case study on motivation value

Contact us: [email protected]

© © Copyright - All Right Reserved By themotivationcompass.com

• Browse All Articles
• Newsletter Sign-Up

MotivationandIncentives →

No results found in working knowledge.

• Were any results found in one of the other content buckets on the left?
• Try removing some search filters.
• Use different search filters.

A Systems View Across Time and Space

• Open access
• Published: 01 November 2021

The effect of motivation on employee engagement in public sectors: in the case of North Wollo zone

• Abriham Ebabu Engidaw   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5081-5668 1  

Journal of Innovation and Entrepreneurship volume  10 , Article number:  43 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

36k Accesses

8 Citations

Metrics details

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation on employee engagement in public sectors. To meet this purpose, a quantitative and qualitative study survey was conducted and the researcher used an explanatory survey research design. The study was used both primary and secondary sources of data. The target population for this study was selected four city administrative office employees including all kebeles office employees and as a sample size, 349 questionnaires were filled and collected from these employees. The study used proportionately stratified with simple random sampling because to collect the relevant data and to give equal chance for all employees. Later on, statistical package for social science (SPSS) was used to the required test of inferential statistics; including reliability analysis, bivariate correlation, analysis of variance (ANOVA) test, and multiple regression analysis. The finding of the study revealed that extrinsic motivation was considered more significant than intrinsic and there was a positive significant relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic motivations with employee engagement. From the results, it was also concluded that the relationship and effect of extrinsic motivation were stronger on employee engagement as compared to intrinsic motivation. As a recommendation, the organizations should find which ways are able to motivate employees, what drives them, then making sure they utilize appropriate motivational techniques with each employee. Managers should also endeavor to communicate the organization’s purpose to employees. Finally, the organizations should take steps to incorporate the vision of employees for the organization with its own vision.

Introduction

An unmotivated employee is likely to put little effort into work tasks, produce work of lower quality, avoid the workplace, and even exit his or her job if given the opportunity to do so. On the other hand, motivated employees are likely to willingly take on tasks, produce work of high quality, and be creative, persistent, and productive. Employees motivation has two forms, intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation arises from the intrinsic value of the work for the individual (for example, its interest value), whereas, extrinsic motivation arises from the desire to obtain some outcomes (for example, as rewards) that are apart from the work itself (Amabile, 1993 ). Each and every person in an organization is motivated in a different manner. Workers’ motivation depends on many intrinsic and extrinsic factors like interesting work, job appreciation, satisfaction, stress, job security, promotion and growth, rewards, work environment, punishment and recognition etcetera (Palaniammal, 2013 ).

The main purpose of these motivating factors is to create an environment where people are willing to work with zeal, initiative, interest, and enthusiasm, with a high personal and group satisfaction, with the sense of responsibility, loyalty, and confidence to achieve their personal as well as organizational goals (Palaniammal, 2013 ). Research has shown that there is a difference in strength between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation on their relationship and impact on employee engagement. Khan ( 2011 ) concluded that the relationship and impact of extrinsic motivation were stronger on employee engagement as compared to intrinsic motivation.

According to Shuck ( 2010 ) employee engagement is an individual employee’s cognitive, emotional, and behavioral state directed toward desired organizational outcomes. Recently, Rice ( 2012 ) defined engagement as full employee engagement represents an alignment of maximum satisfaction for the individual with a maximum contribution for the organization’s success. The focus of all definitions was on two things, employee satisfaction and contribution to organizational success.

According to different researchers’ study results, employee motivation can be used to engage employees in their work in the organization. Beyond motivation, to achieve success in today’s highly competitive environment many organizations have identified the need to engage their workforce. Habte ( 2016 ) concluded that managers perceive intrinsic motivation have a larger influence on the psychological aspects of employee engagement than extrinsic motivation. This supports the idea stated by Berl and Williamson ( 1987 ) but still contradict with the finding of Iqbal and Khan. When we see the above research findings: the study conducted by Khan ( 2013 ) is contradicted with the findings of Habte ( 2016 ), Thomas ( 2009 ) and Khan ( 2011 ).

This study was carried out in four selected city administration office employees in order to know and explain the effect of motivation on employee engagement. Basically, the researcher is initiated to conduct this study because based on his observation and preliminary investigation there is a problem of employees being motivated and engaged in public sectors and the other reasons are first there is the inconsistency of previous findings relating to this topic, second as the researcher’s knowledge there are few studies conducted directly related to this topic specifically in our country Ethiopia. So this study can try to fill these gaps. Based on the above research problems the researcher developed the following research questions:

Objectives of the study

General objective.

The main objective of this study was to identify the effect of motivation (intrinsic or extrinsic) on employee engagement in public sectors in the case of selected zones.

Specific objectives

To explain the effect of intrinsic motivation on employee engagement in selected city administration employees.

To describe the effect of extrinsic motivation on employee engagement in selected city administration office employees.

To identify which motivation factor (intrinsic or extrinsic) more significantly affects employee engagement in the organization.

To examine the effect of overall motivation on employee engagement.

Literature reviews

• Employee engagement

Employee engagement is defined as “harnessing of organizational members selves to their work roles; in engagement, people employ and express themselves physically, cognitively and emotionally during role performance”, In other words, “individual involvement and satisfaction as well as enthusiasm for work” Andrew ( 2012 ).

According to Kahn ( 1990 , 1992 , cited in Saks, 2006 ) job engagement means worker should be psychologically available during the performance of the organizational role.

The organization is totally dependent on their employees; therefore, they need to be engaged in their jobs. Engagement in the organization’s jobs enables employees to make operations successful, as it runs with the mutual commitment of organizations and employees. When organization employees will engage, they will use their potential to drive high performance (provide better services and attract maximum customers). Engage employees are more dedicated and helping to maximize the organization’s productivity. They are more likely to consider themselves as an employer. Therefore, organizations should pay attention to the employee engagement concept. Otherwise, it can be the biggest threat to the organization’s success. If the organization’s management is not interested in engaging employees, consequently it would lead to unsatisfactory beneficiaries and lose their customers (Andrew & Sofian, 2012 ).

From the theories and literature discussed above the researcher identified two broad motivation factors called intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and these motivation factors are also identified as an independent variable because they have an effect on the dependent variable, employee engagement, in one way or another.

• Intrinsic motivation

According to Berl and Williamson ( 1987 ) intrinsic motivation is defined as the doing of an activity for its inherent satisfactions rather than for some benefits. Intrinsic motivation can be defined as the motivation to perform an activity in order to experience the pleasure and satisfaction inherent in the activity. They also further stated intrinsic motivation focuses on factors inside the individual which are based on personal needs. Employees get intrinsic reward directly from the job they perform, job satisfaction, interesting work, job appreciation, or the sense they help a client, Intrinsic motivated workers employ in a job because of their own interest in it and enjoy the job due to search for new solutions for business challenges and are more likely to burn up energy to identify problems and find innovative solutions.

From the Khan ( 2013 ) findings, they concluded that managers perceive intrinsic motivation as generally having a larger influence on the psychological aspects of employee engagement. They found that extrinsic motivation is of importance to employee engagement, though to a lesser extent psychologically but rather as a part of the total package that is offered to the employee by the organization and the manager. Habte ( 2016 ) concluded that managers perceive intrinsic motivation have a larger influence on the psychological aspects of employee engagement than extrinsic motivation. This conclusion leads to the next research hypothesis development on this research:

Hypothesis 1

Intrinsic motivation has a positive significant effect on employee engagement.

• Extrinsic motivation

Extrinsic motivation is defined as a construct that pertains whenever an activity is done in order to attain some separable outcome and refers to doing an activity simply for the enjoyment of the activity itself, rather than its instrumental value (Deci & Ryan, 2008 ). Or it can be the rewards offered to employees as an encouragement to engage in a behavior/task in which they cannot employ or “an employee is inner-directed, is interested or fascinated with a task and engages in it for the sake of task itself” (Zhang, 2010 ). When organizations wanted to fulfill a task from employees, they deal with monetary rewards and other tangible benefits. It referred to extrinsic rewards in motivational language. Management should know what motivates their workers and manipulate motivational techniques based on employees ’s desires. This would help organizations to recognize, educate and retain creative and productive employees for their engagement. For organizations to be better products and to have efficient performance, both extrinsic and intrinsic reward systems should be introduced. The purpose of explaining motivation (extrinsic, intrinsic) is to identify which motivation affects and has a relation with job engagement. Employees consider both important factors for their job motivation but some employees consider it more in line with extrinsic than intrinsic and vice versa (Zhang, 2010 ).

The study of Khan ( 2013 ) also concluded that the relationship and impact of extrinsic motivation were stronger on employee engagement as compared to intrinsic motivation. Thomas ( 2009 ) saying about intrinsic motivation at work stated that intrinsic rewards become more important and more prevalent in the workplace today. The above review leads to the following research hypothesis:

Hypothesis 2

There is a positive significant effect relationship between extrinsic motivation and employee engagement.

Overall motivation and employee engagement

Khan ( 2013 ) conducted research on the relationship between work motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic) and employee engagement on Allied Bank of Pakistan. The finding of the study revealed that there is a positive relationship between intrinsic motivation and employee engagement, and extrinsic motivation and employee engagement. Four intrinsic factors namely interesting work, job appreciation, satisfaction, and stress, and four extrinsic factors namely job security, good wages, promotion and growth, and recognition were identified as important factors for engagement. The study concluded that there is a positive relationship between intrinsic motivation and employee engagement, and extrinsic motivation and employee engagement. Furthermore, it is also concluded both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation has a strong positive impact on employee engagement.

Aworemi ( 2011 ) conducted research on the motivational factors of employees and their influence on employee engagement Nigeria and Marginson ( 1991 ) conducted research on academic salaries: will award restructuring make a difference in employees’ engagement? And many researchers raised many issues and get different findings of motivational factors for employee engagement. By considering these reviews the researcher developed the next hypothesis:

Hypothesis 3

There is a positive significant effect relationship between overall motivation and employee engagement.

Empirical literature review

Khan and Iqbal ( 2013 ) study concluded that there is positive relationship between intrinsic motivation and employee engagement, and extrinsic motivation and employee engagement. Furthermore, it is also concluded both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation has strong positive impact on employee engagement. The study also concluded that the relationship and impact of extrinsic motivation was stronger on employee engagement as compared to intrinsic motivation.

