication, first check the journal’s website to learn about abstract and APA paper format requirements.

Here are some helpful suggestions to create a dynamic abstract:

• Abstracts are found on their own page, directly after the title or cover page.
• Professional papers only (not student papers): Include the running head on the top of the page.
• On the first line of the page, center the word “Abstract” (but do not include quotation marks).
• On the following line, write a summary of the key points of your research. Your abstract summary is a way to introduce readers to your research topic, the questions that will be answered, the process you took, and any findings or conclusions you drew. Use concise, brief, informative language. You only have a few sentences to share the summary of your entire document, so be direct with your wording.
• This summary should not be indented, but should be double-spaced and less than 250 words.
• If applicable, help researchers find your work in databases by listing keywords from your paper after your summary. To do this, indent and type Keywords : in italics.  Then list your keywords that stand out in your research. You can also include keyword strings that you think readers will type into the search box.
• Active voice: The subjects reacted to the medication.
• Passive voice: There was a reaction from the subjects taking the medication.
• Instead of evaluating your project in the abstract, simply report what it contains.
• If a large portion of your work includes the extension of someone else’s research, share this in the abstract and include the author’s last name and the year their work was released.

APA format example page:

Here’s an example of an abstract:

Visual design is a critical aspect of any web page or user interface, and its impact on a user’s experience has been studied extensively. Research has shown a positive correlation between a user’s perceived usability and a user’s assessment of visual design. Additionally, perceived web quality, which encompasses visual design, has a positive relationship with both initial and continued consumer purchase intention. However, visual design is often assessed using self-report scale, which are vulnerable to a few pitfalls. Because self-report questionnaires are often reliant on introspection and honesty, it is difficult to confidently rely on self-report questionnaires to make important decisions. This study aims to ensure the validity of a visual design assessment instrument (Visual Aesthetics of Websites Inventory: Short version) by examining its relationship with biometric (variables), like galvanic skin response, pupillometry, and fixation information. Our study looked at participants assessment of a webpage’s visual design, and compared it to their biometric responses while viewing the webpage. Overall, we found that both average fixation duration and pupil dilation differed when participants viewed web pages with lower visual design ratings compared to web pages with a higher visual design rating.

Keywords : usability, visual design, websites, eye tracking, pupillometry, self-report, VisAWI

The body of an APA paper

On the page after the title page (if a student paper) or the abstract (if a professional paper), begin with the body of the paper.

Most papers follow this format:

• At the top of the page, add the page number in the upper right corner of all pages, including the title page.
• On the next line write the title in bold font and center it. Do not underline or italicize it.
• Begin with the introduction and indent the first line of the paragraph. All paragraphs in the body are indented.

Sample body for a student paper:

Most scientific or professional papers have additional sections and guidelines:

• Start with the running head (title + page number). The heading title should be in capital letters. The abstract page should be page 2.
• The introduction presents the problem and premise upon which the research was based. It goes into more detail about this problem than the abstract.
• Begin a new section with the Method and use this word as the subtitle. Bold and center this subtitle. The Method section shows how the study was run and conducted. Be sure to describe the methods through which data was collected.
• Begin a new section with the Results . Bold and center this subtitle. The Results section summarizes your data. Use charts and graphs to display this data.
• Draw conclusions and support how your data led to these conclusions.
• Discuss whether or not your hypothesis was confirmed or not supported by your results.
• Determine the limitations of the study and next steps to improve research for future studies.

Sample body for a professional paper:

Keep in mind, APA citation format is much easier than you think, thanks to EasyBib.com. Try our automatic generator and watch how we create APA citation format references for you in just a few clicks. While you’re at it, take a peek at our other helpful guides, such as our APA reference page guide, to make sure you’re on track with your research papers.

Proper usage of headings & subheadings in APA Format

Headings (p. 47) serve an important purpose in research papers — they organize your paper and make it simple to locate different pieces of information. In addition, headings provide readers with a glimpse to the main idea, or content, they are about to read.

In APA format, there are five levels of headings, each with a different formatting:

• This is the title of your paper
• The title should be centered in the middle of the page
• The title should be bolded
• Use uppercase and lowercase letters where necessary (called title capitalization)
• Place this heading against the left margin
• Use bold letters
• Use uppercase and lowercase letters where necessary
• Place this heading against the left side margin
• End the heading with a period
• Indented in from the left margin

Following general formatting rules, all headings are double spaced and there are no extra lines or spaces between sections.

Here is a visual APA format template for levels of headings:

Use of graphics (tables and figures) in APA Format

If you’re looking to jazz up your project with any charts, tables, drawings, or images, there are certain APA format rules (pp. 195-250) to follow.

First and foremost, the only reason why any graphics should be added is to provide the reader with an easier way to see or read information, rather than typing it all out in the text.

Lots of numbers to discuss? Try organizing your information into a chart or table. Pie charts, bar graphs, coordinate planes, and line graphs are just a few ways to show numerical data, relationships between numbers, and many other types of information.

Instead of typing out long, drawn out descriptions, create a drawing or image. Many visual learners would appreciate the ability to look at an image to make sense of information.

Before you go ahead and place that graphic in your paper, here are a few key guidelines:

• Follow them in the appropriate numerical order in which they appear in the text of your paper. Example : Figure 1, Figure 2, Table 1, Figure 3.
• Example: Figure 1, Figure 2, Table 1, Figure 3
• Only use graphics if they will supplement the material in your text. If they reinstate what you already have in your text, then it is not necessary to include a graphic.
• Include enough wording in the graphic so that the reader is able to understand its meaning, even if it is isolated from the corresponding text. However, do not go overboard with adding a ton of wording in your graphic.
• Left align tables and figures

In our APA format sample paper , you’ll find examples of tables after the references. You may also place tables and figures within the text just after it is mentioned.

Is there anything better than seeing a neatly organized data table? We think not! If you have tons of numbers or data to share, consider creating a table instead of typing out a wordy paragraph. Tables are pretty easy to whip up on Google Docs or Microsoft Word.

General format of a table should be:

• Table number
• Choose to type out your data OR create a table. As stated above, in APA format, you shouldn’t have the information typed out in your paper and also have a table showing the same exact information. Choose one or the other.
• If you choose to create a table, discuss it very briefly in the text. Say something along the lines of, “Table 1 displays the amount of money used towards fighting Malaria.” Or, “Stomach cancer rates are displayed in Table 4.”
• If you’re submitting your project for a class, place your table close to the text where it’s mentioned. If you’re submitting it to be published in a journal, most publishers prefer tables to be placed in the back. If you’re unsure where to place your tables, ask!
• Include the table number first and at the top. Table 1 is the first table discussed in the paper. Table 2 is the next table mentioned, and so on. This should be in bold.
• Add a title under the number. Create a brief, descriptive title. Capitalize the first letter for each important word. Italicize the title and place it under the table number.
• Only use horizontal lines.
• Limit use of cell shading.
• Keep the font at 12-point size and use single or double spacing. If you use single spacing in one table, make sure all of the others use single spaces as well. Keep it consistent.
• All headings should be centered.
• In the first column (called the stub), center the heading, left-align the information underneath it (indent 0.15 inches if info is more than one line).
• Information in other columns should be centered.
• General . Information about the whole table.
• Specific . Information targeted for a specific column, row, or cell.
• Probability . Explains what certain table symbols mean. For example, asterisks,  p values, etc.

Here’s an APA format example of a table:

We know putting together a table is pretty tricky. That’s why we’ve included not one, but a few tables on this page. Scroll down and look at the additional tables in the essay in APA format example found below.

Figures represent information in a visual way. They differ from tables in that they are visually appealing. Sure, tables, like the one above, can be visually appealing, but it’s the color, circles, arrows, boxes, or icons included that make a figure a “figure.”

There are many commonly used figures in papers. Examples APA Format:

• Photographs
• Hierarchy charts

General format of a figure is the same as tables. This means each should include:

• Figure number

Use the same formatting tables use for the number, title, and note.

Here are some pointers to keep in mind when it comes to APA format for figures:

• Only include a figure if it adds value to your paper. If it will truly help with understanding, include it!
• Either include a figure OR write it all out in the text. Do not include the same information twice.
• If a note is added, it should clearly explain the content of the figure. Include any reference information if it’s reproduced or adapted.

APA format sample of a figure:

Photographs:

We live in a world where we have tons of photographs available at our fingertips.

Photographs found through Google Images, social media, stock photos made available from subscription sites, and tons of other various online sources make obtaining photographs a breeze. We can even pull out our cell phones, and in just a few seconds, take pictures with our cameras.

Photographs are simple to find, and because of this, many students enjoy using them in their papers.

If you have a photograph you would like to include in your project, here are some guidelines from the American Psychological Association.

• Create a reference for the photograph. Follow the guidelines under the table and figure sections above.
• Do not use color photos. It is recommended to use black and white. Colors can change depending on the reader’s screen resolution. Using black and white ensures the reader will be able to view the image clearly. The only time it is recommended to use color photos is if you’re writing about color-specific things. For example, if you’re discussing the various shades of leaf coloration, you may want to include a few photographs of colorful leaves.
• If there are sections of the photograph that are not related to your work, it is acceptable to crop them out. Cropping is also beneficial in that it helps the reader focus on the main item you’re discussing.
• If you choose to include an image of a person you know, it would be respectful if you ask their permission before automatically including their photo in your paper.  Some schools and universities post research papers online and some people prefer that their photos and information stay off the Internet.

B. Writing Style Tips

Writing a paper for scientific topics is much different than writing for English, literature, and other composition classes. Science papers are much more direct, clear, and concise. This section includes key suggestions, explains how to write in APA format, and includes other tidbits to keep in mind while formulating your research paper.

Verb usage in APA

Research experiments and observations rely on the creation and analysis of data to test hypotheses and come to conclusions. While sharing and explaining the methods and results of studies, science writers often use verbs.

When using verbs in writing, make sure that you continue to use them in the same tense throughout the section you’re writing. Further details are in the publication manual (p. 117).

Here’s an APA format example:

We tested the solution to identify the possible contaminants.

It wouldn’t make sense to add this sentence after the one above:

We tested the solution to identify the possible contaminants. Researchers often test solutions by placing them under a microscope.

Notice that the first sentence is in the past tense while the second sentence is in the present tense. This can be confusing for readers.

For verbs in scientific papers, the APA manual recommends using:

• Past tense or present perfect tense for the explantation of the procedure
• Past tense for the explanation of the results
• Present tense for the explanation of the conclusion and future implications

If this is all a bit much, and you’re simply looking for help with your references, try the EasyBib.com APA format generator . Our APA formatter creates your references in just a few clicks. APA citation format is easier than you think thanks to our innovative, automatic tool.

Even though your writing will not have the same fluff and detail as other forms of writing, it should not be boring or dull to read. The Publication Manual suggests thinking about who will be the main reader of your work and to write in a way that educates them.

How to reduce bias & labels

The American Psychological Association strongly objects to any bias towards gender, racial groups, ages of individuals or subjects, disabilities, and sexual orientation (pp. 131-149). If you’re unsure whether your writing is free of bias and labels or not, have a few individuals read your work to determine if it’s acceptable.

Here are a few guidelines that the American Psychological Association suggests :

• Only include information about an individual’s orientation or characteristic if it is important to the topic or study. Do not include information about individuals or labels if it is not necessary.
• If writing about an individual’s characteristic or orientation, for essay APA format, make sure to put the person first. Instead of saying, “Diabetic patients,” say, “Patients who are diabetic.”
• Instead of using narrow terms such as, “adolescents,” or “the elderly,” try to use broader terms such as, “participants,” and “subjects.”
• “They” or “their” are acceptable gender-neutral pronouns to use.
• Be mindful when using terms that end with “man” or “men” if they involve subjects who are female. For example, instead of using “Firemen,” use the term, “Firefighter.” In general, avoid ambiguity.
• When referring to someone’s racial or ethnic identity, use the census category terms and capitalize the first letter. Also, avoid using the word, “minority,” as it can be interpreted as meaning less than or deficient. Instead, say “people of color” or “underrepresented groups.”
• When describing subjects in APA format, use the words “girls” and “boys” for children who are under the age of 12. The terms, “young woman,” “young man,” “female adolescent,” and “male adolescent” are appropriate for subjects between 13-17 years old; “Men,” and “women,” for those older than 18. Use the term, “older adults.” for individuals who are older. “Elderly,” and “senior,” are not acceptable if used only as nouns. It is acceptable to use these terms if they’re used as adjectives.

Read through our example essay in APA format, found in section D, to see how we’ve reduced bias and labels.

Spelling in APA Format

• In APA formatting, use the same spelling as words found in Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary (American English) (p. 161).
• If the word you’re trying to spell is not found in Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, a second resource is Webster’s Third New International Dictionary .
• If attempting to properly spell words in the psychology field, consult the American Psychological Association’s Dictionary of Psychology

Thanks to helpful tools and features, such as the spell checker, in word processing programs, most of us think we have everything we need right in our document. However, quite a few helpful features are found elsewhere.

Where can you find a full grammar editor? Right here, on EasyBib.com. The EasyBib Plus paper checker scans your paper for spelling, but also for any conjunction , determiner, or adverb out of place. Try it out and unlock the magic of an edited paper.

Abbreviation do’s and don’ts in APA Format

Abbreviations can be tricky. You may be asking yourself, “Do I include periods between the letters?” “Are all letters capitalized?” “Do I need to write out the full name each and every time?” Not to worry, we’re breaking down the publication manual’s abbreviations (p. 172) for you here.

First and foremost, use abbreviations sparingly.

Too many and you’re left with a paper littered with capital letters mashed together. Plus, they don’t lend themselves to smooth and easy reading. Readers need to pause and comprehend the meaning of abbreviations and quite often stumble over them.

• If the abbreviation is used less than three times in the paper, type it out each time. It would be pretty difficult to remember what an abbreviation or acronym stands for if you’re writing a lengthy paper.
• If you decide to sprinkle in abbreviations,  it is not necessary to include periods between the letters.
• Example: While it may not affect a patient’s short-term memory (STM), it may affect their ability to comprehend new terms. Patients who experience STM loss while using the medication should discuss it with their doctor.
• Example : AIDS
• The weight in pounds exceeded what we previously thought.

Punctuation in APA Format

One space after most punctuation marks.

The manual recommends using one space after most punctuation marks, including punctuation at the end of a sentence (p. 154). It doesn’t hurt to double check with your teacher or professor to ask their preference since this rule was changed recently (in 2020).

The official APA format book was primarily created to aid individuals with submitting their paper for publication in a professional journal. Many schools adopt certain parts of the handbook and modify sections to match their preference. To see an example of an APA format research paper, with the spacing we believe is most commonly and acceptable to use, scroll down and see section D.

For more information related to the handbook, including frequently asked questions, and more, here’s further reading on the style

It’s often a heated debate among writers whether or not to use an Oxford comma (p. 155), but for this style, always use an Oxford comma. This type of comma is placed before the words AND and OR or in a series of three items.

Example of APA format for commas: The medication caused drowsiness, upset stomach, and fatigue.

Here’s another example: The subjects chose between cold, room temperature, or warm water.

Apostrophes

When writing a possessive singular noun, you should place the apostrophe before the s. For possessive plural nouns, the apostrophe is placed after the s.

• Singular : Linda Morris’s jacket
• Plural : The Morris’ house

Em dashes (long dash) are used to bring focus to a particular point or an aside. There are no spaces after these dashes (p. 157).

Use en dashes (short dash) in compound adjectives. Do not place a space before or after the dash. Here are a few examples:

• custom-built
• 12-year-old

Number rules in APA Format

Science papers often include the use of numbers, usually displayed in data, tables, and experiment information. The golden rule to keep in mind is that numbers less than 10 are written out in text. If the number is more than 10, use numerals.

APA format examples:

• 14 kilograms
• seven individuals
• 83 years old
• Fourth grade

The golden rule for numbers has exceptions.

In APA formatting, use numerals if you are:

• Showing numbers in a table or graph
• 4 divided by 2
• 6-month-olds

Use numbers written out as words if you are:

• Ninety-two percent of teachers feel as though….
• Hundred Years’ War
• One-sixth of the students

Other APA formatting number rules to keep in mind:

• World War II
• Super Bowl LII
• It’s 1980s, not 1980’s!

Additional number rules can be found in the publication manual (p. 178)

Need help with other writing topics? Our plagiarism checker is a great resource for anyone looking for writing help. Say goodbye to an out of place noun , preposition , or adjective, and hello to a fully edited paper.

Overview of APA references

While writing a research paper, it is always important to give credit and cite your sources; this lets you acknowledge others’ ideas and research you’ve used in your own work. Not doing so can be considered plagiarism , possibly leading to a failed grade or loss of a job.

APA style is one of the most commonly used citation styles used to prevent plagiarism. Here’s more on crediting sources . Let’s get this statement out of the way before you become confused: An APA format reference and an APA format citation are two different things! We understand that many teachers and professors use the terms as if they’re synonyms, but according to this specific style, they are two separate things, with different purposes, and styled differently.

A reference displays all of the information about the source — the title, the author’s name, the year it was published, the URL, all of it! References are placed on the final page of a research project.

Here’s an example of a reference:

Wynne-Jones, T. (2015). The emperor of any place . Candlewick Press.

An APA format citation is an APA format in-text citation. These are found within your paper, anytime a quote or paraphrase is included. They usually only include the name of the author and the date the source was published.

Here’s an example of one:

Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is even discussed in the book, The Emperor of Any Place . The main character, Evan, finds a mysterious diary on his father’s desk (the same desk his father died on, after suffering from a hypertrophic cardiomyopathy attack). Evan unlocks the truth to his father and grandfather’s past (Wynne-Jones, 2015).

Both of the ways to credit another individual’s work — in the text of a paper and also on the final page — are key to preventing plagiarism. A writer must use both types in a paper. If you cite something in the text, it must have a full reference on the final page of the project. Where there is one, there must be the other!

Now that you understand that, here’s some basic info regarding APA format references (pp. 281-309).

• Each reference is organized, or structured, differently. It all depends on the source type. A book reference is structured one way, an APA journal is structured a different way, a newspaper article is another way. Yes, it’s probably frustrating that not all references are created equal and set up the same way. MLA works cited pages are unique in that every source type is formatted the same way. Unfortunately, this style is quite different.
• Most references follow this general format:

Author’s Last name, First initial. Middle initial. (Year published). Title of source . URL.

Again, as stated in the above paragraph, you must look up the specific source type you’re using to find out the placement of the title, author’s name, year published, etc.

For more information on APA format for sources and how to reference specific types of sources, use the other guides on EasyBib.com. Here’s another useful site .

Looking for a full visual of a page of references? Scroll down and take a peek at our APA format essay example towards the bottom of this page. You’ll see a list of references and you can gain a sense of how they look.

Bonus: here’s a link to more about the fundamentals related to this particular style. If you want to brush up or catch up on the Modern Language Association’s style, here’s a great resource on how to cite websites in MLA .

In-text APA citation format

Did you find the perfect quote or piece of information to include in your project? Way to go! It’s always a nice feeling when we find that magical piece of data or info to include in our writing. You probably already know that you can’t just copy and paste it into your project, or type it in, without also providing credit to the original author.

Displaying where the original information came from is much easier than you think.Directly next to the quote or information you included, place the author’s name and the year nearby. This allows the reader of your work to see where the information originated.

APA allows for the use of two different forms of in-text citation, parenthetical and narrative Both forms of citation require two elements:

• author’s name
• year of publication

The only difference is the way that this information is presented to the reader.

Parenthetical citations are the more commonly seen form of in-text citations for academic work, in which both required reference elements are presented at the end of the sentence in parentheses. Example:

Harlem had many artists and musicians in the late 1920s (Belafonte, 2008).

Narrative citations allow the author to present one or both of the required reference elements inside of the running sentence, which prevents the text from being too repetitive or burdensome. When only one of the two reference elements is included in the sentence, the other is provided parenthetically. Example:

According to Belafonte (2008), Harlem was full of artists and musicians in the late 1920s.

If there are two authors listed in the source entry, then the parenthetical reference must list them both:

(Smith & Belafonte, 2008)

If there are three or more authors listed in the source entry, then the parenthetical reference can abbreviate with “et al.”, the latin abbreviation for “and others”:

(Smith et al., 2008)

The author’s names are structured differently if there is more than one author. Things will also look different if there isn’t an author at all (which is sometimes the case with website pages). For more information on APA citation format, check out this page on the topic: APA parenthetical citation and APA in-text citation . There is also more information in the official manual in chapter 8.

If it’s MLA in-text and parenthetical citations you’re looking for, we’ve got your covered there too! You might want to also check out his guide on parenthetical citing .

Would you benefit from having a tool that helps you easily generate citations that are in the text? Check out EasyBib Plus!

References page in APA Format

An APA format reference page is easier to create than you probably think. We go into detail on how to create this page on our APA reference page . We also have a guide for how to create an annotated bibliography in APA . But, if you’re simply looking for a brief overview of the reference page, we’ve got you covered here.

Here are some pointers to keep in mind when it comes to the references page in APA format:

• This VIP page has its very own page. Start on a fresh, clean document (p. 303).
• Center and bold the title “References” (do not include quotation marks, underline, or italicize this title).
• Alphabetize and double-space ALL entries.
• Use a readable font, such as Times New Roman, Arial, Calibri, or Lucida (p. 44).
• Every quote or piece of outside information included in the paper should be referenced and have an entry.
• Even though it’s called a “reference page,” it can be longer than one page. If your references flow onto the next page, then that’s a-okay.
• Only include the running head if it is required by your teacher or you’re writing a professional paper.

Sample reference page for a student paper:

Here’s another friendly reminder to use the EasyBib APA format generator (that comes with EasyBib Plus) to quickly and easily develop every single one of your references for you. Try it out! Our APA formatter is easy to use and ready to use 24/7.

Final APA Format Checklist

Prior to submitting your paper, check to make sure you have everything you need and everything in its place:

• Did you credit all of the information and quotes you used in the body of your paper and show a matching full reference at the end of the paper? Remember, you need both! Need more information on how to credit other authors and sources? Check out our other guides, or use the EasyBib APA format generator to credit your sources quickly and easily. EasyBib.com also has more styles than just the one this page focuses on.
• 12-pt. Times New Roman
• 11-pt. Calibri, Arial, Georgia
• 10-pt. Lucida, Sans Unicode, Computer Modern
• If you created an abstract, is it directly after the title page? Some teachers and professors do not require an abstract, so before you go ahead and include it, make sure it’s something he or she is expecting.
• Professional paper — Did you include a running head on every single page of your project?
• Student paper — Did you include page numbers in the upper right-hand corner of all your pages?
• Are all headings, as in section or chapter titles, properly formatted? If you’re not sure, check section number 9.
• Are all tables and figures aligned properly? Did you include notes and other important information directly below the table or figure? Include any information that will help the reader completely understand everything in the table or figure if it were to stand alone.
• Are abbreviations used sparingly? Did you format them properly?
• Is the entire document double spaced?
• Are all numbers formatted properly? Check section 17, which is APA writing format for numbers.
• Did you glance at the sample paper? Is your assignment structured similarly? Are all of the margins uniform?

Submitting Your APA Paper

Congratulations for making it this far! You’ve put a lot of effort into writing your paper and making sure the t’s are crossed and the i’s are dotted. If you’re planning to submit your paper for a school assignment, make sure you review your teacher or professor’s procedures.

If you’re submitting your paper to a journal, you probably need to include a cover letter.

Most cover letters ask you to include:

• The author’s contact information.
• A statement to the editor that the paper is original.
• If a similar paper exists elsewhere, notify the editor in the cover letter.

Once again, review the specific journal’s website for exact specifications for submission.

Okay, so you’re probably thinking you’re ready to hit send or print and submit your assignment. Can we offer one last suggestion? We promise it will only take a minute.

Consider running your paper through our handy dandy paper checker. It’s pretty simple.

Copy and paste or upload your paper into our checker. Within a minute, we’ll provide feedback on your spelling and grammar. If there’s a pronoun , interjection , or verb out of place, we’ll highlight it and offer suggestions for improvement. We’ll even take it a step further and point out any instances of possible plagiarism.

If it sounds too good to be true, then head on over to our innovative tool and give it a whirl. We promise you won’t be disappointed.

What is APA Format?

APA stands for the American Psychological Association . In this guide, you’ll find information related to “What is APA format?” in relation to writing and organizing your paper according to the American Psychological Association’s standards. Information on how to cite sources can be found on our APA citation page. The official American Psychological Association handbook was used as a reference for our guide and we’ve included page numbers from the manual throughout. However, this page is not associated with the association.

You’ll most likely use APA format if your paper is on a scientific topic. Many behavioral and social sciences use this organization’s standards and guidelines.

What are behavioral sciences? Behavioral sciences study human and animal behavior. They can include:

• Cognitive Science
• Neuroscience

What are social sciences? Social sciences focus on one specific aspect of human behavior, specifically social and cultural relationships. Social sciences can include:

• Anthropology
• Political Science
• Human Geography
• Archaeology
• Linguistics

What’s New in the 7th Edition?