Bergstrom and García ( 2016 ) studied the influence of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation on employee engagement in private and public organizations. However the study focused on the perceptions of managers “not employees”. From the findings study they concluded that managers perceive intrinsic motivation as generally having a larger influence on the psychological aspects of employee engagement. They found that extrinsic motivation is of importance to employee engagement, though to a lesser extent psychologically but rather as a part of the total package that is offered to the employee by the organization and the manager. Thomas ( 2009 ) saying about intrinsic motivation at work, stated that intrinsic rewards become more important and more prevalent in the workplace today.

Habte ( 2016 ) concluded that managers perceive intrinsic motivation have a larger influence on the psychological aspects of employee engagement than extrinsic motivation. This supports the idea stated by Bergstrom and García ( 2016 ) but still contradict with the finding of Iqbal and Khan.

Michael ( 2008 ) conducted study on using motivational strategy as solution for employee retention and turnover in both public and private sector organizations in South Africa and the researchers used training and development, recognition, reward, a competitive salary package and job security as motivational factors. Kassa ( 2015 ) in his research on motivation and its effect on employee retention in Ambo Mineral Water Factory, stated that employees are highly motivated with reward motivational factors and are less motivated with interesting work and training and development and working environment motivational factors.

Owusu ( 2012 ) conducted research on the effects of motivation on employee performance of commercial bank in Ghana and the researcher used salary, fringed benefits, promotion, and loans as motivational factors. Pessaran and Tavakoli ( 2011 ) conducted research on identifying the employees’ motivation of Parsian hotels in Tehran and the study used salary, security, working condition, status, achievement, recognition, growth and advancement, work itself and responsibility as motivational factors.

Conceptual framework

After reviewing the relevant concepts and theories of motivation (intrinsic, extrinsic) and employee engagement mentioned in this chapter, the conceptual framework of the study has been developed as shown in the following figure (Fig. 1 ).

Research methodology

To achieve this study’s purpose, the researcher has used an explanatory survey research design, and also quantitative and qualitative study survey was employed. Standard close-ended questionnaires were used as a survey tool. The study was used both primary and secondary sources of data. The target population for this research was four city administrative office employees including all kebeles office employees and 349 questionnaires were collected from employees. The study used proportionate stratified with simple random sampling because to collect the relevant data and to give equal chance for all employees.

Since the organization under the study has four city administrations in different area. The sample was drawn from all city administrative offices proportionally as follows (Table 1 ).

After the proper data collection, coding, and organization, the study data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Under the descriptive statistics, mean and standard deviation are used and bivariate correlation was used to see whether the independent variables (intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation) have a relationship with the dependent variable (employee engagement). To determine the effect of independent variables (intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation) on the dependent variable (employee engagement) multiple linear regression analyses were used.

Measurements of variables

The independent variables for this study are intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation whereas the dependent variable was employee engagement. The researcher used standardized close-ended and some open-ended questionnaire instruments for collecting the primary sources of data. Questionnaires concerning employee engagement used are adapted from Gallup’s 12 standard questionnaires on the other hand questionnaires regarding intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is adopted from Khan ( 2013 ) Five-point Likert-Style rating scale was deployed in order to know the employees level of agreement on the effect of motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic) and employee engagement. The questionnaire has three parts; the first part is about demographic variables, the second part was about intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and the last part also about employee engagement. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation have 8 items each and employee engagement had 12 items and both are used five-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5).

The study was aimed at analyzing the effect of motivation on employee engagement at selected city administration offices. The dependent variable employee engagement and independent variables extrinsic and intrinsic motivation mean score was comparatively moderate. This points out that the greater part of respondents has a minor agreement on all measures. And also it shows that there was not a problem of multi co linearity, normality, and linearity in the study variables.

Based on the Table 2 result, the Pearson product-moment correlation analysis result showed that there is a moderate positive and significant relationship between intrinsic motivation and employee engagement at .329 and sig .000. This implied if the intrinsic motivation for the employees is increased it will also increase their engagement level. Lower employee intrinsic motivation will also lower their engagement level. The results of bivariate correlation confirmed that there is a moderate positive significant relationship between extrinsic motivation and employee engagement at .444 and sig level of .000. This implied if the extrinsic motivation for the employees is increased it will make significant positive changes in employee engagement. By lowering employee extrinsic motivation, employee engagement will also be lower. The study result showed that there was a moderate positive relationship between overall motivation and employee engagement. Also, extrinsic motivation had a more moderate positive relation with employee engagement as compared to intrinsic motivation.

Table 3 multiple regression analysis results portray that R square is .252 and adjusted R square is .248. This implied that 24.8% variation in employee engagement is explained by motivation in selected city administrations. In addition, the significance value of F statistics indicates a value .000 and it was less than p  < .05 so that it means the model was significant enough.

Also based on Table 4 result, multiple linear regression analysis results also confirmed that intrinsic motivation has a positive significant effect on employee engagement with the unstandardized Beta value of (.249, sig. level .000). As a result, the regression coefficient clarifies the average amount of change in employee engagement was affected by a unit of change in intrinsic motivation.

Regression analysis results also confirmed that extrinsic motivation had also a moderate positive significant effect on employee engagement. Since the beta value is .389 with a significance level of .000. Also, the result of extrinsic motivation showed it had a more moderate positive significant effect on employee engagement as compared to intrinsic motivation.

Furthermore, regression analysis was used to find out the effect of motivation on employee engagement. The result of the model summary from regression analysis indicated that overall motivation has a moderately positive effect on employee engagement. As a result, the regression coefficient clarifies the average amount of change in employee engagement was affected by a unit of change in motivation. The finding of the study indicated that intrinsic motivation has a highly significant effect on employee engagement compared to extrinsic motivation.

Based on open-ended questions feedback in the mentioned offices promotion and other related benefits are based on the strength of relationship with administers, there is a high shortage of working materials, there is no clear authority and responsibility delegation, no attractive work environment, no clear plan is prepared, fairness problem, high workload with unsatisfactory incentive and salary, there is the unnecessary intervention of managers at work, even superiors are not punctual and their incompetency/low problem-solving ability, some employees are hired on the unrelated job with their profession. Additionally, payments are not delivered on time, availability of hostile attitude, no motivational packages are available in those offices, customers’ poor discipline and others are things leading to be demotivated at their work and other related problems are available on those offices.

Comparison of the result of this study with the result of previous researches

As mentioned in the literature reviewed, the study of Christian et al. ( 2011 ) and Chalofsky and Krishna ( 2009 ) suggested that there was link between work engagement and motivational factors. Kahn ( 1990 ) and May et al. ( 2004 ) also relate employee engagement to motivation. Fairlie ( 2011 ) and Macey and Schneider ( 2008 ) pointed out that an investigation is required to find the link between work motivation and employee engagement. Thomas ( 2009 ) saying about intrinsic motivation at work, stated that intrinsic rewards become more important and more prevalent in the workplace today. Habte ( 2016 ) concluded that managers perceive intrinsic motivation have a larger influence on the psychological aspects of employee engagement than extrinsic motivation. Hence the finding of this study also supports these previous findings and also it contradicted with Habte ( 2016 ) finding.

Conclusions of the study

The study also examined the effect of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation on employee engagement. Four hypothesis questions were tested to answer the research question and fulfilled the research purpose. To achieve this objective, a quantitative and qualitative study survey was conducted and the researcher used an explanatory survey research design. A Standard close-ended questionnaire was used as a survey tool. The study was used both primary and secondary sources of data. The target population for this study was selected four city administrative office employees including all kebeles office employees) and as a sample size, 349 questionnaires were filled and collected from these employees. The study used proportionately stratified with simple random sampling because to collect the relevant data and to give equal chance for all employees. Later on, statistical package for social science (SPSS) software was used for the required test of inferential statistics; including reliability analysis, bivariate correlation, analysis of variance (ANOVA) test, and multiple regression analysis. From the findings of the research, it is concluded by answering the research questions and there is a significant positive relationship between intrinsic motivation at .329 and sig .000 and employee engagement and there is a positive significant relationship between extrinsic motivation and employee engagement at .444 and sig level of .000.

Findings of multiple regressions analysis portray that that intrinsic motivation has a positive significant effect on employee engagement with the unstandardized Beta value of (.249, sig. level .000). As a result, the regression coefficient clarifies the average amount of change in employee engagement was affected by a unit of change in intrinsic motivation. So that the decision rule in this research’s first hypothesis is to accept the alternative hypothesis.

Intrinsic motivation has a positive and statically significant effect on employee engagement at (Beta value of .249, sig. level .000). So the decision is to accept the alternative hypothesis and reject null hypothesis.

And also the regression analysis results confirmed that extrinsic motivation had also a moderate positive significant effect on employee engagement. Since the beta value is .331 with a significance level of .000. Also, the result of extrinsic motivation showed it had a more moderate positive significant effect on employee engagement as compared to intrinsic motivation. Based on the above study result the decision is to accept the alternative hypothesis and reject the null hypothesis of hypothesis two.

There is a positive significant effect relationship between extrinsic motivation and employee engagement at the beta value of .331 with a significance level of .000. So the decision is to accept the alternative hypothesis and to reject the null hypothesis.

When we test hypothesis three, the study revealed that there exists a positive significant relationship between both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and employee engagement. There was also sufficient evidence to conclude that in addition to these relationships successful motivational factors (intrinsic and extrinsic) had positive effects on employee engagement in selected city administration office employees. Hence, for the management to stimulate employees' motivation and also to improve the level of staff works engagement, greater efforts must be placed on the two perceived motivating factors. In addition, as the open-ended question result, there is a low motivation with weak employees’ engagement at work in those offices. So the decision is to accept the alternative hypothesis.

There is a positive significant effect relationship between overall motivation and employee engagement. The decision is to accept the alternative hypothesis and to reject the null hypothesis.

Limitation of the study

In this study, the independent variables, intrinsic and extrinsic motivations were explained only 24.8% of the variation in employee engagement, but the other 75.2% were explained by other factors that were not included in this study. So, future studies could examine the rest variables which can explain the variation in employee engagement.

The study was only focused on four city administration office employees. Therefore, future researchers relating to this topic should assess in a wider and larger scope to include other private organizations and increase the generalizability of the study.

Besides this study, a comparative study could be done to know what the difference is available in different sectors relating to this topic. And another limitation is the research variable taken is subject to the understanding and knowledge of the researcher.

Recommendations

Recommendations for policy and practice.

The study result shows that employees of selected city administrations were motivated by both extrinsic and intrinsic motivations but they were more motivated by intrinsic motivation factors than extrinsic ones. So the management of those offices should give relevant attention to these factors to stimulate the employee’s engagement while developing and or revising strategies and policies for their organization.