This citation style was created by the American Psychological Association. Its rules and guidelines can be found in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association . The information provided in the guide above follows the 6th edition (2009) of the manual. The 7th edition was published in 2020 and is the most recent version.

The 7th edition of the Publication Manual is in full color and includes 12 sections (compared to 8 sections in the 6th edition). In general, this new edition differentiates between professional and student papers, includes guidance with accessibility in mind, provides new examples to follow, and has updated guidelines.We’ve selected a few notable updates below, but for a full view of all of the 7th edition changes visit the style’s website linked here .

• Paper title
• Student name
• Affiliation (e.g., school, department, etc.)
• Course number and title
• Course instructor
• 6th edition – Running head: SMARTPHONE EFFECTS ON ADOLESCENT SOCIALIZATION
• 7th edition – SMARTPHONE EFFECTS ON ADOLESCENT SOCIALIZATION
• Pronouns . “They” can be used as a gender-neutral pronoun.
• Bias-free language guidelines . There are updated and new sections on guidelines for this section. New sections address participation in research, socioeconomic status, and intersectionality.
• Spacing after sentences. Add only a single space after end punctuation.
• Tables and figures . The citing format is now streamlined so that both tables and figures should include a name and number above the table/figure, and a note underneath the table/figure.
• 6th ed. – (Ikemoto, Richardson, Murphy, Yoshida 2016)
• 7th ed. – (Ikemoto et al., 2016)
• Citing books. The location of the publisher can be omitted. Also, e-books no longer need to mention the format (e.g., Kindle, etc.)
• Example: https://doi.org/10.1038/s42255-019-0153-5
• Using URLs. URLs no longer need to be prefaced by the words “Retrieved from.”

New citing information . There is new guidance on citing classroom or intranet resources, and oral traditions or traditional knowledge of indigenous peoples.

Visit our EasyBib Twitter feed to discover more citing tips, fun grammar facts, and the latest product updates.

American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.) (2020). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000

Published October 31, 2011. Updated May 14, 2020.

Written and edited by Michele Kirschenbaum and Elise Barbeau. Michele Kirschenbaum is a school library media specialist and the in-house librarian at EasyBib.com. Elise Barbeau is the Citation Specialist at Chegg. She has worked in digital marketing, libraries, and publishing.

APA Formatting Guide

APA Formatting

• Annotated Bibliography
• Block Quotes
• et al Usage
• Multiple Authors
• Paraphrasing
• Page Numbers
• Parenthetical Citations
• Sample Paper
• View APA Guide

Citation Examples

• Book Chapter
• Journal Article
• Magazine Article
• Newspaper Article
• Website (no author)
• View all APA Examples

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We should not use “et al.” in APA reference list entries. If the number of authors in the source is up to and including 20, list all author names and use an ampersand (&) before the final author’s name. If the number of authors is more than 20, list the first 19 authors’ names followed by an ellipsis (but no ampersand), and then add the final author’s name. An example of author names in a reference entry having more than 20 authors is given below:

Author Surname1, F. M., Author Surname2, F. M., Author Surname3, F. M., Author Surname4, F. M., Author Surname5, F. M., Author Surname6, F. M., Author Surname7, F. M., Author Surname8, F. M., Author Surname9, F. M., Author Surname10, F. M., Author Surname11, F. M., Author Surname12, F. M., Author Surname13, F. M., Author Surname14, F. M., Author Surname15, F. M., Author Surname16, F. M., Author Surname17, F. M., Author Surname18, F. M., Author Surname19, F. M., . . .  Last Author Surname, F. M. (Publication Year).

Alvarez, L. D., Peach, J. L., Rodriguez, J. F., Donald, L., Thomas, M., Aruck, A., Samy, K., Anthony, K., Ajey, M., Rodriguez, K. L., Katherine, K., Vincent, A., Pater, F., Somu, P., Pander, L., Berd, R., Fox, L., Anders, A., Kamala, W., . . . Nicole Jones, K. (2019).

Note that, unlike references with 2 to 20 author names, the symbol “&” is not used here before the last author’s name.

APA 7, released in October 2019, has some new updates. Here is a brief description of the updates made in APA 7.

Different types of papers and best practices are given in detail in Chapter 1.

How to format a student title page is explained in Chapter 2. Examples of a professional paper and a student paper are included.

Chapter 3 provides additional information on qualitative and mixed methods of research.

An update on writing style is included in Chapter 4.

In chapter 5, some best practices for writing with bias-free language are included.

Chapter 6 gives some updates on style elements including using a single space after a period, including a citation with an abbreviation, the treatment of numbers in abstracts, treatment for different types of lists, and the formatting of gene and protein names.

In Chapter 7, additional examples are given for tables and figures for different types of publications.

In Chapter 8, how to format quotations and how to paraphrase text are covered with additional examples. A simplified version of in-text citations is clearly illustrated.

Chapter 9 has many updates: listing all author names up to 20 authors, standardizing DOIs and URLs, and the formatting of an annotated bibliography.

Chapter 10 includes many examples with templates for all reference types. New rules covering the inclusion of the issue number for journals and the omission of publisher location from book references are provided. Explanations of how to cite YouTube videos, power point slides, and TED talks are included.

Chapter 11 includes many legal references for easy understanding.

Chapter 12 provides advice for authors on how to promote their papers.

For more information on some of the changes found in APA 7, check out this EasyBib article .

APA Citation Examples

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A comprehensive guide to apa citations and format, overview of this guide:.

This page provides you with an overview of APA format, 7th edition. Included is information about referencing, various citation formats with examples for each source type, and other helpful information.

If you’re looking for MLA format , check out the Citation Machine MLA Guide. Also, visit the Citation Machine homepage to use the APA formatter, which is an APA citation generator, and to see more styles .

Being responsible while researching

When you’re writing a research paper or creating a research project, you will probably use another individual’s work to help develop your own assignment. A good researcher or scholar uses another individual’s work in a responsible way. This involves indicating that the work of other individuals is included in your project (i.e., citing), which is one way to prevent plagiarism.

Plagiarism? What is it?

The word plagiarism is derived from the Latin word, plagiare , which means “to kidnap.” The term has evolved over the years to now mean the act of taking another individual’s work and using it as your own, without acknowledging the original author (American Psychological Association, 2020 p. 21). Plagiarism can be illegal and there can be serious ramifications for plagiarizing someone else’s work. Thankfully, plagiarism can be prevented. One way it can be prevented is by including citations and references in your research project. Want to make them quickly and easily? Try the Citation Machine citation generator, which is found on our homepage.

All about citations & references

Citations and references should be included anytime you use another individual’s work in your own assignment. When including a quote, paraphrased information, images, or any other piece of information from another’s work, you need to show where you found it by including a citation and a reference. This guide explains how to make them.

APA style citations are added in the body of a research paper or project and references are added to the last page.

Citations , which are called in-text citations, are included when you’re adding information from another individual’s work into your own project. When you add text word-for-word from another source into your project, or take information from another source and place it in your own words and writing style (known as paraphrasing), you create an in-text citation. These citations are short in length and are placed in the main part of your project, directly after the borrowed information.

References are found at the end of your research project, usually on the last page. Included on this reference list page is the full information for any in-text citations found in the body of the project. These references are listed in alphabetical order by the author's last name.

An APA in-text citation includes only three items: the last name(s) of the author(s), the year the source was published, and sometimes the page or location of the information. References include more information such as the name of the author(s), the year the source was published, the full title of the source, and the URL or page range.

Why is it important to include citations & references

Including APA citations and references in your research projects is a very important component of the research process. When you include citations, you’re being a responsible researcher. You’re showing readers that you were able to find valuable, high-quality information from other sources, place them into your project where appropriate, all while acknowledging the original authors and their work.

Common ways students and scholars accidentally plagiarize

Believe it or not, there are instances when you could attempt to include in-text and full references in the appropriate places, but still accidentally plagiarize. Here are some common mistakes to be aware of:

Mistake #1 - Misquoting sources: If you plan to use a direct quote, make sure you copy it exactly as is. Sure, you can use part of the full quote or sentence, but if you decide to put quotation marks around any words, those words should match exactly what was found in the original source. Here’s a line from The Little Prince , by Antoine de Saint-Exupéry:

“Grown-ups never understand anything by themselves, and it is tiresome for children to be always and forever explaining things to them.”

Here’s an acceptable option:

“Grown-ups never understand anything by themselves,” stated de Saint-Exupéry (1943, p. 3).

Here’s a misquote:

“Grown-ups barely ever understand anything by themselves,” stated de Saint-Exupéry (1943, p. 3).

Notice the slight change in the words. The incorrect phrasing is an instance of accidental plagiarism.

Mistake #2 - Problems with paraphrasing: When we paraphrase, we restate information using our own words and writing style. It’s not acceptable to substitute words from the original source with synonyms.

Let’s use the same sentence from The Little Prince .

A correct paraphrase could be:

de Saint-Exupéry (1943) shares various ways adults frustrate children. One of the biggest being that kids have to explain everything. It’s too bad adults are unable to comprehend anything on their own (p. 3).

An incorrect paraphrase would be:

de Saint-Exupéry (1943) shares that adults never understand anything by themselves, and it is exhausting for kids to be always and forever clarifying things to them (p.3).

Notice how close the incorrect paraphrase is from the original. This is an instance of accidental plagiarism.

Make sure you quote and paraphrase properly in order to prevent accidental plagiarism.

If you’re having a difficult time paraphrasing properly, it is acceptable to paraphrase part of the text AND use a direct quote. Here’s an example:

de Saint-Exupery (1943) shares various ways adults frustrate children. One of the biggest being that kids have to explain everything, and “it is tiresome for children to be always and forever explaining things to them” (p. 3).

Information About APA

Who created it.

The American Psychological Association is an organization created for individuals in the psychology field. With close to 121,000 members, they provide educational opportunities, funding, guidance, and research information for everything psychology-related. They also have numerous high-quality databases, peer-reviewed journals, and books that revolve around mental health.

The American Psychological Association is also credited with creating their own specific citation and reference style. Today, this format is used by individuals not only in the psychology field, but many other subject areas as well. Education, economics, business, and social sciences also use APA style quite frequently. Click here for more information . This guide covers general information about the style, but is not affiliated with the American Psychological Association.

Why was this style created?

This format was first developed in 1929 to form a standardized way for researchers in science fields to document their sources. Prior to the inception of these standards and guidelines, individuals were recognizing the work of other authors by including bits and pieces of information in random order. There wasn’t a set way to format citations and references. You can probably imagine how difficult it was to understand the sources that were used for research projects!

Having a standard format for citing sources allows readers to glance at a citation or APA reference and easily locate the title, author, year published, and other critical pieces of information needed to understand a source.

The evolution of this style

The guide below is based on APA style 7th edition, which was released in 2020. In previous versions of APA format, researchers and scholars were required to include the publisher location for books and the date that an electronic resource was accessed. Both are no longer required to be included.

Details on the differences between the 6th and 7th editions is addressed later in this guide.

Citations & References

The appearance of citations & references.

The format for references varies, but most use this general format:

%%Author’s Last name, First initial. (Date published). Title . URL

Researchers and scholars must look up the proper format for the source that they’re attempting to cite. Books have a certain format, websites have a different format, periodicals have a different format, and so on. Scroll down to find the proper format for the source you’re citing or referencing.

If you would like help citing your sources, CitationMachine.com has a citation generator that will help make the APA citation process much easier for you. To start, simply click on the source type you're citing:

• Journal articles

In-text citations

An APA in-text citation is included in research projects in three instances: When using a direct quote, paraphrasing information, or simply referring to a piece of information from another source.

Quite often, researchers and scholars use a small amount of text, word for word, from another source and include it in their own research projects. This is done for many reasons. Sometimes, another author’s words are so eloquently written that there isn’t a better way to rephrase it yourself. Other times, the author’s words can help prove a point or establish an understanding for something in your research project. When using another author’s exact words in your research project, include an APA in-text citation directly following it.

In addition to using the exact words from another source and placing them into your project, these citations are also added anytime you paraphrase information. Paraphrasing is when you take information from another source and rephrase it, in your own words.

When simply referring to another piece of information from another source, also include a citation directly following it.

Citations in the text are found near a direct quote, paraphrased information, or next to a mention of another source. To see examples of some narrative/ parenthetical citations in action, look at the image above, under “All About Citations & References.”

Note: *Only include the page or paragraph number when using a direct quote or paraphrase. Page numbers have a p. before the number, pp. before the page range, and para. before the paragraph number. This information is included to help the reader locate the exact portion of text themselves. It is unnecessary to include this information when you’re simply referring to another source.

Examples of APA in-text citations:

“Well, you’re about to enter the land of the free and the brave. And I don’t know how you got that stamp on your passport. The priest must know someone” (Tóibín, 2009, p. 52).

Student teachers who use technology in their lessons tend to continue using technology tools throughout their teaching careers (Kent & Giles, 2017, p. 12).

If including the author’s name in the sentence, place the year in the parentheses directly next to his or her name. Add the page number at the end, unless it’s a source without any pages or paragraph numbers (See Section 8.10 of the Publication manual for more details).

In-text citation APA example:

According to a study done by Kent and Giles (2017), student teachers who use technology in their lessons tend to continue using technology tools throughout their teaching careers.

The full references, or citations, for these sources can be found on the last part of a research project, titled the “References.”

Here’s how to create in-text citations for specific amounts of authors:

APA citation with no author

When the source lacks an author’s name, place the title, year, and page number (if available) in the text. The title should be in italics if it sits alone (such as a movie, brochure, or report). If the source is part of a whole (as many web pages and articles are), place the title in quotation marks without italics (See Section 8.14 of the Publication manual ).

Structure of an APA format citation in the text narratively, with the author's name missing:

Title of Source (Year) or “Title of Source” (Year)

Structure of an APA style format citation, in parentheses at the end of the sentence, with the author’s name missing: (Title of Source, Year) or (“Title of Source,” Year)

Structure for one author

In the text, narratively: Last name of Author (Year)...(page number).

In parentheses, at the end of the sentence: (Last name of Author, Year, page number).

Structure for two authors

Place the authors in the order they appear on the source. Only use the ampersand in the parenthetical citations (see Section 8.17 of the Publication manual ). Use ‘and’ to separate the author names if they’re in the text of the sentence.

In the text, narratively: Last name of Author 1 and Last name of Author 2 (Year)....(page number).

In parentheses, at the end of the sentence: (Last name of Author 1 & Last name of Author 2, Year, page number).

Structure for three or more authors

Only include the first listed author’s name in the first and any subsequent citations. Follow it with et al.

(Last name Author 1 et al., Year, page number)

(Agbayani et al., 2020, p. 99)

Last name of Author 1 et al. (Year)...(page).

Agbayani et al. (2020)...(p. 99)

One author, multiple works, same year

What do you do when you want to cite multiple works by an author, and the sources all written in the same year?

Include the letters ‘a’ ‘b’ ‘c’ and so on after the year in the citation.

(Jackson, 2013a)

Jackson (2013a)

Writers can even lump dates together.

Example: Jackson often studied mammals while in Africa (2013a, 2013b).

On the APA reference page, include the same letters in the full references.

Groups and organizations

Write out the full name of the group or organization in the first citation and place the abbreviation next to it in brackets. If the group or organization is cited again, only include the abbreviation. If it doesn’t have an abbreviation associated with it, write out the entire organization’s name each and every time (see Section 8.21 of the Publication manual ).

First APA citation for an organization with an abbreviation: (World Health Organization [WHO], Year)

World Health Organization (WHO, Year)

Notice in the example directly above, the name of the organization is written out in full in the text of the sentence, and the abbreviation is placed in parentheses next to it.

Subsequent APA citations in the text for an organization with an abbreviation: (WHO, Year) OR WHO (Year)

All citations in the text for an organization without an abbreviation: (Citation Machine, Year) or Citation Machine (Year)

One in-text citation, multiple works

Sometimes you’ll need to cite more than one work within an in-text citation. Follow the same format (author, year) format but place semicolons between works (p. 263).

(Obama, 2016; Monroe et al., 1820; Hoover & Coolidge, 1928)

Reminder: There are many citation tools available on CitationMachine.com. Head to our homepage to learn more, check out our APA citation website, and cite your sources easily! The most useful resource on our website? Our APA citation generator, which doesn’t just create full references, it’s also an APA in-text citation website! It’ll do both for you!

Click here to learn more about crediting work .

Reference list citation components

References display the full information for all the citations found in the body of a research project.

Some things to keep in mind when it comes to the references:

• All references sit together on their own page, which is usually the last page(s) of a paper.
• Title the page ‘References’
• Place ‘References’ in the center of the page and bold it. Keep the title in the same font and size as the references. Do not italicize, underline, place the title in quotation marks, or increase the font size.
• The entire page is double spaced.
• All references are listed in alphabetical order by the first word in the reference, which is usually the author’s last name. If the source lacks an author, alphabetize the source by the title (ignore A, An, or The)
• All references have a hanging indent, meaning that the second line of text is indented in half an inch. See examples throughout this guide.
• Remember, each and every citation in the text of the paper MUST have a full reference displayed in the reference list. The citations in the text provide the reader with a quick glimpse about the sources used, but the references in the reference list provide the reader with all the information needed to seek out the source themselves.

Learn more about each component of the reference citation and how to format it in the sections that follow. See an APA sample paper reference list at the end of this entire section.

Author’s names

The names of authors are written in reverse order. Include the initials for the first and middle names. End this information with a period (see Section 9.8 of the Publication manual ).

Format: Last name, F. M.

• Angelou, M.
• Doyle, A. C.

Two or more authors

When two or more authors work together on a source, write them in the order in which they appear on the source. You can name up to 20 authors in the reference. For sources with 2 to 20 authors, place an ampersand (&) before the final author. Use this format:

Last name, F. M., & Last name, F. M.

Last name, F. M., Last name, F. M., Last name, F. M., Last name, F. M., & Last name, F. M.

Kent, A. G., Giles, R. M., Thorpe, A., Lukes, R., Bever, D. J., & He, Y.

If there are 21 or more authors listed on a source, only include the first 19 authors, add three ellipses, and then add the last author’s name.

Roberts, A., Johnson, M. C., Klein, J., Cheng, E. V., Sherman, A., Levin, K. K. , ...Lopez, G. S.

If you plan on using a free APA citation tool, like the one at CitationMachine.com, the names of the authors will format properly for you.

###No authors

If the source lacks an author, place the title in the first position in the reference (Section 9.12 of the Publication manual ). When the source’s title begins with a number (Such as 101 Dalmatians ), place the reference alphabetically as if the number was spelled out. 101 Dalmatians would be placed in the spot where ‘One hundred’ would go, but keep the numbers in their place.

Additionally, if the title begins with the words ‘A’, ‘An,’ or ‘The,’ ignore these words and place the title alphabetically according to the next word.

See the “Titles” section below for more information on formatting the title of sources.

###Corporate/Organization authors

On an APA reference page, corporate authors are always written out in full. In the text of your paper, you may have some abbreviations (such as UN for United Nations), but in the full references, always include the full names of the corporation or organization (following Section 9.11 of the official Publication manual ).

%%United Nations. (2019). Libya: $202 million needed to bring life-saving aid to half a million people hit by humanitarian crisis. https://news.un.org/en/story/2019/02/1031981

Publication date & retrieval date

Directly after the author’s name is the date the source was published. Include the full date for newspapers and magazine articles, and only the year for journals and all other sources. If no date is found on the source, include the initials, n.d. for “no date.”

%% Narducci, M. (2017, May 19). City renames part of 11th Street Ed Snider Way to honor Flyers founder. The Philadelphia Inquirer . http://www.philly.com/

If using our APA Citation Machine, our citation generator will add the correct format for you automatically.

Giving a retrieval date is not needed unless the online content is likely to be frequently updated and changed (e.g., encyclopedia article, dictionary entry, Twitter profile, etc.).

%%Citation Machine [@CiteMachine]. (n.d.). Tweets [Twitter profile]. Twitter. Retrieved October 10, 2019, from https://twitter.com/CiteMachine

When writing out titles for books, articles, chapters, or other non-periodical sources, only capitalize the first word of the title and the first word of the subtitle. Names of people, places, organizations, and other proper nouns also have the first letter capitalized. For books and reports, italicize the title in the APA citation.

Strange case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde.

Roots: The saga of an American family.

For articles and chapters in APA referencing, do not italicize the title.

Wake up the nation: Public libraries, policy making, and political discourse.

For newspapers, magazines, journals, newsletters, and other periodicals, capitalize the first letter in each word and italicize the title.

The Seattle Times.

A common question is whether to underline your title or place it in italics or quotation marks in the reference list. Here’s a good general rule: When a source sits alone and is not part of a larger whole, place the title in italics. If the source does not sit alone and is part of a larger whole, do not place it in italics.

Books, movies, journals, and television shows are placed in italics since they stand alone. Songs on an album, episodes of television shows, chapters in books, and articles in journals are not placed in italics since they are smaller pieces of larger wholes.

The Citation Machine citation generator will format the title in your citations automatically.

Additional information about the title

If you feel it would be helpful to include additional information about the source type, include a descriptive noun or two in brackets immediately following the title. Capitalize the first letter.

%%Kennedy, K., & Molen, G. R. (Producers), & Spielberg, S. (Director). (1993). Jurassic Park [Film]. USA: Universal.

Besides [Film], other common notations include:

• [Audio podcast]
• [Letter to the editor]
• [Television series episode]
• [Facebook page]
• [Blog post]
• [Lecture notes]
• [PowerPoint presentation]
• [Video file]

If you are using Citation Machine citing tools, additional information about the title is automatically added for you.

Publisher information

For books and reports, include the publisher name but not the location (see Section 9.29 of the Publication manual ). Older editions of the style required the city, state and/or country, but this hasn't been the case since the 7th edition was released.

It is not necessary to include the entire name of the publisher. It is acceptable to use a brief, intelligible form. However, if Books or Press are part of the publisher’s names, keep these words in the reference. Other common terms, such as Inc., Co., Publishers, and others can be omitted.

For newspapers, journals, magazines, and other periodicals, include the volume and issue number after the title. The volume number is listed first, by itself, in italics. The issue number is in parentheses immediately after it, not italicized. There is no space after the closing parenthesis and before the volume number.

%%Giannoukos, G., Besas, G., Hictour, V., & Georgas, T. (2016). A study on the role of computers in adult education. Educational Research and Reviews , 11 (9), 907-923. https://doi.org/10.5897/ERR2016.2688

After including the publisher information, end this section with a period.

Perseus Books.

Electronic source information:

For online sources, the URL or DOI (Direct Object Identifier) are included at the end of an APA citation.

DOI numbers are often created by publishers for journal articles and other periodical sources. They were created in response to the problem of broken or outdated links and URLs. When a journal article is assigned a DOI number, it is static and will never change. Because of its permanent characteristic, DOIs are the preferred type of electronic information to include in APA citations. When a DOI number is not available, include the source’s URL (see Section 9.34 in the Publication manual ).

For DOIs, include the number in this format:

http://doi.org/xxxx

For URLs, type them in this format:

http:// or https://

Other information about electronic sources:

• If the URL is longer than a line, break it up before a punctuation mark.
• Do not place a period at the end of the citation/URL.
• It is unnecessary to include retrieval dates, unless the source changes often over time (like in a Wikipedia article).
• It is not necessary to include the names of databases

If using the Citation Machine APA citation website autocite features, the online publication information will be automatically replaced by the DOI. The Citation Machine APA template will properly cite your online sources for you.

Make sure you run your completed paper through the Citation Machine Plus smart proofreader, which scans for grammar, spelling, and plagiarism. Whether it’s an adjective , verb , or pronoun out-of-place, our technology helps edits your paper for you!

Annotated bibliographies:

An APA annotated bibliography is a full bibliography that includes a small note for each reference citation. Each note should be short (1-2 paragraphs) and contain a summary or your evaluation about each source. When creating your citations on CitationMachine.net, there is a field at the bottom of each form to add your own annotations.

Follow the publication manual guidelines on paper format and writing style. Let your instructor guide other details about your annotations. Still confused? Read our guide on annotated bibliographies .

These types of projects look different depending on the style you’re using. Use the link at the top of the page to access resources related to the Modern Language Association’s style. Here’s information related to Chicago citation style .

Page formatting

Need help with the design and formatting of your paper? Look no further! This section provides the ins and outs of properly displaying the information in your APA essay.

• Times New Roman, 12-point size.
• Calibri, Arial, or Georgia, 11-point size
• Lucida, Sans Unicode, or Computer Modern, 10-point size
• Indents = Every paragraph should start with an indent.
• Margins = 1 inch around the entire document
• Spacing = Double space everything!