The management and policymakers of selected city administrations should use rigorous efforts in encouraging employees intrinsic and intrinsic motivation for better work engagement by creating an attractive work atmosphere and satisfaction, provide appreciation for good performers, moreover the management should also increase employees extrinsic motivation by creating job security, provided promotion and growth, benefits, and good salary, give appropriate reward and recognition for employees, provide opportunities to some form of ownership, as well as increased responsibility and authority.

The organization should find which ways are able to motivate employees, what drives them, then making sure they utilize appropriate motivational techniques with each employee. Managers should also endeavor to communicate the organization's purpose to employees. Finally, the organizations should take steps to incorporate the vision of employees for the organization with his or hers own vision. This will motivate employees to engage and contribute to the organization’s goals.

These offices should give a fair promotion and other related benefits, solve the shortage of working material problems, should set clear authority and responsibility delegation, create an attractive work environment, clear work plan to be prepared, minimize workload and make satisfactory incentive and reward based on their performance, avoid the unnecessary intervention of managers at work, solve unpunctuality problem and could improve managers skill by developmental programs to make them more experienced, some employees are hired on the unrelated job with their profession so review and correct this issue are better. Additionally, payments should to deliver on time, motivational packages should present in those offices, and also to increase employees engagement the office should facilitate short term and long term work-related training, perform periodic performance appraisal, make supervision and control at work, reduce time management problems and unpunctuality, prepare benefit package and equal reward systems, better to make decision makings more participative and open to motivate employees or to create a sense of ownership, should give induction pieces of training when new entrants have joined the office, minimize the availability of corruption and unethical activities, work to keep rule and regulations, try to solve the shortage of office facilities, better to make a fast decision, and other related problems should be solved on those offices.

Generally, selected city administrations should communicate with employees regarding how looks like their motivation and engagement, which things should be fulfilled and the organizations management could assess more factors that are most important to increase employees engagement at work and it should make important corrective actions, it will make employees more engaged, strengthen their relationship with the university as well as it will make employees more motivated and loyal to the organization.

Implications of the study

Theoretical implications.

This study can contribute to the existing literature in employees motivation, their engagement at work and effective human resource management and identifies the ways to satisfy/motivate these employees’ to increase organizational performance. Basically my findings are aligned with those of other scholar’s works relating to this topic and are important to show/provide interesting and recent perhaps promising areas to work on under the recent world.

Practical implications

The actual result of the paper also provide recommendations for public organizations on how to be more competitive through managing their employees, motivating them and also through resilience and renewal different human resource management strategies, and the researcher has also gave relevant recommendations for policymakers and other concerned bodies as shown in above.

Suggestion for future study

The research was conducted from employees’ perspective only by using employees’ engagement. It should be interesting to consider from the perspective of managers by using managers engagement.

The researcher conducted more of quantitative study; deep qualitative study could also be adopted to validate the results of this study. Employees of government organizations and none government organizations may motivate indifferent way, hence it should also be interesting to study from perspective of employees of government organizations.

From the findings of the study it is concluded that the model which included intrinsic motivation (IM) and extrinsic motivation (EM) explained only 25.2% of the variance of employee engagement the rest 74.8% may be due to the other variables which were not included in this study and left for further study.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Abbreviations

Statistical package for social science

Analysis of variance

Amabile, T. (1993). Motivational synergy: Toward new conceptualizations of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in the workplace. Human Resource Management Review, 3 (3), 10–13.

Article   Google Scholar  

Andrew, O., & Sofian, S. (2012). Individual factors and work outcomes of employee engagement. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 40 (1), 9–12.

Google Scholar  

Aworemi, J.A.-A. (2011). An empirical study of the motivational factors of employees in Nigeria. International Journal of Economics and Finance, 3 (3), 227–233.

Bergström, E., & Garcia Martinez, M. (2016). The influence of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation on employee engagement: A qualitative study of the perceptions of managers in public and private sector organizations .

Berl, R., & Williamson, N. C. (1987). A review of the content theories of motivation as they apply to sales and sales management. American Business Review, 5 (1), 53.

Chalofsky, N., & Krishna, V. (2009). Meaningfulness, commitment, and engagement: The intersection of a deeper level of intrinsic motivation. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 11 (2), 189–203.

Christian, M. S., Garza, A. S., & Slaughter, J. E. (2011). Work engagement: A quantitative review and test of its relations with task and contextual performance. Personnel Psychology, 64 (1), 89–136.

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Self-determination theory: A macrotheory of human motivation, development, and health. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 49 (3), 182.

Fairlie, P. (2011). Meaningful work, employee engagement, and other key employee outcomes: Implications for human resource development. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 13 (4), 508–525.

Habte, M. (January 2016, N/D). A comparative study of the impact of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards on employees motivation between public and private commercial banks in Ethiopia (unpublished master’s thesis) Addis Ababa University College of Business and Economics Department of Public Administration and Development Management. Retrieved November 14, 2016 from http://etd.aau.edu.et/bitstream/123456789/8912/1/Melaku%20Habte.pdf .

Kahn, W. A. (1990). Psychological conditions of personal engagement and disengagement at work. Academy of Management Journal, 33 (4), 692–724.

Kahn, W. A. (1992). To be fully there: Psychological presence at work. Human Relations, 45 (4), 321–349.

Kassa, T. (2015). Employee motivation and its effect on employee retention in Ambo mineral water factory. International Journal of Advance Research in Computer Science and Management Studies, 3 (3), 10–21.

Khan, I. A. (2011). Compensation management: A strategic conduit towards achieving employee retention and Job Satisfaction in banking Sector of Pakistan. International Journal of Human Resource Studies, 1 , 89.

Khan, W. I. & Iqbal, Y. (2013). An investigation of the relationship between work motivation and employee engagement, Astudy on Allied bank of Pakistan (Master thesis)

Macey, W. H., & Schneider, B. (2008). The meaning of employee engagement. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 1 (1), 3–30.

Marginson, S. (1991). Academic salaries: Will award restructuring make a difference? Journal of Tertiary Education Administration, 13 (1), 19–44.

May, D. R., Gilson, R. L., & Harter, L. M. (2004). The psychological conditions of meaningfulness, safety and availability and the engagement of the human spirit at work. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 77 (1), 11–37.

Michael, S.O. (2008). Using motivational strategy as panacea for employee retention and turnover in selected public and private sector organisations in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa (Doctoral dissertation, University of Fort Hare).

Owusu, T. (2012). E ffects of motivation on employee performance: A case study of Ghana commercial bank, Kumasi zone (Unpublished MBA Thesis, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science. Kumasi, Ghana).

Palaniammal, G. (2013). Motivating factors of employees are instigated to improve organization productivity. Indian Stream Research Journal, 3 (7), 1–4.

Pessaran, D., & Tavakoli, S. (2011). To identify the employees’ motivation of Parsian hotels . Tehran (Master thesis), 9, pp. 51–80.

Rice, C. M. (2012). The engagement equation: Leadership strategies for an inspired workforce somerset . Wiley.

Saks, A. M. (2006). Antecedents and consequences of employee engagement. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 21 , 600–619.

Shuck, B. (2010). Employee engagement & HRD: A seminal review of the foundations. Human Resource Development Review, 9 (1), 89–110.

Thomas, K. (2009). Intrinsic motivation at work (2nd ed.). “Faculty” krosnick: Survey research design. Retrieved from, https://web.stanford.edu

Zhang, A. (2010). Linking empowering leadership and employee creativity: The influence of psychological empowerment, intrinsic motivation, and creative process engagement. The Academy of Management Journal, 53 , 107–128.

Download references

Acknowledgements

There is no any funding information for this research.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Management Department, Woldia University, Woldia, Ethiopia

Abriham Ebabu Engidaw

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

The author of this article is Abriham Ebabu Engidaw and the author read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Abriham Ebabu Engidaw .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

The process under the study, all the materials used from primary and secondary source data were ethical. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Consent for publication

The entire participant has consented to the submission of the paper to the journal for publication.

Competing interests

The author declare that there is no competing interest for this article.

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

See Fig.  1 and Tables 2 , 3 and 4 .

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Engidaw, A.E. The effect of motivation on employee engagement in public sectors: in the case of North Wollo zone. J Innov Entrep 10 , 43 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13731-021-00185-1

Download citation

Received : 02 February 2021

Accepted : 15 September 2021

Published : 01 November 2021

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s13731-021-00185-1

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Public sectors

• SUGGESTED TOPICS
• The Magazine
• Newsletters
• Managing Yourself
• Managing Teams
• Work-life Balance
• The Big Idea
• Data & Visuals
• Reading Lists
• Case Selections
• HBR Learning
• Topic Feeds
• Account Settings
• Email Preferences

Does Money Really Affect Motivation? A Review of the Research

• Tomas Chamorro-Premuzic

We all need to get paid. But the evidence suggests it undermines our intrinsic motivations.

How much should people earn? Even if resources were unlimited, it would be difficult to stipulate your ideal salary. Intuitively, one would think that higher pay should produce better results, but scientific evidence indicates that the link between compensation, motivation and performance is much more complex. In fact, research suggests that even if we let people decide how much they should earn, they would probably not enjoy their job more.

• Tomas Chamorro-Premuzic is the Chief Innovation Officer at ManpowerGroup, a professor of business psychology at University College London and at Columbia University, co-founder of  deepersignals.com , and an associate at Harvard’s Entrepreneurial Finance Lab. He is the author of  Why Do So Many Incompetent Men Become Leaders? (and How to Fix It ) , upon which his  TEDx talk  was based. His latest book is I, Human: AI, Automation, and the Quest to Reclaim What Makes Us Unique.   Find him at  www.drtomas.com . drtcp

Partner Center

Product details

What Do the Case Studies Tell Us About Motivation?

• First Online: 09 March 2016

Cite this chapter

• Maggie Hartnett 2  

3040 Accesses

This chapter discusses and synthesises the key findings across the two cases reported in chapter three both in terms of the motivation of learners and the ways in which certain social and contextual influences supported or hindered the expression of different types of motivation. The concepts of autonomy, competence and relatedness, from self-determination theory, are used as lenses to show how the identified social and contextual influences either supported or undermined learners’ psychological needs and, consequently, their motivation. Important commonalities as well as differences, between the two cases, are explored and discussed. Attention is also drawn to how these findings extend and build on the existing body of research on motivation in online education.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

• Available as EPUB and PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Compact, lightweight edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info
• Durable hardcover edition

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Anderson, B. (2006a). Writing power into online discussion. Computers and Composition, 23 (1), 108–124. doi: 10.1016/j.compcom.2005.12.007 .