Arrange your pages in this order:

• Page 1 - APA Title Page (see below for information on the title page)
• Page 2 - Abstract (If your professor requests one)
• Page 3 - First page of text
• References begin on their own page. Include the list of references on the page after the text.
• Tables and figures

Keep in mind that the order above is the recommendation for papers being submitted for peer review. If you’re writing an APA style paper for a class, your professor may be more lenient about the requirements. Also, if you’re submitting your paper for a specific journal, check the requirements on the journal’s website. Each journal has different rules and procedures.

Just a little nudge to remind you about the Citation Machine Plus smart proofreader. Whether it’s a conjunction or interjection out of place, a misspelled word, or an out of place citation, we’ll offer suggestions for improvement! Don’t forget to check out our APA citation maker while you’re at it!

Running heads

In older editions of APA, running heads were required for all papers. Since the 7th edition, that’s changed.

• Student paper: No running head
• Professional paper: Include a running head

The running head displays the title of the paper and the page number on all pages of the paper. This header is found on every page of a professional paper (not a student paper), even on the title page (sometimes called an APA cover page) and reference list (taken from Section 2.8 of the Publication manual ).

It's displayed all in capital letters at the top of the page. Across from the running head, along the right margin, is the page number.

• Use the header feature in your word processor. Both Google Docs and Word have these features available.
• Use one for the recommended fonts mentioned under "Page formatting."

Title pages

A title page, sometimes called an APA cover page, graces the cover of an essay or paper. An APA title page should follow rules from Section 2.3 of the official Publication manual and include:

• Page number, which is page 1
• Use title case and bold font
• The title should be under 12 words in length
• The title should be a direct explanation of the focus of the paper. Do not include any unnecessary descriptors such as “An Analysis of…” or “A Study of…”
• Exclude any labels such as Mr., Ms., Dr, PhD...
• Name of the school or institution
• Course number and/or class name
• Name of your instructor, including their preferred honorifics (e.g., PhD, Dr., etc.)
• Paper’s due date
• If this is a professional paper, also include a running head. If this is a student paper, do not include one.

Follow the directions for the running head and page number in the section above. Below the running head, a few lines beneath, and centered in the middle of the page, should be the title. The next line below is the author’s name(s), followed by the name of the school or institution, the class or course name, your instructor’s name, and the paper’s due date.

All components on this page should be written in the same font and size as the rest of your paper. Double space the title, names, name of school or institution, and all other information on the page (except for the running head and page number).

Example - Student Title Page APA:

Example - Professional Title Page APA:

If you’re submitting your paper to a journal for publication, check the journal’s website for exact requirements. Each journal is different and some may request a different type of APA format cover page.

Looking to create an APA format title page? Head to CitationMachine.com’s homepage and choose “Title Page” at the top of the screen.

An abstract briefly but thoroughly summarizes dissertation contents. It’s found in the beginning of a professional paper, right after the title page. Abstracts are meant to help readers determine whether to continue reading the entire document. With that in mind, try to craft the lead sentence to entice the reader to continue reading.

Here are a few tips:

• Be factual and keep your opinions out. An abstract should accurately reflect the paper or dissertation and should not involve information or commentary not in the thesis.
• Communicate your main thesis. What was the examined problem or hypothesis? A reader should know this from reading your abstract.
• Keep it brief. Stick to the main points and don’t add unnecessary words or facts. It should not exceed 250 words.
• Consider your paper’s purpose. It’s important to cater your abstract to your paper type and think about what information the target audience for that paper type would want. For example, an empirical article may mention methodology or participant description. A quantitative or qualitative meta-analysis would mention the different variables considered and how information was synthesized.
• Use verbs over noun equivalents, and active voice. Example: “There was research into…” becomes “We researched…”

Formatting guidelines:

• The abstract goes after the title page.
• It should have the same font (size and type) as the rest of the paper.
• It should stick to one page.
• Double-space all page text.
• Center and bold the word “Abstract” at the top of the paper.
• Don’t indent the first line of the abstract body. The body should also be in plain text.
• For the keywords, place it on the line after the abstract and indent the first line (but not subsequent lines). The word “Keywords:” is capitalized, italicized, and followed by a colon. The actual keywords are sentence case and in plan font.
• List each keyword one after the other, and separate them by a comma.
• After the last keyword, no ending punctuation is needed.

Tables & Figures

If your paper includes a lot of numerical information or data, you may want to consider placing it into a table or a figure, rather than typing it all out. A visual figure or simple, organized table filled with numerical data is often easier for readers to digest and comprehend than tons of paragraphs filled with numbers. Chapter 7 of the Publication manual outlines formatting for tables and figures. Let's cover the basics below.

If you’d like to include a table or figure in your paper, here are a few key pieces of information to keep in mind:

• At the end of the paper after the APA reference page
• In the text after it is first mentioned
• The table first mentioned in the text should be titled ‘Table 1.’ The next table mentioned in the text is ‘Table 2,’ and so on. For figures, it would be 'Figure 1,' 'Figure 2,' and so forth.

• Even though every table and figure is numbered, also create a title for each that describes the information it contains. Capitalize all important words in the title.
• For tables, do not use any vertical lines, only use horizontal to break up information and headings.
• Single spacing is acceptable to use in tables and figures. If you prefer double spacing your information, that is okay too.
• Do not include extra information or “fluff.” Keep it simple!
• Do not include the same exact information in the paper. Only include the complete information in one area—the table or the text.
• All tables and figures must be referenced in the text. It is unacceptable to throw a table or figure into the back of the paper without first providing a brief summary or explanation of its relevance.

Publication Manual 6th Edition vs 7th Edition

The 6th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association was released in 2009. The current 7th edition came out in the fall of 2019 and was designed to be more student focused, provide more guidance on accessibility, and address changes that have developed over the last 10 years.

Below, we’ve listed what we feel are the most relevant changes related to APA format.

Journals and DOIs

DOI stands for “digital object identifier.” Many journal articles use and have a unique DOI that should be included in a full citation.

When including a DOI in a citation, format it as a URL. Do not label it “DOI.” Articles without DOIs from databases are treated as print works. For example:

6th edition:

%%Gänsicke, B. T., Schreiber, M. R., Toloza, O., Fusillo, N. P. G., Koester, D., & Manser, C. J. (2019). Accretion of a giant planet onto a white dwarf star. Nature, 576 (7785), 61–64. doi: 10.1038/s41586-019-1789-8

7th edition:

%%Gänsicke, B. T., Schreiber, M. R., Toloza, O., Fusillo, N. P. G., Koester, D., & Manser, C. J. (2019). Accretion of a giant planet onto a white dwarf star. Nature, 576 (7785), 61–64. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1789-8

Citing Books

There are few new guidelines when you are citing a book. First, the publisher location no longer needs to be indicated.

%%Zack, P. O. (2001). The shoals of time. Bloomington, IN: First Books Library.

%%Zack, P. O. (2001). The shoals of time. First Books Library.

Second, the format of an ebook (e.g., Kindle, etc.) no longer needs to be indicated.

%%Niven, J. (2012). Ada Blackjack: A true story of survival in the Arctic [Kindle].

%%Niven, J. (2012). Ada Blackjack: A true story of survival in the Arctic .

Lastly, books from research databases without DOIs are treated the same as print works.

When using a URL in a citation, you no longer need to include the term “Retrieved from” before URLs (except with retrieval dates). The font should be blue and underlined, or black and not underlined.

6th Edition:

%%Flood, A. (2019, December 6). Britain has closed almost 800 libraries since 2010, figures show. The Guardian . Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/books/2019/dec/06/britain-has-closed-almost-800-libraries-since-2010-figures-show

7th Edition:

%%Flood, A. (2019, December 6). Britain has closed almost 800 libraries since 2010, figures show. The Guardian . https://www.theguardian.com/books/2019/dec/06/britain-has-closed-almost-800-libraries-since-2010-figures-show

Within a full APA citation, you may spell out up to 20 author names. For two to 20 authors, include an ampersand (&) before the name of the last author. For sources with 21 or more authors, structure it as follows:

Structure: First 19 authors’ names, . . . Last author’s name.

7th edition example: Washington, G., Adams, J., Jefferson, T., Madison, J., Monroe, J., Adams, J. Q., Jackson, A., Van Buren, M., Harrison, W. H., Tyler, J., Polk, J. K., Taylor, Z., Filmore, M., Pierce, F., Buchanan, J., Lincoln, A., Johnson, A., Grant, U. S., Hayes, R. B., Garfield, . . . Trump, D.

When creating an in-text citation for a source with 3 or more authors, use “et al.” after the first author’s name. This helps abbreviate the mention.

6th Edition: (Honda, Johnson, Prosser, Rossi, 2019)

7th Edition: (Honda et al., 2019)

Tables and Figures

Instead of having different formats for tables and figures, both use one standardized format. Now both tables and figures have a number, a title, name of the table/figure, and a note at the bottom.

If you’re still typing into Google “how to cite a website APA” among other related questions and keywords, click here for further reading on the style .

When you’re through with your writing, toss your entire paper into the Citation Machine Plus plagiarism checker , which will scan your paper for grammar edits and give you up to 5 suggestions cards for free! Worry less about a determiner , preposition , or adverb out of place and focus on your research!

American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.) (2020). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000

Updated March 3, 2020

Written and edited by Michele Kirschenbaum and Wendy Ikemoto. Michele Kirschenbaum has been an awesome school librarian since 2006 and is an expert in citing sources. Wendy Ikemoto has a master’s degree in library and information science and has been working for Citation Machine since 2012.

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🤔 What is an APA Citation Generator?

An APA citation generator is a software tool that will automatically format academic citations in the American Psychological Association (APA) style.

It will usually request vital details about a source -- like the authors, title, and publish date -- and will output these details with the correct punctuation and layout required by the official APA style guide.

Formatted citations created by a generator can be copied into the bibliography of an academic paper as a way to give credit to the sources referenced in the main body of the paper.

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College-level and post-graduate students are most likely to use an APA citation generator, because APA style is the most favored style at these learning levels. Before college, in middle and high school, MLA style is more likely to be used. In other parts of the world styles such as Harvard (UK and Australia) and DIN 1505 (Europe) are used more often.

🙌 Why should I use a Citation Generator?

Like almost every other citation style, APA style can be cryptic and hard to understand when formatting citations. Citations can take an unreasonable amount of time to format manually, and it is easy to accidentally include errors. By using a citation generator to do this work you will:

• Save a considerable amount of time
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• Be rewarded with a higher grade

In academia, bibliographies are graded on their accuracy against the official APA rulebook, so it is important for students to ensure their citations are formatted correctly. Special attention should also be given to ensure the entire document (including main body) is structured according to the APA guidelines. Our complete APA format guide has everything you need know to make sure you get it right (including examples and diagrams).

⚙️ How do I use MyBib's APA Citation Generator?

Our APA generator was built with a focus on simplicity and speed. To generate a formatted reference list or bibliography just follow these steps:

• Start by searching for the source you want to cite in the search box at the top of the page.
• MyBib will automatically locate all the required information. If any is missing you can add it yourself.
• Your citation will be generated correctly with the information provided and added to your bibliography.
• Repeat for each citation, then download the formatted list and append it to the end of your paper.

MyBib supports the following for APA style:

Daniel is a qualified librarian, former teacher, and citation expert. He has been contributing to MyBib since 2018.

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APA Sample Paper

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Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Note:  This page reflects the latest version of the APA Publication Manual (i.e., APA 7), which released in October 2019. The equivalent resource for the older APA 6 style  can be found here .

Media Files: APA Sample Student Paper  ,  APA Sample Professional Paper

This resource is enhanced by Acrobat PDF files. Download the free Acrobat Reader

Note: The APA Publication Manual, 7 th Edition specifies different formatting conventions for student  and  professional  papers (i.e., papers written for credit in a course and papers intended for scholarly publication). These differences mostly extend to the title page and running head. Crucially, citation practices do not differ between the two styles of paper.

However, for your convenience, we have provided two versions of our APA 7 sample paper below: one in  student style and one in  professional  style.

Note: For accessibility purposes, we have used "Track Changes" to make comments along the margins of these samples. Those authored by [AF] denote explanations of formatting and [AWC] denote directions for writing and citing in APA 7. 

APA 7 Student Paper:

Apa 7 professional paper:.

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Every time you quote or paraphrase someone else’s work, you must tell us:

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You give us this information in two places:

• In the paragraph where you are quoting or paraphrasing. This is called an In Text Citation because you will put brief information about the work in the text of the paper. Check out our guidelines and examples in the left-hand column.
• In the References page at the end of the paper. This is where you put all of the information we need to find a copy of the works you used in your paper. Check out our guidelines and examples in the left-hand column.