Article   Google Scholar  

Anderson, B., & Simpson, M. (2004). Group and class contexts for learning and support online: Learning and affective support in small group and class contexts. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 5 (3), Retrieved from http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/index .

Anderson, T. (2006b). Interaction in learning and teaching on the educational semantic web. In C. Juwah (Ed.), Interactions in online education: Implications for theory and practice (pp. 141–155). London: Routledge.

Google Scholar  

Anderson, T. (2008). Teaching in an online context. In T. Anderson (Ed.), Theory and practice of online learning (2nd ed., pp. 343–366). Retrieved from http://www.aupress.ca/index.php/books/120146 .

Anderson, T., Rourke, L., Garrison, D. R., & Archer, W. (2001). Assessing teaching presence in a computer conferencing context. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 5 (2).

Andresen, M. A. (2009). Asynchronous discussion forums: Success factors, outcomes, assessments, and limitations. Educational Technology and Society, 12 (1), 249–257. Retrieved from http://www.ifets.info/journals/12_1/19.pdf .

Artino, A. R. (2007). Online military training: Using a social cognitive view of motivation and self-regulation to understand students’ satisfaction, perceived learning, and choice. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 8 (3), 191–202.

Artino, A. R. (2008). Motivational beliefs and perceptions of instructional quality: Predicting satisfaction with online training. Journal of Computer Assisted learning, 24 (3), 260–270. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00258.x .

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control . New York: Freeman.

Bandura, A. (2000). Exercise of human agency through collective efficacy. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9 (3), 75–78. doi: 10.1111/1467-8721.00064 .

Baynton, M. (1992). Dimensions of “control” in distance education: A factor analysis. The American Journal of Distance Education, 6 (2), 17–31. doi: 10.1080/08923649209526783 .

Bekele, T. A. (2010). Motivation and satisfaction in internet-supported learning environments: A review. Educational Technology and Society, 13 (2), 116–127.

Blumenfeld, P. C., Kempler, T. M., & Krajcik, J. S. (2006). Motivation and cognitive engagement in learning environments. In R. K. Sawyer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of the learning sciences (pp. 475–488). Cambridge, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Brophy, J. (2008). Developing students’ appreciation for what is taught in school. Educational Psychologist, 43 (3), 132–141. doi: 10.1080/00461520701756511 .

Brophy, J. (2010). Motivating students to learn (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.

Cheung, W. S., Hew, K. F., & Ling Ng, C. S. (2008). Toward an understanding of why students contribute in asynchronous online discussions. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 38 (1), 29–50. doi: 10.2190/EC.38.1.b .

Connell, J. P., & Wellborn, J. G. (1991). Competence, autonomy and relatedness: A motivational analysis of self-system processes. In M. R. Gunnar & L. A. Sroufe (Eds.), Self processes and development: The Minnesota symposia on child development (Vol. 23, pp. 43–77). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1985). Emergent motivation and the evolution of the self. In D. A. Kleiber & M. L. Maehr (Eds.), Advances in motivation and achievement (Vol. 4, pp. 93–119). Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press.

Cutler, R. (1995). Distributed presence and community in cyberspace. Interpersonal Computing and Technology: An Electronic Journal for the 21st Century, 3 (2), 12–32.

Deci, E. L., & Moller, A. C. (2005). The concept of competence: A starting place for understanding intrinsic motivation and self-determined extrinsic motivation. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 579–597). New York: The Guilford Press.

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11 (4), 227–268. doi: 10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 .

Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26 (3/4), 325–346. doi: 10.1207/s15326985ep2603&4_6 .

Dillenbourg, P. (1999). What do you mean by “collaborative learning”? In P. Dillenbourg (Ed.), Collaborative learning: Cognitive and computational approaches (pp. 1–16). Amsterdam: Pergamon.

Dron, J. (2007). Control and constraint in e-learning: Choosing when to choose . Hershey, PA: Information Science.

Book   Google Scholar  

Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2000). Critical inquiry in a text-based environment: Computer conferencing in higher education. The Internet and Higher Education, 2 (2), 87–105. doi: 10.1016/S1096-7516(00)00016-6 .

Garrison, D. R., & Baynton, M. (1987). Beyond independence in distance education: The concept of control. The American Journal of Distance Education, 1 (3), 3–15. doi: 10.1080/08923648709526593 .

Ginsberg, M. B. (2005). Cultural diversity, motivation, and differentiation. Theory into practice, 44 (3), 218–225. doi: 10.1207/s15430421tip4403_6 .

Ginsberg, M. B., & Wlodkowski, R. J. (2000). Creating highly motivated classrooms for all students: A schoolwide approach to powerful teaching with diverse learners . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Hidi, S. (2000). An interest researcher’s perspective: The effects of extrinsic and intrinsic factors on motivation. In C. Sansone & J. M. Harackiewicz (Eds.), Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: The search for optimal motivation and performance (pp. 309–339). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Hidi, S., & Ainley, M. (2008). Interest and self-regulation: Relationships between two variables that influence learning. In D. H. Schunk & B. J. Zimmerman (Eds.), Motivation and self-regulated learning: Theory, research, and applications (pp. 77–109). New York: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Hidi, S., & Renninger, K. A. (2006). The four-phase model of interest development. Educational Psychologist, 41 (2), 111–127. doi: 10.1207/s15326985ep4102_4 .

Hmelo-Silver, C. E., Nagarajan, A., & Derry, S. J. (2006). From face-to-face to online participation: Tensions in facilitating problem-based learning. In M. Savin-Baden & K. Wilkie (Eds.), Problem-based learning online (pp. 61–78). Maidenhead, Berkshire, England: Open University Press.

Hodgins, H. S., Koestner, R., & Duncan, N. (1996). On the compatibility of autonomy and relatedness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22 (3), 227–237. doi: 10.1177/0146167296223001 .

Jang, H., Reeve, J., & Deci, E. L. (2010). Engaging students in learning activities: It is not autonomy support or structure but autonomy support and structure. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102 (3), 588–600. doi: 10.1037/a0019682 .

Jones, A., & Issroff, K. (2007). Learning technologies: Affective and social issues. In G. Conole & M. Oliver (Eds.), Contemporary perspectives in e-learning research: Themes, methods and impact on practice (pp. 190–202). London: Routledge.

Juwah, C. (2006). Interactions in online peer learning. In C. Juwah (Ed.), Interactions in online education (pp. 171–190). London: Routledge.

Katz, I., & Assor, A. (2007). When choice motivates and when it does not. Educational Psychology Review, 19 (4), 429–442. doi: 10.1007/s10648-006-9027-y .

Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41 (2), 75–86. doi: 10.1207/s15326985ep4102_1 .

Kortemeyer, G. (2006). An analysis of asynchronous online homework discussions in introductory physics courses. American Journal of Physics, 74 (6), 526–536. doi: 10.1119/1.2186684 .

Krapp, A. (2002). An educational-psychological theory of interest and its relation to SDT. In E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of Self-Determination research (pp. 405–427). Rochester, NY: The University of Rochester Press.

Kuo, Y. C., Walker, A. E., Belland, B. R., & Schroder, K. E. E. (2013). A predictive study of student satisfaction in online education programs. The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 14 (1), 16–39.

Lee, Y., Choi, J., & Kim, T. (2013). Discriminating factors between completers of and dropouts from online learning courses. British Journal of Educational Technology, 44 (2), 328–337. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8535.2012.01306.x .

Lin, Y.-M., Lin, G.-Y., & Laffey, J. M. (2008). Building a social and motivational framework for understanding satisfaction in online learning. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 38 (1), 1–27. doi: 10.2190/EC.38.1.a .

Lindgren, R., & McDaniel, R. (2012). Transforming online learning through narrative and student agency. Journal of Educational Technology and Society, 15 (4), 344–355.

Loyens, S. M. M., Kirschner, P. A., & Paas, F. (2011). Problem-based learning. In K. R. Harris, S. Graham, T. T. Urdan, A. G. Bus, S. Major & H. Swanson (Eds.), APA educational psychology handbook: Application to learning and teaching (Vol. 3, pp. 403–425). Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association.

Martens, R. L., Gulikers, J., & Bastiaens, T. (2004). The impact of intrinsic motivation on e-learning in authentic computer tasks. Journal of Computer Assisted learning, 20 (5), 368–376. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2004.00096.x .

Martens, R. L., & Kirschner, P. A. (2004). Predicting intrinsic motivation. Association for Educational Communications and Technology (pp. 621–630). Washington, DC: Association for Educational Communications and Technology.

Mayes, T. (2006). Theoretical perspectives on interactivity in e-learning. In C. Juwah (Ed.), Interactions in online education (pp. 9–26). London: Routledge.

Moore, M. G. (1993). Theory of transactional distance. In D. Keegan (Ed.), Theoretical principles of distance education (pp. 23–38). London: Routledge.

Moore, M. G. (2007). The theory of transactional distance. In M. G. Moore (Ed.), Handbook of distance education (2nd ed., pp. 89–108). Mahwah, N.J: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Moore, M. G., & Kearsley, G. (2011). Distance education: A systems view of online learning (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth; Cengage Learning.

Moos, D. C., & Azevedo, R. (2008). Exploring the fluctuation of motivation and use of self-regulatory processes during learning with hypermedia. Instructional Science, 36 (3), 203–231. doi: 10.1007/s11251-007-9028-3 .

Moos, D. C., & Azevedo, R. (2009). Learning with computer-based learning environments: A literature review of computer self-efficacy. Review of Educational Research, 79 (2), 576–600. doi: 10.3102/0034654308326083 .

Paris, S. G., & Turner, J. C. (1994). Situated motivation. In P. R. Pintrich, D. R. Brown & C. E. Weinstein (Eds.), Student motivation, cognition, and learning: Essays in honor of Wilbert J. McKeachie (pp. 213–237). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Park, J.-H., & Choi, H. J. (2009). Factors influencing adult learners’ decision to drop out or persist in online learning. Educational Technology and Society, 12 (4), 207–217. Retrieved from http://www.ifets.info/ .

Payne, B. K., Monk-Turner, E., Smith, D., & Sumter, M. (2006). Improving group work: Voices of students. Education, 126 (3), 441–448.

Reeve, J. (1996). Motivating others: Nurturing inner motivational resources . Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Reeve, J. (2002). Self-determination theory applied to educational settings. In E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of Self-Determination research (pp. 183–203). Rochester, NY: The University of Rochester Press.

Reeve, J. (2006). Teachers as facilitators: What autonomy-supportive teachers do and why their students benefit. The Elementary School Journal, 106 (3), 225–236. doi: 10.1086/501484 .

Reeve, J. (2009). Why teachers adopt a controlling motivating style toward students and how they can become more autonomy supportive. Educational Psychologist, 44 (3), 159–175. doi: 10.1080/00461520903028990 .

Reeve, J., Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2004). Self-determination theory: A dialectical framework for understanding sociocultural influences on student motivation. In D. M. McInerney & S. Van Etten (Eds.), Research on sociocultural influences on motivation and learning: Big theories revisited (Vol. 4, pp. 31–60). Greenwich, CT: Information Age.

Reeve, J., Jang, H., Hardre, P., & Omura, M. (2002). Providing a rationale in an autonomy-supportive way as a strategy to motivate others during an uninteresting activity. Motivation and Emotion, 26 (3), 183–207. doi: 10.1023/A:1021711629417 .

Reeve, J., Nix, G., & Hamm, D. (2003). Testing models of the experience of self-determination in intrinsic motivation and the conundrum of choice. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95 (2), 375–392. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.95.2.375 .

Reeve, J., Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L., & Jang, H. (2008). Understanding and promoting autonomous self-regulation: A self-determination theory perspective. In D. H. Schunk & B. J. Zimmerman (Eds.), Motivation and self-regulated learning: Theory, research, and applications (pp. 223–244). New York: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Renninger, K. A., Cai, M., Lewis, M., Adams, M., & Ernst, K. (2011). Motivation and learning in an online, unmoderated, mathematics workshop for teachers. Educational Technology Research and Development, 59 (2), 229–247. doi: 10.1007/s11423-011-9195-4 .

Rentroia-Bonito, M. A., Jorge, J., & Ghaoui, C. (2006). Motivation to e-learn within organizational settings: An exploratory factor structure. International Journal of Distance Education Technologies, 4 (3), 24–35.

Rienties, B., Giesbers, B., Tempelaar, D., Lygo-Baker, S., Segers, M., & Gijselaers, W. (2012). The role of scaffolding and motivation in CSCL. Computers and Education, 59 (3), 893–906. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2012.04.010 .

Rienties, B., Tempelaar, D., Van den Bossche, P., Gijselaers, W., & Segers, M. (2009). The role of academic motivation in computer-supported collaborative learning. Computers in Human Behavior, 25 (6), 1195–1206. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2009.05.012 .

Rourke, L., Anderson, T., Garrison, D. R., & Archer, W. (1999). Assessing social presence in asynchronous, text-based computer conferencing. Journal of Distance Education, 14 (2), 50–71.

Rovai, A. P. (2007). Facilitating online discussions effectively. The Internet and Higher Education, 10 (1), 77–88. doi: 10.1016/j.iheduc.2006.10.001 .

Rovai, A. P., & Lucking, R. (2003). Sense of community in a higher education television-based distance education program. Educational Technology Research and Development, 51 (2), 5–16. doi: 10.1007/BF02504523 .

Rovai, A. P., Ponton, M., Wighting, M. J., & Baker, J. (2007). A comparative analysis of student motivation in traditional classroom and e-learning courses. International Journal on E-Learning, 6 (3), 413–432.

Schunk, D. H., Meece, J. L., & Pintrich, P. R. (2014). Motivation in education: Theory, research, and applications (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.

Shen, D., Cho, M.-H., Tsai, C.-L., & Marra, R. (2013). Unpacking online learning experiences: Online learning self-efficacy and learning satisfaction. The Internet and Higher Education, 19 , 10–17. doi: 10.1016/j.iheduc.2013.04.001 .

Shroff, R. H., & Vogel, D. R. (2009). Assessing the factors deemed to support individual student intrinsic motivation in technology supported online and face-to-face discussions. Journal of Information Technology Education, 8 , 59–85.

Shroff, R. H., Vogel, D. R., & Coombes, J. (2008). Assessing individual-level factors supporting student intrinsic motivation in online discussions: A qualitative study. Journal of Information Systems Education, 19 (1), 111–125.

Slavin, R. E. (2011). Classroom applications of cooperative learning. In K. R. Harris, S. Graham, T. T. Urdan, A. G. Bus, S. Major & H. Swanson (Eds.), APA educational psychology handbook: Application to learning and teaching (Vol. 3, pp. 359–378). Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association.

Swan, K., & Shea, P. (2005). The development of virtual learning communities. In S. Hiltz & R. Goldman (Eds.), Learning together online: Research on asynchronous learning networks (pp. 239–260). London: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Van Etten, S., Pressley, M., McInerney, D. M., & Liem, A. D. (2008). College seniors’ theory of their academic motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100 (4), 812–828. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.100.4.812 .

Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind and Society: The development of higher psychological processes . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Wang, S.-L., & Lin, S. S. J. (2007a). The application of social cognitive theory to web-based learning through NetPorts. British Journal of Educational Technology, 38 (4), 600–612. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8535.2006.00645.x .

Wang, S.-L., & Lin, S. S. J. (2007b). The effects of group composition of self-efficacy and collective efficacy on computer-supported collaborative learning. Computers in Human Behavior, 23 (5), 2256–2268. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2006.03.005 .

Wang, S.-L., & Wu, P.-Y. (2008). The role of feedback and self-efficacy on web-based learning: The social cognitive perspective. Computers and Education, 51 (4), 1589–1598. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2008.03.004 .

Wighting, M. J., Liu, J., & Rovai, A. P. (2008). Distinguishing sense of community and motivation characteristics between online and traditional college students. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 9 (3), 285–295.

Xie, K., DeBacker, T. K., & Ferguson, C. (2006). Extending the traditional classroom through online discussion: The role of student motivation. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 34 (1), 67–89. doi: 10.2190/7BAK-EGAH-3MH1-K7C6 .

Yukselturk, E., & Bulut, S. (2007). Predictors for student success in an online course. Educational Technology and Society, 10 (2), 71–83. Retrieved from http://www.ifets.info/ .

Zaharias, P., & Poylymenakou, A. (2009). Developing a usability evaluation method for e-learning applications: Beyond functional usability. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 25 (1), 75–98. doi: 10.1080/10447310802546716 .

Zepke, N., Leach, L., & Butler, P. (2009). The role of teacher-student interactions in tertiary student engagement. New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies, 44 (1), 69–82.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand

Maggie Hartnett

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Maggie Hartnett .

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2016 Springer Science+Business Media Singapore

About this chapter

Hartnett, M. (2016). What Do the Case Studies Tell Us About Motivation?. In: Motivation in Online Education. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-0700-2_4

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-0700-2_4

Published : 09 March 2016

Publisher Name : Springer, Singapore

Print ISBN : 978-981-10-0698-2

Online ISBN : 978-981-10-0700-2

eBook Packages : Education Education (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

Values affecting student motivation: a case study

2004, DAD discussion forum on faculty and student …

Related Papers

mysterious rose

Erdoğan Özdemir

Prof. Dr. Mızrap Bulunuz

Inquiry-based science instruction is a major goal of science education reform.However, there is little research examining how preservice elementary teachers might be motivated to teach through inquiry. This quantitative study was designed to examine the role of background experiences and an inquiry science methods course on interest in science and interest in teaching science. The course included many activities and assignments at varying levels of inquiry, designed to teach content and inquiry methods and to model effective teaching. The study involved analyses of surveys completed by students in the course on their experiences with science before, during, and at the end of the course. The following questions guided the design of this study and analysis of the data: 1. What science background experiences (school, home, and informal education) do participants have and how do those experiences affect initial interest in science? 2. Among the hands-on activities in the methods course, is there a relationship between level of inquiry of the activity and the motivational quality (interesting, fun, and learning) of the activity? 3. Does the course affect participants’ interest and attitude toward science? 4. What aspects of the course contribute to participants’ interest in teaching science and choice to teach science? Descriptive and inferential analysis of a background survey revealed that participants with high and low initial interest in science differed significantly on remembering about elementary school science and involvement in science related activities in childhood/youth. Analysis of daily ratings of each hands-on activity on motivational qualities (fun, interest, and learning) indicated that there were significant differences in motivational quality of the activities by level of inquiry with higher levels of inquiry rated more positively. Pre/post surveys indicated that participants increased in interest in science and a number of variables reflecting more positive feelings about science and science teaching. Regression analysis found that the best predictors for interest in teaching science were experiencing fun activities in the science methods course followed by the interest participants brought to the course. This study highlights the motivational aspects of the methods course in developing interest in science and interest in teaching science.

Dissertation

First-Year Seminar (FYS) courses are commonly used by higher education institutions to onboard new students, while also increasing academic success and retention. This mixed-methods study explored how using a social media platform, Slack, impacted hope, academic self-efficacy, career goals, sense of belonging and how these variables impacted student GPA, course grades, and retention after the first semester of study. The sample was formed from a total group of 1,000 incoming first-year students, with an n=131 participating during the pretest, posttest, or both surveys during the time of the study. The sample population was placed into three groups, with one intervention group receiving motivational and informational Slack Messages, another group receiving only informational Slack messages, and a control group that received neither. The 8 week intervention, which provided students motivational messages and videos through Slack, was provided to students in order to compare how the use of such material would compare to FYS courses that did not use such an intervention. The quantitative findings found no significant difference among the three groups after the end of the first semester of study. However, the results did find that academic self-efficacy and rejection and exclusion, in terms of one’s feelings towards sense of belonging, correlated and predicted FYS course grades and GPA at the end of the semester, while hope and careers goals did not. Qualitative results found that students who built connections with their peers and faculty, participated on campus, and could connect non-course activities with their major of study, had a deeper perception of their sense of belonging to campus. Further qualitative results about the intervention pointed to a need to improve how Slack was used in the intervention groups’ FYS courses, in order for the intervention to better impact students perceptions of the variables explored in the study. Qualitative results also pointed to many students having a deep understanding of what motivates them to succeed, how they can bridge the gap between academic study and their future careers, and how to work with others to achieve their dreams. Consequently, this study provides an insight into a potential intervention that can be used with students that is free and easy to setup, but needs further exploration into how the intervention can be best used to help students develop themselves.

Texas State PA Applied Research Projects

The training offered by the Fiscal Management Division constitutes a significant cost for the Texas Comptroller of Public Accounts. According to Malcolm Knowles’s andragogical model of adult learning, adult learners should be taught differently than child learners. The purpose of this research is three-fold. First, the components of an andragogical class are developed and explained. Second, regularly scheduled Fiscal Management training classes are assessed using the components. Third, recommendations on ways to improve the training classes are offered. Data collected from a focus group of Fiscal Management trainers and a Web-based survey of students are used. The trainers were asked about their classes in general terms. Their opinions are compared to the components of an andragogical class. Students were asked about each particular class they attended. Survey results are compared to pre-established benchmarks in order to generalize whether students believe that Fiscal Management training classes parallel each component. The data reveals that the Fiscal Management training classes do not align with the andragogical model. Even so, at least one of the two groups expressed opinions that align with the model on five of the six components. By following the recommendations presented, trainers can bring their classes closer to the model.