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When you quote or paraphrase  from a source (book, article, or webpage) in your paper, you need to insert an in-text citation. 

AMA requires that in-text citations be cited numerically in consecutive order using superscript Arabic numerals.

Use the numerals outside periods and commas.  

• In a recent report, 1 experts stated that the earth is round.

Multiple sources can be cited together.

• Other reports 2,3  recommend eating spinach and oranges.

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• “..and the home of the brave.” 4(p.45)

You can create a superscript numeral in Word by highlighting the desired number and clicking on the superscript button in the Font section at the top of the screen.

• This is a separate page at the end of your paper. Each citation in the text must be listed on the References page; each listing on the References page must appear in the text. 
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• If the citation extends to a second line, do NOT indent.
• Cornwall MW, Harris JH, Nyre E.  Imaging Handbook for Physical Therapists . Wolters Kluwer Health; 2015.
• Rolf C.  The Sports Injuries Handbook: Diagnosis and Management .  A&C Black; 2007.  Accessed June 5, 2019.   http://site.ebrary.com/lib/ nwtc /Doc?id=10236955
• Brown CJ, Flood KL. Mobility limitation in the older patient: A clinical review.  JAMA . 2013;310(11):1168-1177.
• Smith JM, Sullivan SJ, Baxter GD. Massage therapy: More than a modality.   J Phys Ther. 2010;38(2): 44-51.  Published July 2010. Accessed June 5, 2014. https://ezproxy.nwtc.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=cookie,ip,cpid&custid=s6269745&db=ccm&AN=2010738302&site=ehost-live&scope=site

How much physical activity do adults need? Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Web site. Last reviewed January 9, 2020. Accessed February 15, 2020.  https://www.cdc.gov/physicalactivity/basics/adults/index.htm  

Author AA, Author BB. Title of Book: Subtitle of Book. Edition.  Name of publisher; Year of publication.

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Cornwall MW, Harris JH, Nyre E. Imaging Handbook for Physical Therapists . Wolters Kluwer Health; 2015.

Gest TR. Lippincott Atlas of Anatomy . 2 nd ed. Wolters Kluwer; 2020.

Taylor JA.  Physiology of Exercise in Spinal Cord Injury . Springer; 2017.

Author AA, Author BB, Author CC. Title of Book: Subtitle of Book . Edition. Name of publisher; Year of publication. Date accessed. URL

Scott-Conner, CEH.  Scott-Conner & Dawson Essential Operative Techniques and Anatomy . 4th ed. Wolters/Kluwer; 2014.  Accessed February 1, 2020.  http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/nwtc-ebooks/detail.action?docID=3417881

Noyes F, Barber-Westin S. ACL Injury: Everything You Need to Know to Make the Right Treatment Decision . Publish Green; 2016. Accessed February 14, 2020. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/nwtc-ebooks/detail.action?docID=4517475

Author AA, Author BB, Author CC. Title of article: lower case letter for subtitle. Abbreviated Title of Journal .  Year;Volume number(Issue number):page numbers. Date published online [if given]. Date accessed. DOI  or URL

• Use the  NLM Catalog Journal Search  to find out the abbreviation for your journal title. 
• AMA recommends providing a DOI (Digital Object Identifier), when it is available.  DOIs provide stable, long-lasting links for online articles.
• If you cannot find a  DOI  for an article, provide the URL.

Some online databases, such as  CINAHL , MEDLINE , and  ProQuest , can be accessed through the Library’s website . 

The  PTNow web portal (PTA students have logins) provides access to additional online databases.

Article with DOI:

Propper L, Cumby J, Uher R, et al. Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder in offspring of parents with depression and bipolar disorder.  Br J Psychiatry . June 2017;210(6):408-412. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.117.198754

Article without DOI:

Smith JM, Sullivan SJ, Baxter GD. Massage therapy: more than a modality.   NZ J Phys Ther. 2010;38(2):44-51. Accessed June 5, 2019. https://ezproxy.nwtc.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspxdirect=true&AuthType=cookie,ip,cpid&custid=s6269745&db=ccm&AN=2010738302&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Author AA. Title of article: lower case letter for subtitle. Abbreviated Title of Journal .  Year;Volume number(Issue number):page numbers.

Use the NLM Catalog Journal Search to find out the abbreviation for your journal title. 

Brown CJ, Flood KL. Mobility limitation in the older patient: A clinical review. JAMA . 2013;310(11):1168-1177.

Sheng A, Dalziel P, Liteplo A, Fagenholz P, Noble V. Focused assessment with sonography in trauma and abdominal computed tomography utilization in adult trauma patients: Trends over the last decade.  Emerg Med Int . 2013;2013:678380. 

Include the following elements, if available:

• Authors' names 
• Title of the specific item cited
• Name of the website
• Date published
• Date updated
• Date accessed

Lourenzi VG. Effectiveness of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation in patients with acute low back pain. ClinicalTrials.gov. Updated April 28, 2015. Accessed January 6, 2020. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02427425

Walk this way: a resource on state and local policies that support physical activity and wellness in and around the workplace. ChangeLab Solutions. July 2017. Accessed February 13, 2020. http://www.changelabsolutions.org/sites/default/files/Workplace_Wellness-GUIDEBOOK-FINAL-20170714.pdf

Physical therapy guide to balance problems. APTA ChoosePT Guide. February 4, 2015. Accessed March 7, 2020.  https://www.choosept.com/symptomsconditionsdetail/physical-therapy-guide-to-balance-problems

APTA Facebook page. Accessed February 14, 2020.  https://www.facebook.com/AmericanPhysicalTherapyAssociation/

@AMAManual. Listen to the JAMA podcast on Parkinson disease for an explanation of why AMA style does not use the 's (possessive eponym). We chime in at around 18:00. Posted February 11, 2020. Accessed February 15, 2020.  https://twitter.com/AMAManual/status/1227290871273525249

Peters JF. Four things good physical therapists understand about people with chronic conditions. APTA The Pulse blog. Posted February 4, 2020. Accessed February 15, 2020.  http://www.apta.org/Blogs/Pulse/2020/2/ChronicConditions/

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AMA Style (11th ed): Citing Your Sources

• Reference List
• References Within Your Paper
• Manuscript styling
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What is AMA Style?

The American Medical Association (AMA) style was created by editors of the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA). AMA style specifies writing and citation styles for scholarly works in medicine. AMA style is internationally recognized and is used throughout disciplines in the health sciences. The AMA Manual of Style was first published in 1963, and is currently in its 11th edition (2020).

This guide includes some basic and common citation styles, condensing nearly 200 pages of print content covering citing and referencing in AMA Style. Consult the full 1200 page AMA Manual of Style for significantly more detail on citing, referencing, writing, and manuscript styling.

Unlike other publication manuals, the AMA Manual of Style provides a range of acceptable citation practices, explains the purpose of each practice, and allows the writer/editor to make choices that make sense for their specific project.

Because of this element of choice, the person who is grading your citations as part of your school work, or the editors reviewing your article submission, are the only people who can decide if an AMA formatted citation is "correct." The examples here include only the most basic and general AMA citation rules. If you are writing for a class or for publication, follow any specific rules you have been provided. If you have not been provided specific rules beyond "use AMA style,"  try to consider what style choices you could make to conform to the ultimate goals of any citation style: communicate to the reader that you selected a relevant and authoritative source for this fact/quote/idea, and allow the reader to find the specific source you are citing.

Review this guide for commonly used reference styles; review the full Manual for all styles and manuscript styling.

Find the full manual at USC

Citing and Writing handouts, AMA 11th

• Quick Citing Reference- AMA 11th ed 2 page handout covering the basics of using AMA style, 11th edition
• Using Review Articles Review this handout to make sure you're using review articles appropriately.
• Next: Reference List >>
• Last Updated: Apr 8, 2024 3:11 PM
• URL: https://libguides.usc.edu/ama11

AMA Style - 11th Edition

• AMA: Getting Started
• Title Page & Formatting
• Authors - numbers, rules and formatting
• Sample reference list
• In-Text Citations
• How Do I Cite...
• Additional Resources

Standard article pattern (print):

Author AA, Author BB. Title of article.  Journal Abbreviation . Year;volume(issue):pp-pp.

• Chiang HC, Huang V, Cornelius LA. Cancer and itch.  Semin Cutan Med Surg . 2011;30(2):107-112.
• Nejad AG, Kheradmand A. Five rare psychiatric syndromes co-occurring together.  Neurosciences . 2009;14(1):91-3.
• Voigt C, Grasse P, Rex K, Hetz S, Speakman J. Bat breath reveals metabolic substrate use in free-ranging vampires.  J Comp Physiol B . 2008;178(1):9-16.

Standard article pattern (electronic):

Author AA, Author BB. Title of article.  Journal Abbreviation.  Year;volume(issue):pp-pp. Accessed Month DD, YYYY. DOI or URL

• Economopoulos KJ, Brockmeier SF. Rotator cuff tears in overhead athletes.  Clin Sports Med . 2012;31(4):675-692. doi:10.1016/j.csm.2012.07.005
• Finnan RP, Crosby LA. Partial-thickness rotator cuff tears.  J Shoulder Elbow Surg . 2010;19(4):609-616. Accessed April 26, 2012. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1058274609004662
• Ho DTN, Le TPT, Wolbers M, et al. Risk factors of Streptococcus suis infection in Vietnam. A case-control study.  PLoS One . 2011;6(3):e17604. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0017604
• There are no spaces between the year, volume, issue number and page numbers.
• Some online journals do not have page numbers. Use the article number instead. Reference 6 is an example.
• If there is a DOI you should always include it at the end of the reference. 
• You don't need to include a URL if there is a DOI, and you only need to include an Accessed date if you have used a URL.
• There is no full stop after the DOI or URL

What's a DOI?   Read this explanation from Citing Medicine.

Book (Entire Book)

Standard book patterns:

Pay close attention to the punctuation use in these examples – including case, italics, the order of dates and spaces.

Standard book in Print:

Author AA, Author BB, Author CC.  Book Title . Vol no. Nth ed. Publisher; Year.

Edited book:

Editor AA, Editor BB, Editor CC, eds.  Book Title . Vol no. Nth ed. Publisher; Year.

Author AA, Author BB, Author CC.  Book Title . Vol no. Nth ed. Publisher; Year. Accessed Month DD, YYYY. DOI or URL

• Drake RL, Vogl W, Mitchell AWM, Gray H.  Gray's Anatomy for Students.  4th ed. Elsevier; 2020.
• Cameron P, Little M, Mitra B, Deasy C, eds.  Textbook of Adult Emergency Medicine.  5th ed. Elsevier; 2020.
• Vieira AR. Genetic Basis of Oral Health Conditions.  Springer; 2019. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-14485-2
• World Health Organization.  Health Worker Roles in Providing Safe Abortion Care and Post-abortion Contraception . World Health Organization; 2015. Accessed December 9, 2021.   https://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/unsafe_abortion/abortion-task-shifting/en/
• Dates follow the American pattern of Month-Day-Year.
• You only use the Accessed date if you are using a URL.
• The author may be an organisation or government body.

What's a DOI?   Read this explanation from Citing Medicine.

Book Chapter

Standard chapter pattern:

Author AA, Author BB. Title of chapter. In: Editor AA, Editor BB, eds.  Book Title . Vol no. Nth ed. Publisher; Year:page numbers. Accessed Month DD, YYYY. DOI or URL

• Karmakar M. Ultrasound-guided central neuraxial blocks. In: Narouze SN, ed.  Atlas of Ultrasound-Guided Procedures in Interventional Pain Management . Springer; 2011:161-178. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1681-5_12
• Shaparin N, Shah A, Gritsenko K. Pharmacological agents: opioids. In: Urman RD, Vadivelu N, eds.  Perioperative Pain Management . Oxford University Press; 2013:29-37. Accessed December 16, 2021. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/jcu/detail.action?docID=1274300
• Banasik J. Alterations in cardiac function. In: Copstead L, Banasik J, eds.  Pathophysiology . 4th ed. Saunders Elsevier; 2010:429-460.
• Dog TL. Botanicals in the management of pain. In: Audette JF, Bailey A, eds.  Contemporary Pain Medicine: Integrative Pain Medicine: the Science and Practice of Complementary and Alternative Medicine in Pain Management . Humana Press; 2008:447-470.
• Varacallo M, El Bitar Y, Mair SD. Rotator cuff tendonitis. In:  StatPearls . NCBI Bookshelf version. StatPearls Publishing: 2019. Accessed October 24, 2019.  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK532270/  [example has been updated 04-04-2022]

Brochures and Pamphlets

Brochures and pamphlets should take the following form:

• Eating and drinking with a high output stoma: what you need to know. Patient brochure. Sunshine Coast Hospital and Health Service. Accessed September 29, 2020.  https://www.health.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0037/734959/eating-drinking-high-output-stoma.pdf

Class Handouts

If the work was given in class, and you have confirmed that the information has not been copied from a published source (book, journal article, web page etc), treat it as  personal communication .   Do not include it in your reference list , and in text explain the nature of your source in brackets:

According to a diagram distributed by M. Grant (class handout, February 2020)...

The Cornell Method template (K. Bartlett, class handout, March 21, 2020) can be used to analyse and compare journal articles.

Class handouts are often copied or taken from other sources.  Endeavour to find the original source, if possible.

Cochrane Review

Cochrane Reviews are supposed to be cited as electronic journal articles.  Articles are given article numbers instead of page numbers. Place the article number (without "Art no") in the place of the page numbers for a normal journal article.  There is no volume number for Cochrane reviews, so skip straight from the year to the issue number.  Always use the doi instead of a URL for Cochrane reviews:

• Shepherd E, Grivell RM. Aspirin (single dose) for perineal pain in the early postpartum period.  Cochrane Database Syst Rev . 2020;(7):CD012129. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD012129.pub3
• Palmer MJ, Henschke N, Villanueva G, et al. Targeted client communication via mobile devices for improving sexual and reproductive health.  Cochrane Database Syst Rev . 2020;(8):CD013680. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD013680
• Palareti L, Melotti G, Cassis F, Nevitt SJ, Iorio A. Psychological interventions for people with hemophilia.  Cochrane Database Syst Rev . 2020;(3):CD010215. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD010215.pub2

Conference Paper, Webinar

Standard conference paper pattern:

Author AA, Author BB. Title of paper. Type of presentation presented at: Name of the Conference. Date of conference; Year; City, Country or State Abbreviation. Accessed Month DD, YYYY. URL. Vidocast/Transcript/Abstract available at: URL

Papers presented at a conference, symposium or meeting, unpublished or only available from the conference website

Maddox S, Hurling J, Stewart E, Edwards A. If mama ain't happy, nobody's happy: the effect of parental depression on mood dysregulation in children. Paper presented at: Southeastern Psychologica Association 62nd Annual Meeting; March 30-April 2, 2016; New Orleans, LA.

Pearson J. Fat talk and its effects on state-based body image in women. Poster presented at: Australian Psychological Society Congress; September 21-30, 2018; Sydney, Australia.

Baydorova I, Collins H, Ait Saadi, I. Matching student and supervisor expectations in Malaysian doctoral education. Paper presented at: Australian Association for Research in Education Conference; November 26-30, 2017; Canberra, Australia. Abstract available at:  https://www.aare.edu.au/publications/aare-conference-papers/show/13007/matching-student-and-supervisor-expectations-in-malaysian-doctoral-education

Published papers

Papers from conferences, symposia and meetings are usually published as part of a special issue of a journal, as a monograph (book) of the conference proceedings, or as a document on a website. Once a presentations is published, use the pattern for the book, journal, or other medium in which they are published.

Morgan R, Meldrum K, Bryan S, et al. Embedding digital literacies in curricula: Australian and Malaysian experiences. In: Teh GB, Choy SC, eds.  Empowering 21st century learners through holistic and enterprising learning: selected papers from Tunku Abdul Rahman University College International Conference 2016 . Springer Singapore; 2017:11-19.

Huang G-M, Huang K-Y, Lee T-Y, Tzu-Ya Weng J. An interpretable rule-based diagnostic classification of diabetic nephropathy among type 2 diabetes patients.  BMC Bioinformatics.  2015;16(suppl 1):S5. Selected articles from the Thirteenth Asia Pacific Bioinformatics Conference (APBC 2015). doi:10.1186/1471-2105-16-S1-S5

(Example 5 shows an article from a special issue of the journal that has been entirely dedicated to publishing papers from the conference). 

Online conferences and webinars

Gunn E, Kendall-Taylor J, Vandenburg B. Taking author instructions to the next level. Council of Science Editors webinar. September 10, 2015. Accessed March 15, 2016.  http://www.councilscienceeditors.org/resource-library/past-presentationswebinars/past-webinars/2015-webinar-3-taking-author-instructions-to-the-next-level/

Drug Databases and Similar Resources

Standard database pattern:

Author AA, Author BB. Title of entry [type of entry, if applicable]. In: Editor AA, Editor BB, eds (if available).  Title of Database . Publisher’s name. Published (or Updated) date (at least year, if available). Accessed date. URL

• Paracetamol. In: Brayfield, A, ed.  Martindale: the Complete Drug Reference . Pharmaceutical Press. Updated October 31, 2014. Accessed February 20, 2015. http://www.medicinescomplete.com
• Paracetamol (Systemic). Drug monograph. In:  AusDI database . Phoenix Medical Publishing. Updated May 28, 2020. Accessed September 1, 2020.  https://ausdi-hcn-com-au.elibrary.jcu.edu.au/productMonograph.hcn?file=0460
• Ginger. In:  Natural Standard: the Authority on Integrative Medicine . Natural Standard. Updated July 10, 2020. Accessed September 1, 2020.  https://naturalmedicines-therapeuticresearch-com.elibrary.jcu.edu.au/databases/food,-herbs-supplements/professional.aspx?productid=961
• Liquid paraffin. In:  Australian Medicines Handbook . Australian Medicines Handbook. Accessed September 1, 2020.  https://amhonline-amh-net-au.elibrary.jcu.edu.au/chapters/gastrointestinal-drugs/laxatives/stool-softeners/liquid-paraffin?menu=vertical
• Prevention of endocarditis. In:  eTG Complete . Therapeutic Guidelines. April, 2019. Updated August 2020. Accessed September 1, 2020.  https://tgldcdp-tg-org-au.elibrary.jcu.edu.au/viewTopic?topicfile=infection-prevention-endocarditis&guidelineName=Antibiotic&topicNavigation=navigateTopic#toc_d1e47
• Prozac (Product info). In:  MIMS Online . MIMS Australia. Updated September, 2020. Accessed September 1, 2020.  https://www-mimsonline-com-au.elibrary.jcu.edu.au/Search/AbbrPI.aspx?ModuleName=Product%20Info&searchKeyword=Prozac+Capsules&PreviousPage=~/Search/QuickSearch.aspx&SearchType=&ID=5050001_2
• Propylthiouracil. In:  DynaMed . EBSCO Information Services. Updated July 22, 2020. Accessed September 30, 2020.  https://www.dynamed.com/drug-monograph/propylthiouracil

Tip : For DynaMed, last date modified (updated) in Drugs A-Z is near the bottom of the page under References.

If you were referring to the database as a whole, rather than an individual entry in the database, you would skip the reference to the authors and title of the entry and begin with the Editors (if there are any) or the title of the database.

• MIMS Online.  MIMS Australia; September 2020. Accessed September 1, 2020.  https://www-mimsonline-com-au.elibrary.jcu.edu.au
• If there are no authors, begin with the title of the entry.

NB:  This pattern is based on a combination of the formats for databases and book chapters, as the AMA manual recommends citing databases as a whole but at JCU it is preferred practice to pinpoint the entry used.

Government/Organization Report

References to reports published by departments or agencies of a government should include the following information, in the order indicated: (1) name of author (if given); (2) title of bulletin; (3) name of issuing bureau, agency, department, or other governmental division (note that in this position, Department should be abbreviated Dept; also note that if the US Government Printing Office is supplied as the publisher, it would be preferable to obtain the name of the issuing bureau, agency, or department); (4) date of publication; (5) page numbers (if specified); (6) publication number (if any); (7) series number (if given); (8) online accessed date (if applicable); and (9) web address (if applicable).

• World Health Statistics 2020: Monitoring Health for the SDGs, Sustainable Development Goals. World Health Organization. 2020. Accessed September 29, 2020. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/332070/9789240005105-eng.pdf?ua=1

Images, Figures and Tables

The way you reference an image depends on where the image was found.

If the image was found in a book, journal article or entry in a database:

Do not cite the image individually but give the citation details for the book/article/etc. Treat it as though it was a direct quote.

If the image was found online, as part of a website, treat it like a  Web Object :

Author AA, Author BB. Title of page or object. Clarifying information if necessary. Title of web site. Published Month DD, YYYY  or  Updated Month DD, YYYY. Accessed Month, DD, YYYY. URL.

• UCF Libraries. Research lifecycle and University of Central FL. Infographic. University of Central Florida. Updated June 23, 2017. Accessed January 11, 2020.  https://library.ucf.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/5/2017/06/research-life-cycle.png
• California Deparment of Public Health. West Nile Virus transmission cycle. 2018. Image reproduced in: Vector-borne diseases. California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment. Updloaded February 11, 2019. Accessed January 11, 2020.  https://oehha.ca.gov/epic/impacts-biological-systems/vector-borne-diseases
• Slide 37 - Solvent, nummular eczema. Image. Centres for Disease Control and Prevention. Updated April 17, 2001. Accessed September 3, 2020.  https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/skin/occderm-slides/ocderm8.html
• If there is a credit for the image, use this as your author.  If there is no credit for the image, use the authors of the web site if you believe they are responsible for the image.
• If the  "authors" of the site and the name of the site are identical, treat the page as if it has no author and begin with the title of the page  (for example, the Center for Disease Control and Prevention is both the name of the site and the name of the organisation responsible for the information on that site).
• If you are not sure who is responsible for the image, omit the authors and begin with the title of the image.
• If the image does not have a title, give a description of the image (e.g.: Photograph of a boy holding a fish).
• If the image was not created by the authors of the book/article/website/etc, then it needs to be treated as a  secondary citation  (give as much of a full citation for the image as you can, then state the role it plays in your source material, and give the full citation for your source - see example 2).

Lecture Notes

Online Lecture Notes:

If the notes/handouts are available online through LearnJCU, cite them as a  web object . Include details after the title, if it is necessary for clarity.

Author AA, Author BB. Title of page or object. Title of web site. Published Month DD, YYYY. Updated Month DD, YYYY. Accessed Month DD, YYYY. URL.

• De Cat S. Introduction to TV1101. PDF lecture notes. LearnJCU. Updated February 18, 2014. Accessed March 2, 2014.  https://learnjcu.jcu.edu.au/bbcswebdav/pid-1447836-dt-content-rid-1294103_1/xid-1294103_1
• TV1101 - week1: syringe and needle handling practical 1. PDF class handout. LearnJCU. Updated February, 2014. Accessed March 2, 2014.  https://learnjcu.jcu.edu.au/bbcswebdav/pid-1447837-dt-content-rid-1294105_1/xid-1294105_1
• Most lecturers would rather you did not cite the lecture notes, but found the relevant information in books, journals or other such resources. Only use lecture notes if you cannot find the information elsewhere.
• Only include the full link to the document if a) you have tested the link and it will work several days after you originally accessed the document, and b) you are confident the person reading your work can access the site. Otherwise, simply include the URL for LearnJCU.
• If there is no attributed author, begin the reference with the title of the document.

Note on URLs for LearnJCU:   Ideally, you use a URL that will get your readers as close as possible to the document.  When writing for someone who has access to the LearnJCU site, include the full URL for the document (copy and paste). Always include the date you last checked to see the URL still worked (the Accessed date).

Legislation

The information given in the AMA Manual of Style regarding citation of legislation is specific to US Bills and Statutes and does not translate easily to Australian legislation. As the manual recommends using the Blue Book for State Legislation (the Blue Book is the standard form of legal citation used in the US) we recommend using the AGLC for Australian legislation (which is the standard form of legal citation use in Australia).

However, in keeping with the requirements of AMA in general, if the legislation was accessed online, you will also need to include an accessed date and the URL. If the document you are citing has an updated or compiled date on it, include that as well.

For example:

• Biosecurity Act 2014  (Qld) ch 7 pt 2 div 4 s 169. Accessed April 22, 2021.  https://www.legislation.qld.gov.au/view/html/inforce/current/act-2014-007#sec.169 .
• National Health Act 1953  (Cth) pt 4 s 84AA. Compiled December 16, 2020. Accessed April 22, 2021.  https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2016Q00048 .

More details can be found in the AGLC, but a brief summary of the pattern is as follows:

The name of the Act including the Year  (Jurisdiction) section details. Accessed date. URL.

See page 68 of the AGLC for the jurisdiction abbreviations, and page 69-70 to see how to lay out the section details (AGLC calls it a pinpoint).

Use this for citing US legislative materials

You can find a link to the complete AGLC here.