Lung Vannak

All learners learn best when they are motivated; so do adults. Hence, the way to ensure success of students in higher education is first to know what motivates and sustains them in the learning process. Based on a study of 203 university students, this paper presents eight top most motivating factors for adult learners in higher education. These include quality of instruction; quality of curriculum; relevance and pragmatism; interactive classrooms and effective management practices; progressive assessment and timely feedback; self-directedness; conducive learning environment; and effective academic advising practices. The study concludes that these eight factors are critical to eliciting or enhancing the will power in students in higher education toward successful learning. The implications for practice and further research are also discussed.

Yin Ling Cheung

While the last decade has witnessed a growing body of research on student motivation in second language acquisition, research about the impact of writing instructors’ motivational strategies on student motivation has remained underexplored. In order to fill this important gap, this study, guided by motivational strategy framework, investigates the effect of writing instructors’ motivational strategies on student motivation. Participants were 344 first-year undergraduate students taking a writing course at a university in Singapore. Classroom observation schemes, student surveys, and surveys with writing instructors were collected. Findings show that the more the writing instructors reported using strategies in generating students’ initial motivation in the classroom, the more the students reported having positive attitude and improved self-confidence in the writing course. This study contributes new knowledge to the field by relating writing instructors’ motivational strategies to students’ positive attitude in learning, the feeling of success in written assignments, and their self-confidence.

Mathias Hounnou

Language autonomy and motivational strategies constitute the core indicators in the learning and teaching of Foreign languages (FL) and more specifically English language , a language that has gained a propensity in its fluency by the economic agents in a nation . To that end, it becomes transversal to academic curricula for professional schools and istitutes to Universities in Republic of Benin, mostly at the advent of the new educational system called LMD. Hence, the development and the promotion of ESP as a vehicle to new fields of study progression inner higher education. Thus, this study aims to evaluate the existing strategies and their motivational factors so as to compare and suggest the new ways (reshaping) for integration which facilitate the teaching and learning autonomously during ESP courses. Also, this study has adopted qualitative and quantitative approaches to identify and differentiate the major factors which influence positively and negatively the learners' motivation and their autonomy in Economics, Management and Agriculture in Republic of Benin. This study attempts to draw out the cognitive and metacognitive practices that have revealed the disparity in terms of language levels applied to ESP in a socio economic context in permanent dynamism. The ESP teaching and learning components are collected by means of interviews, questionnnaires, classroom observations and Focus Group Discussions. In real, 675 learners from seven (07) universities hace been selected for the survey . Eight (08) Focus Group Discussions and specific interviews have been selected. The findings have revealed an original demarcartion between the act of learning and teaching ESP through the contextualization of dependant factors. Which contextualization is differently appreciated by the majority of learners and teachers. The findings also indicate and direct the fundamental factors which reduce the motivation and the promotion of ESP toward the learners and the instructors. Additionally , it reveals a certain number of socio economic factors which influence the success of the integration and the manipulation of required strategies (syllabus, curricula implementation) through the mastery of cognitive and metacognitive approaches applied to ESP. From those findings, this study gives rise to many pedagogical implications; it formulates recommendations and suggestions for efficient and sustainable integration of those autonomous and motivational strategies for the benefit of professional fields of study in Benin Universities.

language autonomy and motivational strategies constitute the core indicators in the teaching and learning of foreign language and more specifically english language, a language that has gained a propensity in its fluency by the economic agents in a nation.Thus, this study aims to evaluate the existing strategies and their motivational factors so as to compare and suggest the new ways for integration which facilitate the teaching and learning autonomously. The findings have revealed an original demarcation between the act of learning and teaching ESP through the contextualization of dependent factors.

Richard V Denila

Denila, Richard V. This study investigated the relationship of high school chemistry students’ motivation to learn and attitude towards chemistry with their chemistry academic achievement. This study was conducted at Norala National High School, Division of South Cotabato, for the school year 2009-2010. The study made use of the correlation method with the questionnaires in Likert scale to gather the data. The instruments used were: Motivation questionnaire to learn (as adopted and modified by Ortiz, 1997) for determining the students’ motivation to learn chemistry; the Attitude Towards Science Scale (ATSS) by Wilkinson, 1979, as adopted by Alava, 2004 for determining the students’ attitude towards chemistry; and the Achievement Test in Chemistry for ascertaining the academic achievement of the third year chemistry students. The statistical tools used in the study were frequency count, percentage, the mean, standard deviation, and Pearson product-moment correlation (r) at 0.05 confidence level. Findings showed that the third year students are motivated in achievement, in affiliation, in competence, and in maintenance to learn chemistry. Study show that they have the desire to learn the concepts and skills in chemistry. Collectively, the third year high school students’ have favorable attitude towards chemistry. The academic performance level of the of the third year students in high school chemistry is satisfactory. This indicates that the students are moderately competent in the knowledge and skills in chemistry. There is a statistically significant relationship between the third year students’ motivation to learn chemistry and their attitude towards chemistry. A statistically significant relationship exists between the third year students’ motivation to learn chemistry and their academic achievement in chemistry. Statistically there is a significant relationship between the third year students’ attitude towards chemistry and their academic achievement in chemistry.

RELATED TOPICS

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

• Subscribe Newsletter
• Track Paper
• Conferences

International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS)

•                              ISSN No. 2454-6186
•                                                                       Strengthening Social Sciences for the Future
• May Issue 2024
• Research Area
• Initial Submission
• Revised Manuscript Submission
• Final Submission
• Review Process
• Paper Format
• Author (s) Declaration
• Registration
• Virtual Library
• Apply as Reviewer
• Join as a Board Member
• Eligibility Details & Benefits
• Board Members

An Analysis of the Impact of Motivation on Employee Performance:  A Case Study of Selected Private Universities in Lusaka

•  Chipie Phiri
• Jacqueline Siwale
• Mathew Mwewa
• May 15, 2023

 Chipie Phiri 1 , Jacqueline Siwale 1* , Mathew Mwewa 2 1 Department of Business and Management Studies –  Texila American University 2 Potgraudate Student – University of South Wales, UK

DOI: https://doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2023.7488

Received: 05 April 2023; Accepted: 14 April 2023; Published: 15 May 2023

The purpose of conducting this research was to analyze the impact of Motivation on employee performance.  One of the major concerns of organizations is its profitability, hence the need for efficiency.  Organizations are in continuous state of competition, and this has increased the need to improve employee’s performance in organizations.  The major focus of the study was in the education sector particularly the selected private universities in Lusaka district. A sample of 143 respondents was used which included Professors, Top Admin staff, Lecturers and supporting staff members of the selected private universities of Lusaka district. Distribution tables, pie charts and percentage tables were used to analyse and simplify the primary data that was collected.  It is vital for any Organization including the education sector to persistently discover different ways of motivating employees.  Retaining their staff is very important for the growth and efficiency of the universities. From the findings it was revealed that, motivation can either increase or decrease performance of employees depending on the form of motivation used. Organisation should understand the motivating need of each employee to improve performance.  The study concluded that employee performance in relation to motivation is a vital aspect influencing this research.

Keywords: Motivation and Performance

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF STUDY

It is generally agreed that any organization’s greatest asset, is the human resource, it is therefore widely recognized in the human resource literature that promotion of the motivation of workers in both private and public organization leads to a higher quality of human resources and optimum performance (Albrecht eta al, 2015).

One may ask why there is need for managers to spend time on motivating their employees. The answer is simple, “to extend the organization’s existence”. Employees make up an organization and if they do not have organizational commitment, there is no incentive to excel at their jobs.

This section presents the background to the study, statement of the problem, objectives of the study, significance, and scope of the study, etc. The study will focus on, the analysis of the impact of motivation on performance of employees in the selected Private Universities in Lusaka District.  The universities under research are Cavendish University, Luitebm University and Zambia Open University.

The importance of employee satisfaction and work motivation is growing all the time in the companies. Many researchers have been made to find out what the effect of job satisfaction and motivation has on the performance and productivity of the organization.

Practically all people are concerned with motivation to some extent, and something all employees have in common is that they are people; and people work best when they are motivated (Whiteley, 2002).

For the company to optimize employee’s performance there is need for employees to be sufficiently motivated. Therefore, successful work performance can arise from a variety of motives, for instance two people doing similar jobs may both be successful for different reasons, one salesperson, may be motivated by the commission earned on sales, while the other may be more concerned with meeting sales targets. This creates a nuance in the subject matter because motivation to enhance performance varies from person to person and from company to company (William, 2010).

The above therefore arouses more critical academic thinking within the subject area. William (2010) further states that contemporary research and observations show that well motivated employees are more productive and creative towards achieving company or organizational goals. On the other hand, less, motivated employees perform less and tend to divert from attaining organizational goals.

One of the biggest problems facing managers in the organizations is how best to get      employees committed to their work and put in their best towards the accomplishment of the organization’s objectives. Motivation is concerned with why people do what they do. It answers questions such as why do managers or workers go to work and do a good job. This tries to explain what motivates people to act the way they do, with primary focus on the workplace. It is the primary task of the manager to create and maintain an environment in which employees can work efficiently and realize the objectives of the organization (Maduka & Okafor, 2014).

Statement of the Problem

According to Samsudin (2006: 282), work motivation is something that gives rise to motivation or enthusiasm for work. Motivation moves people to display behavior towards the achievement of a particular goal (Ismet Sulila; 2019).Motivation is the driving force in getting the best out of employees.  Low or Lack of motivation affects employees and organization performance.  Based on the findings from the selected private universities in Lusaka district, there are a lot of problems associated with employee motivation that affects performance.  The problems include lack of resources, low morale, low job satisfaction, lack of recognition and major workload. (Bennell and Akyeampong 2007) Others are low pay, absenteeism, poor quality of leadership, lack of incentives by the said universities, no proper employment contracts, and lack of job security.  Well aligned employee motivation will increase morale and loyalty, reduce conflict, and enhance relationships.  Highly motivated employees will maximize their time and effort into doing the jobs.  Efficient organization goals will be achieved and maximum job satisfaction when employees are highly motivated.

The positive impact of employee motivation on performance includes lower level of absenteeism, low levels of staff turnover, improved performance, and quality of customer service. Having a motivated workforce will enhance productivity. Employees at the selected private universities in Lusaka have different preferences on what motivates them.  Some its money while others its recognition. It is the onus of the Human Resource managers to get the best out of the employees.  Employees contribute to the success of the organization, hence the need for organizations to realize the importance and value of employees.

Low motivation affects employees and organization performance.  Employer should exercise employee motivation through the series of rewards for job well done and better organizational performance (Sevanson 2011). Although some universities have put in place motivation rewards to employees, the gap still need to be bridged.  A lot of motivation challenges still exist. High employee turnover is another problem being experienced at these universities in Lusaka district.  Because there is nothing that motivate them, they tend to leave and look for greener pastures. They are mostly unhappy, frustrated and nothing inspires them.  Nothing challenges them anyone hence the need to leave and find something better.  Lack of promotional opportunities, and uncooperative colleagues in s some cases are also a major contributor of low motivation (Lope 2004)

Aim of study

To analyze the impact of motivation on employee performance, on selected private universities in Lusaka province.

Specific Objectives

• To analyze the impact of motivation on performance, on selected private universities in Lusaka province.
• To examine the effectiveness of the policy on motivation of employees in the selected private universities in Lusaka District.
• To determine whether there is a relationship between motivational factors and improved performance in the selected Private Universities in Lusaka District.

LITERATURE REVIEW

INTRODUCTION

Work is an important event, a fact that is inevitable in the life of an individual in whatever forms it is done, it is an activity and source of satisfaction one needs. Employees try to find satisfaction and motivation in what they do and as a result the manager should be able to understand the problems faced by his employees and find a way of satisfying their needs and aspirations. The general assumption is that an adequately motivated worker will in turn give in his or her best towards the attainment of organizational goals. A good number of employees are adequately paid in their jobs to work hard and maintain a high standard of productivity and performance while some even though they work hard do not receive much material gains to show for it. The issue under consideration is how a worker in an organization with a particular set of does needs achieve the reward he desires?  This chapter covers a detailed presentation of the information obtained from local and foreign publications on, motivation, job satisfaction and the effect of motivation and employee performance in order to broaden the understanding of the researcher on the subject matter being considered in the study. It is structured in such a way that it starts with the theoretical framework, followed by previous studies and then comparative analysis. The source of information covered in this chapter includes both published and unpublished literature.

Theoretical Framework

In the early 20 th century, money was regarded as the most important input into the production of goods and services. However, after a series of researchers, one known to be the “Hawthorne Studies”, conducted by Elton Mayo from 1924-1932 at the Hawthorne Works of the American Western Electric Company in Chicago, it was observed that employees were not motivated solely by money but that employee behavior was linked to their attitudes. The Hawthorn studies began the human relations approach to management, whereby the needs and motivation of employees become the primary focus of managers. This paved way for other theories and definitions on motivation and performance at the work place (Kuranchie-Mensah & Amponsah-Tawiah, 2015).

The Hawthorne studies were the first real attempt at investigating the influences of performance on the job. The researchers discovered that organizations were not merely economic institutions but composed of many social organizations. People within the organizations form lasting relationship that affect the way they behave at work. These relationships can even affect the effectiveness of the organization. It is these studies that set the stage for research in human behavior in the decades that followed. Though the experiments and the theories involved are criticized today for flaws in the methodologies used and statistical inaccuracies, the Hawthorne studies can be credited with turning management theories away from the simplistic “economic man” model to a more humanistic and realistic view, the “social man” model. The studies that followed reviewed that a human being was complex (Hichibala, 2003).

The term “motivation” derives from the Latin word for movement (movere). A motive is a reason for doing something. Rivai (2011: 837) states motivation is a series of attitudes and values that influence individuals to achieve specific things in accordance with individual goals, Robbins (2010: 458) argues that motivation is a willingness to make high-level efforts to achieve organizational goals, required by the ability of the business to satisfy certain individuals. Motivation is an important concept in the study of individual work performance, Winardi (2004).

Havinal (2009, p. 75) states that a manager gets work done through others. Getting the work done depends mainly on whether a person has been motivated to do it. Motivating an employee is to create a need and a desire on the part of the employee to better his performance. This can be done by creating in him a sense of responsibility and feeling of special interest in his work. Motivation concerns itself with “will to work”. It is a behavioral concept by which a manager tries to understand why people behave as they do. Performance of an employee depends on two factors, ability to work and willingness to work. Mathematically:

Performance – Ability × willingness

Motivation is enhancing the willingness to work which improves the performance (Havinal, 2009). Motivation, as a process, started with a need in human beings which creates a vacuum in a person. In an attempt to fill the vacuum an internal driving force is generated which starts and sustains a chain of action and reaction. It is at that point that the vacuum is also filled. With this background, motivation can be defined as the internal or external driving force that produces the willingness to perform an act to a conclusive end (Maduka & Okafor, 2014). This first aspect of motivation we choose to describe as internal motivation because the driving force comes from within an individual. The second aspect is external motivation, is applied by the organization (Maduka & Okafor, 2014).

Motivation has been an issue of concern in the past and has established itself as an integral part in current organizational settings. Motivation is quite complex to comprehend thus placing awareness to the fact that several factors influence employee performance in a particular organization. Reason being that, what motivates one worker will not definitely motivate the other employee within the same organization. Motivation is a factor that exists in an individual which has the potential to affect the way, strength, and eagerness of behaving towards work (William, 2010).

According to Maduka & Okafor (2014), employee motivation is one of the policies of managers to increase effectual job management amongst employees in organizations. A motivated employee is responsive of the definite goals and objectives he/she must achieve, therefore, motivation formulates an organization more successful because provoked employees are constantly looking for improved practices to do a work, so it is essential for organizations to persuade motivation of their employees.

Theories and Models of Motivation

The fields of employee motivation and employee performance are solidly grounded in literature and research, the theories and module of motivation seek to justify why certain employees act or do things in a certain way rather than others.  For the purpose of this research, the following theories and models will be considered to be vital for this study: Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Frederick Herzberg Theory of motivation, and, Porter and Lawler’s Extension of Expectancy Theory.  The literature will expand on some of these theories.

Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Different scholars have put forth different explanations on how motivation can be achieved within an organization. Prominent amongst them is Maslow with the theory of “Maslow’s Hierarch of needs”. Consequently, Maslow in 1943 reasoned that human beings have an internal need pushing them towards self-actualization (fulfillment) and personal superiority. Maslow came up with the view that there are five different levels of needs and once we happen to satisfy a need at one stage or level of the hierarchy it has an influence on our behavior. At each level our behavior tends to diminish, we now put forth a more powerful influence on our behavior for the need at the next level up the hierarchy (William, 2010). Kuranchie-Mensah & Amponsah-Tawiah (2015), state that in Maslow’s conclusion, in order to meet the needs of an employee, the employer has to understand the hierarchy of the need to which the employee belongs. Maslow (1954), listed from the lowest level of needs to the top are categorized as follows:

(i)        Physiological needs: These are needs that focus on sustaining human life such as the need for oxygen, food, water and sex. Maslow stated that until these basic needs are satisfied to a large extent, no other motivating factor can operate (Armstrong & Taylor, 2014).

(ii)       Security or safety needs: These are the next in hierarchy and focus on being free of physical danger and the fear of losing a job, property, food or shelter as well as protection against emotional disappointment.

(iii)      Social needs : These are the needs that deal with the social aspect of man such as the need to belong and be accepted by others. It is the need for love, affection and acceptance as belonging to a group.

(iv)      Esteem needs: Maslow identified that as soon as people satisfy the need to belong and be accepted by others, the next higher level of need is the need to be held in high esteem by themselves and others. It goes on to state that these kinds of need produce satisfaction through power, prestige, status and self-confidence. It includes internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy, achievements, and external factors such as status, recognition and attention.

(v)          Self-fulfillment (self-actu a lization ): This is the highest need in the hierarchy. It is the drive to become what one is cable of becoming, to maximize one’s full potential and to accomplish something. It includes needs such as growth, achieving one’s potential and self-fulfillment.

Maslow believed every person had needs that need to be met; he transferred his idea into a triangle design. The following displays Maslow’s hierarchy of needs:

Source: (Havinal, 2009, p. 76)

Before Maslow, most managers assumed that money primarily motivated people. With Maslow’s work, managers can evaluate their own actions, their companies conduct and their individual philosophies about people. Maslow’s needs theory presented a workable motivation framework for managers (Maduka & Okafor, 2014).

Maslow’s needs of hierarchy have an intuitive appeal and has been very popular.  But it has not been verified by empirical research and it has been criticized for its rigidity; different people may have different priorities and the underpinning assumption that everyone has the same needs is invalid. It is difficult to accept that needs progress steadily up the hierarchy and Maslow himself expressed doubts about the validity of a strictly ordered hierarchy. But he did emphasize that the higher order needs are more significant (Armstrong & Taylor, 2014).

Frederick Herzberg Theory of Motivation (Herzberg’s two-factor model)

The two-factor model of motivation developed by Herzberg (1957, 1966) was based on an investigation into the sources of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction of accountants and engineers who were asked what made them feel exceptionally good or exceptionally bad about their jobs. According to Herzberg, this research established that there were two factors that affected feelings of satisfaction or dissatisfaction (Armstrong & Taylor, 2014).

Basically, the theory divides motivating factors into two categories: Motivator factor, which have something to do with the work itself and hygiene factors, which have something to do with the surrounding context (Ganta, 2014).

In one group of needs are such things as company policy and administration, supervision, working conditions, interpersonal relations, salary, and job security.  These are called dis-satisfiers and not motivators.  If the exist in a work environment, they yield no dissatisfaction.  Their existence does not motivate but their absence results in dissatisfaction.  Herzberg called these factors as hygiene or maintenance factors. The second group he listed certain satisfiers and therefore motivators, which are related to job content. They include achievement, recognition, challenging work, advancement, and growth in the job. The first group of factors (the dissatisfiers) will not motivate in the organization, yet they must be present otherwise dissatisfaction will arise. The second group or the job content factors are real motivators because they have the potential of yielding a sense of satisfaction. It means managers must give considerable attention to upgrading job content (Havinal, 2009).

Source: (Havinal, 2009, p. 77)

Herzberg’s two-factor theory in effect identifies needs but it has been attacked by, for example, Opsahl and Dunnette (1966). The research method has been criticized because no attempt was made to measure the relationship between satisfaction and performance. It has been claimed that the two-factor nature of the theory is an inevitable result of the questioning method used by the interviewers. It has also been suggested that wide and unwarranted inferences have been drawn from small and specialized samples and that there is no evidence to suggest that the satisfiers do improve productivity (Armstrong & Taylor, 2014, p. 206).