Newspaper Article

Standard news article pattern (print):

Author AA, Author BB. Article title.  Newspaper name . Month DD, year:pp-pp.

Tourne R. Townsville Hospital in poor health: hospital troubles persist.  Townsville Bulletin . February 26, 2011:5.

Packham B. Australian-made vaccine available 'within months'.  The Australian.  September 7, 2020:5.

Standard news article pattern (online):

Author AA, Author BB. Article title.  Newspaper name . Month day, year:pp-pp. Accessed Month DD, YYYY. URL

Scott M. More than 60 treated in hospital after Townsville music festival.  The Australian.  May 7, 2019. Accessed September 7, 2020.  https://www.theaustralian.com.au/nation/more-than-60-treated-in-hospital-after-townsville-music-festival/news-story/f4b6a403939ed34b0c18d426becb9533

Ikonomou T. Townsville’s rising obesity numbers among shocking health statistics. Townsville Bulletin. November, 14, 2018. Accessed September 9, 2020.  https://www.townsvillebulletin.com.au/news/townsville/townsvilles-rising-obesity-numbers-among-shocking-health-statistics/news-story/47c5f163d537ba20353e0572901ea19e

• Newspaper names are not abbreviated.
• If a city name is not part of the newspaper name, it may be added to the official name for clarity.

News Release

News and media releases take the following format:

• Examining how common depression symptoms are in adults before, during COVID-19 pandemic. News release. JAMA For the Media. September 2, 2020. Accessed September 7, 2020.  https://media-jamanetwork-com.elibrary.jcu.edu.au/news-item/examining-how-common-depression-symptoms-are-in-adults-before-during-covid-19-pandemic/
• Teleheath, e-prescribing arrangements must be extended. News release. Australian Medical Association. September 3, 2020. Accessed September 7, 2020.  https://ama.com.au/media/telehealth-e-prescribing-arrangements-must-be-extended

Online Conference Proceedings

These are treated much the same as a “presented at” reference (see above), with the addition of the accessed date and the URL.

Morales M, Zhou X. Health practices of immigrant women: indigenous knowledge in an urban environment. Paper presented at: 78th Association for Information Science and Technology Annual Meeting; November 6-10, 2015; St Louis, MO. Accessed March 15, 2016.  https://dl-acm-org.elibrary.jcu.edu.au/doi/10.5555/2857070.2857108

Botkin J, Menikoff J. Opening remarks presented at: Secretary’s Advisory Committee on Human Research Protections Meeting; December 4, 2015; Rockville, MD.  http://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/sachrp/mtgings/2015%20Dec%20Mtg/december3-4,2015sachrpmeeting.html . Accessed March 15, 2016. Videocast available at:  https://videocast-nih-gov.elibrary.jcu.edu.au/

The presentation in example 2 did not have a title; hence, the “title” field and the “presented at” field were combined. In addition, a webcast of the meeting is available for the presentation in example 2, and that information is also included in the reference. See example 3 below for how to cite a videocast.

Labor, Health and Human Services Subcommittee Hearing. National Institutes of Health: Investing in a Healthier Future. October 7, 2015. Accessed March 15, 2016. Videocast available at:  http://www.appropriations.senate.gov/hearings/labor-hhs-subcommittee-hearing-national-institutes-of-health-investing-in-a-healthier-future

A transcript from a teleconference is cited as follows:

Volkow N, Botticelli M, Johnston LD, Miech RA. Monitoring the Future: Teleconference 2015. December 16, 2015. Accessed March 15, 2016. Transcript available at:  https://www.drugabuse.gov/news-events/podcasts/2015/12/monitoring-future-teleconference-2015#content-area

A webinar is cited as follows:

Published work

If you are citing work that has previously been published, you cite it exactly how you would cite any other work (e.g., if it was a journal article, cite a journal article).

Previous assignments

If you are citing work that you submitted in a previous assignment, it is considered an unpublished manuscript, but you would site it the same way you would cite an  unpublished dissertation .

• Smith J.  Multidisciplinary Care Teams in Rural Communities . Assignment submitted for HS1155. James Cook University; 2021.

N.B.  Only use one of your own assignments as a source for your work if your lecturer has told you it is okay to to so.

Images and figures

If you are creating an original figure for an assignment, you do not need to cite yourself - you only need to cite information or work that was taken from other sources.

If you are using a photograph or artwork you have created yourself, and it has been "published" online (for example, Flickr or a personal website), you will need to cite it as you would any other image taken from an online source. You would need to include this in your reference list as you would any other cited source.

If you have not previously made the image public, or produced it specifically for this assignment, it does not require citations - but you can put "Own work" as part of the caption for the image if you believe it is necessary for clarity (for example, if you are also using similar images from other sources). You would not include this in your reference list.

Figure 4 . Wound dressing following removal of stitches

Image shows multiple adhesive dressings used together. Own work.

Pharmacopoeia, Encyclopedias & Dictionary Entries

Pharmacopoeia entry (also used for encyclopedia and dictionary entries)

Author AA, Author BB. Title of entry. In: Editor AA, Editor BB, eds.  Title of Pharmacopoeia . Vol no. Nth ed. Publisher; Year:page numbers. Accessed Month DD, YYYY. DOI or URL

• Ceylon cinnamon bark oil. In:  British Pharmacopoeia 2013 . Vol 5. The Stationery Office; 2012:3659-3660.
• Carbamazepine tablets. In:  The Pharmocopeia of the United States of America.  Vol 2. 31st  ed. The United States Pharmocopeial Convention; 2007:1631.
• Antihistamines. In Andrews A, Boden E eds.  Black's Veterinary Dictionary . Bloomsbury; 2015. Accessed July 20, 2015. http://search.credoreference.com.elibrary.jcu.edu.au/content/entry/acbvet/antihistamines/0
• Authors for the entry or editors for the book may not be available.
• Contributors to encyclopedia and dictionaries are sometimes indicated by initials at the end of the entries - always try to find an author rather than assuming there isn't one simply because you cannot see a name in an obvious location.
• Online books may not have page numbers.

Titles of theses and dissertations are given in italics. References to theses should include the location of the university (or other institution), its name, and year of completion of the thesis. If the thesis has been published, it should be treated as any other book reference. 

• Fenster SD.  Cloning and Characterization of Piccolo, a Novel Component of the Presynaptic Cytoskeletal Matrix.  Dissertation. University of Alabama; 2000.
• Lienart, GH.  Effects of Temperature and Food Availability on the Antipredator Behaviour of Juvenile Coral Reef Fishes.  Dissertation. James Cook University; 2016. Accessed December 18, 2020.  https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/47533/

Web Content

Standard Web content pattern:

• Pharmacy ownership in Queensland. Queensland Health. Updated September 1, 2021. Accessed January 10, 2022.   https://www.health.qld.gov.au/system-governance/licences/pharmacy/pharmacy-ownership/queensland
• Department of Health & Human Services. Anaphylaxis. Better Health Channel. Updated August, 2014. Accessed August 31, 2020.  https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/ConditionsAndTreatments/anaphylaxis
• Food allergy or intolerance? Allergy and Anapylaxis Australia. Updated January 2017. Accessed August 31, 2020.  https://allergyfacts.org.au/allergy-anaphylaxis/food-allergy-or-intolerance
• Zika virus. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. January 26, 2016. Updated November 20, 2019. Accessed September 8, 2020.  https://www.cdc.gov/zika/
• University of California Television. Ketogenesis and Fasting: Fuel for the Brain. YouTube. August 14, 2020. Accessed August 31, 2020.  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H33vuQLIiXE&feature=emb_logo
• For web pages in which there is no listed author for the information on that page, and the  "authors" of the site and the name of the site are identical, treat the page as if it has no author and begin with the title of the page  (for example, the Center for Disease Control and Prevention is both the name of the site and the name of the organisation responsible for the information on that site).
• If the name of the site and the name of the corporate author is different then list the name of the corporate author in the author position and the name of the site in the Site title position (for example, Better Health Channel is the name of the site, but the Department of Health & Human Services is responsible for the information on that site).

Standard YouTube pattern:

Author AA, Author BB. Title of page or object. YouTube video. Published Month DD, YYYY. Updated Month DD, YYYY. Accessed Month DD, YYYY. URL.

• JCU Library. Launch of Mabo Interpretive Wall. YouTube video. December 1, 2020. Accessed December 22, 2020. https://youtu.be/dnonEJ-ZpuA
• The Two Ronnies - Sweet Shop Sketch. YouTube video. October 30, 2011. Accessed December 22, 2020. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IbGMS5jQFcs
• Only provide the author if you are sure that person created the video. Do not list the person posting the video online as the author. If you are unsure, treat the citation as having no author.
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AMA Guide - 11th Edition: Paper Formatting

• Paper Formatting
• In-Text Citations
• Database Specific Formatting

Explicit instructions for paper format are not given in the AMA manual because publishers provide specific requirements for submitted manuscripts.  These research paper format guidelines have been chosen by faculty for South College students, and can be found in the official South College AMA Style Guide. 

Note:  Your instructor may have specific or additional requirements not listed in this guide.

AMA Paper Formatting Checklist

General format.

• Margins are 1 inch on all sides throughout. 
• Paper is double spaced throughout, including the title page, block quotes, and references.
• Use the serif typeface Times New Roman or Arial. 
• Use a 12pt font size throughout. 
• Pages are numbered consecutively, right aligned in the header, starting on the first page of text. Exclude the title page and, if required, the abstract page.
• All text is center aligned and double spaced.
• Full title of the paper begins a quarter down the page. 
• Authors' full name(s) including middle initials.
• Couse Number - Course Name
• Assignment: Assignment Name if required
• Affiliated institution

Abstract (If Required by Instructor)

• Separate page after the title page.
• Abstract is the section title, it is left aligned and not indented.
• Text is in a block under the section title, it is not indented. 
• Maximum 500 words.
• Does not include quotations or reference citations. 
• Keywords: 
• Introduction
• Body Paragraphs
• Section headings are bold and left aligned. 
• Subsection headings are italicized and left aligned. 
• The first line of each paragraph is indented 1/2 inch.
• There is no extra line space between paragraphs or headings. 
• Block quotes are double spaced, are not indented, and are 1/2 inch from the left margin. 
• Avoid starting a sentence with a number.  If unavoidable, write out the number instead of using Arabic numerals.

Reference List

• References  heading is bold and left aligned at the top of the page.
• References are left aligned. 
• References are numbered in the order they are first cited in the body of the paper. 
• A tab space separates the number and the first name or word of the reference. 

Tables & Figures

Each table is assigned a number based on the order it is used in the article. Following the table number (and just above the table itself) should be a clear but concise title in title case.  All elements in the table are in sentence case.

Footnotes are listed at the bottom of the table, each on its own line. However, to save space, tables with more than a few footnotes can use 2 columns for the footnotes.

For more information on formatting and when to use tables, see the Tables Components section of the AMA Manual online. 

• AMA Manual of Style - Ebook This link opens in a new window 11th edition ebook. May need to refresh page after logging in.

Similar to tables, each figure is assigned a number based on the order it is used in the article. Types of figures include, but are not limited to, graphs, charts, maps, drawings, and photographs. Some figures use symbols to represent data, and those figures use legends embedded in the graphic to explain those symbols. 

Following the figure number (and just above the figure itself) should be a clear but concise title.  All elements in the table are in sentence case.

For more examples and guidelines for how and when to use figures in a paper, see the Figures section of the AMA Manual online.

Do I use an appendix in AMA?

• What is an appendix?
• How do I use an appendix?
• How do I make an appendix?

Appendices are not regularly used in AMA. AMA formatting prefers that the information, if relevant to the article, be included in the body of the article as a table or figure.  If the appendix is important, AMA favors publishing them online as online only, supplemental materials.  

The AMA Manual of Style does note that an appendix may be used "on rare occasions...for data that cannot easily be represented as a table or figure and are too central to the article to be deposited elsewhere".  The appendix is included at the end of the paper but  before  the references. Sources for any materials in an appendix are then included in the reference list. 

When an appendix is included in an article, it is cited in the text like a table or figure.  

Example:  This kitchen is rated a 5 on the Hazard Scale (Appendix 1). 

Format an appendix the same way you would start a reference list, with "Appendix" at the top left of a new page. If there is more than one appendix, start each on a new page. Appendices are numbered and organized by the order they are referred to in the body of the article.

Example: 

Hazard Scale

• 1 - The room is completely safe and the likelihood of being injured is very low.
• 2 - The room is relatively safe, but injury is likely if one is inattentive to the environment.
• 3 - The room is completely unsafe and injury or illness is very likely.
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