Source: (Armstrong & Taylor, 2014, p. 209)

Porter and Lawler’s Extension of Expectancy Theory

This theory was developed by Porter and Lawler (1968) into a model shown below:

The model follows Vroom’s ideas by suggesting that there are two factors determining the effort that people put into their jobs: first, the value of the rewards to individuals in so far as they satisfy their needs for security, social esteem, autonomy, and self-actualization; second the probability that rewards depend on effort as perceived by individuals, in other words, their expectations about the relationships between effort and reward. Thus, the greater the value of a set or awards and the higher the probability that receiving each of these rewards depend upon effort, the greater the effort will be put forth in a given situation. But as Porter and Lawler emphasized, mere effort is not enough, it must be effective effort if it is to produce the desired performance. The two variables additional to effort that affect task achievement are:

• Ability – individual characteristics such as intelligence, knowledge, skills;
• Role perceptions – what the individual wants to do or thinks they are required to do. These are good from the viewpoint of the organization if they correspond with what it thinks the individual ought to be doing. They are poor if the views of the individual and the organization do not coincide.

Types of Motivation

Extrinsic Motivation : It is related to tangible rewards such as salary and fringe benefits, security, promotion, contract of service, the work environment, and conditions of service. These are what need to be done to or for people to motivate them. They are often determined at the organizational level and may be largely outside the control of the individual managers. Extrinsic motivators can have immediate and powerful effect but will not necessarily last long (Forson, 2012, p. 34). According to Armstrong & Taylor (2014, p. 204), extrinsic motivators include rewards such as incentives, increased pay, praise, or promotion; and punishments such as disciplinary action, withholding pay, or criticism.

Intrinsic motivation : This is related to psychological rewards such as the opportunity to use one’s ability. A sense of challenge and achievement, receiving appreciation, positive recognition, and being treated in a caring and considerate manner.

Psychological rewards are those that can usually be determined by the actions and behavior of the individual managers (Forson, 2012, p. 37).

Intrinsic motivation takes place when individuals feel that their work is important, interesting and challenging and that it provides them with a reasonable degree of autonomy (freedom to act), opportunities to achieve and advance, and scope to use and develop their skills and abilities. It can be described as motivation by work itself. It is not created by external incentives (Armstrong & Taylor, 2014, p. 204)

Motivation and Job Satisfaction

Over the years, employee satisfaction has been a key area of research among industrial and organizational psychologists. There are important reasons why companies should be concerned with employee job satisfaction, which can be classified according to the focus on the employee or organization. Some people like to work and they find working an important part of their lives. Some people on the other hand find work unpleasant and work only because they have to. Job satisfaction tells how much people like their jobs. In the worker’s point of view it is obvious that people like to be treated fairly. If workers feel respected and satisfied at work, it could be a reflection of good treatment. Satisfied employees are a precondition for increasing productivity, responsiveness, quality, and customer service (Salanova & Kirmanen, 2010). Job satisfaction can be defined as the attitude and feelings people have about their work. Positive and favorable attitudes towards the job indicate job satisfaction. Negative and unfavorable attitudes towards the job indicate job dissatisfaction (Armstrong & Taylor, 2014, p. 211).

Effects of Motivation on Performance

The performance of employees will make or break a company; this is why it is important to find a variety of methods of motivating employees. Motivation is the willingness to do something; it is conditioned by this actions ability to satisfy some need for the individual. The most obvious form of motivation for an employee is money; however, there are other motivating factors that must be considered. Every employee within a company is different and, therefore, is motivated to perform well for different reasons. Due to the differences within an organization, it is important for a manager to get to know her employees and understand what motivates their performance. If you’re going to be successful in motivating people, you have to begin by accepting and trying to understand individual differences (Forson, 2012, p. 41). Ganta (2014) states that’s there is an old saying “you can take a horse to water, but you can not make it drink”; it will only drink only if it is thirsty, so with people. They will do what they want to do or otherwise motivated to do. Are they born with the self-motivation or drive? Yes and no. If no, they can be motivated, for motivation is a skill which can and must be learnt. This is essential for any business to survive and succeed. Performance is considered to be a function of ability and motivation, thus:

Job performance = f(ability)(motivation)

Ability in turn depends on education, experience and training and its improvement is a slow and long process. On the other hand, motivation can be improved quickly (Ganta, 2014). It is a commonly held and not unreasonable belief that an increase in job satisfaction results in improved performance.

This research is based on the belief that productivity could be increased by making workers more satisfied, primarily through pleasant and supportive supervision and by meeting their social needs (Armstrong & Taylor, 2014, p. 214).

Previous Studies

The research by Akah Ndang William on employee motivation and performance case study of Ultimate Companion Limited concluded that people have different needs, and these needs make them to behave in different ways. As an employee the salaries will form the bond that will keep them closer with the company. When this need is achieved, it will trigger another dimension of thinking to realize their achievement. From the findings and psychological state of the employee has a major influence on their motivation. Within this category are collaborations with other employees and frequent meetings. These attributes create a friendly working environment which gives to higher motivation to work (William, 2010, p. 61). Studies conducted by (Forson, 2012) at GT Bank found that money is the most important motivator for employee performance, but it is important for companies to find other ways to motivate. This involves getting to know their employees and what drives them, then making sure managers utilize appropriate motivational techniques with each employee. When appropriate motivation techniques are used, employee performance will improve.

METHODOLOGY

Research Design

The study employed a mixed approach of both qualitative and quantitative methods to gather information and analyze data. Data was collected using both Primary and secondary. Data was collected using. Questionnaires which enabled the researcher to be consistent in asking questions and the data was easy to analyze.   Both open-ended and closed questions were designed for this purpose.  Data was analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 22. The target population of 200 respondents was earmarked for this research, which constituted of lectures, professors, administrative officers and supporting staff from the selected private Universities in Lusaka.  Permission to conduct the study was obtained beforehand.  A sample size of 143 respondents was used in this research which included professors, top Admin staff, lecturers and supporting staff members of the selected private universities.  The Sampling selection used was both simple random sampling and purposive sampling techniques to select the respondents. The random sampling was used to select the private Universities in Lusaka and it gave an equal chance for these Universities to be chosen as a sample. On the other hand, purposive sampling was used to appropriate for selecting employees in these Universities because they provided a rightful response relevant to this study.

DISCUSSIONS OF FINDINGS

The study sought to identify an Analysis of the impact of motivation on employee performance at some selected Private Universities in Lusaka district under study.  These being Cavendish, Luitebm and Zambia open universities.  The findings are based on the following objectives.

Objective One:  Analysis of the impact of motivation on employee performance at some selected private universities under study.

Based on the research findings, most respondents felt that absenteeism and employee turnover affect motivation on employee performance.  Absenteeism is a very bad vice that slows productivity and organization’s inefficiency. Employees care less about their jobs; they feel withdrawn and have an “I don’t care” type of attitude towards the organization and their work.  Both absenteeism and employee turnover are a detriment to the organization as it breeds low productivity and ineffectiveness.   Absenteeism results from job dissatisfaction emanating from other factors such as stressful work situations. (Anderson, 2004)

The study also revealed the positive side of motivation on employee performance.  These include increased performance, teamwork, and forms of allowances.   Appreciation of work well done also impacts motivation on employee performance.  This is achieved through giving employees more feedback on their tasks, recognizing their efforts towards work, rewards, and promotion of employees.  Money alone cannot motivate employees (Hughes 2003) Good wages, personal loyalty adds to what influences motivation on employee performance.  When employs are motivated, there’s high productivity that is achieved and the growth of the organization. Motivating employees through loyalty can be achieved by sharing information and celebrating success which gives employees a sense of ownership.  This can also improve the relationship among staff and management. Other factors that impact motivation on employees is the accessibility to incentives, opportunities for growth, job security, friendly environment, training, and teamwork spirit among others.

Objective Two:  Investigate the major causes of lack of motivation among employees at the selected Private Universities in Lusaka District under study .

The study findings revealed that most employees lack motivation due to too much workload.  Employees do not know how to plan their daily tasks, and this drains their energy.  This was particularly so, among the junior employees.  Another source of concern for the lack of motivation among employees is that most employees lack confidence in themselves.  Tasks are not completed on time as they doubt their capabilities, lack commitment, and have a bad attitude towards their tasks.  Recognition for work well done is only focused on the same employees year in year out.  This demotivates other employees that have never received any recognition for work well done despite putting in more effort towards their work.  Other findings point to unrealistic workload, short term goals with no career progression, conflict in workplace and poor leadership as factors that causes lack of motivations among employees at the universities under study.

Objective Three:  Effectiveness of policy on motivation on employee performance in the selected Private Universities in Lusaka District.

Motivation policy can be understood as a system of thoroughly defined and agreed priorities, principles and rules, the purpose of which is to contribute systematically to the improvement of motivational atmosphere within the Organization and strengthen the motivation of individuals, group, and entire Organization.  Enacting motivation policy in Organization is very important as it steers up employees to do more and be more committed towards their tasks. Policy on motivation will empower employees and guides employees on the dos and don’ts with regards to motivation.  Motivation policies helps employees to make informed decision more efficiently and creates confidence on how to carry out tasks.  Policies also protects staff from acting in a manner that might endanger their employment. Motivational policies that involve compensation are drafted with the accounting team to determine the compensation schedule the company can afford.  Some respondents indicated that the policy on motivation was incorporated in the employment manual while others indicated that they have never come across any motivational policies.

Objective Four:  Relationship between motivational factors and improved employee performance in the selected private universities under study.

Employees that are motivated are highly needed in rapidly changing workplaces and they help institutions to survive and increase productivity.  It is a fact that there is a relationship between motivational factors and improved employee performance.   Motivation is expected to have a positive effect on quality employee performance and can increase organization productivity by varying inputs needed to attain their expected outputs.

(i)        Job Security and employee performance – investigations have shown that there is a positive relationship between job security as a motivational factor and employee performance (Gabris & Simo, 1995).  The lack of job security will contribute to the higher employee turnover.  Job security gives employees a sense of belonging and ownership hence the extra efforts towards their tasks.  Respondents that have their job secured showed higher performance to the institution. They are happy knowing that their job is secure and they are able to plan ahead.

(ii)       Promotion and employee performance – Opportunities for promotion contributes to employee job satisfaction thereby increase job performance.  (Herzberg 1986) Promotion and training have been found to be the most motivation factors for employees.  Promotion increased employee performance.  Respondents that have been recently promoted dedicated their time towards the job hence increasing employee performance.

(iii)      Payment and employee performance – Employees that are well paid will be motivated to do more hence increase their performance. In this scenario, money is the greatest motivating factor that increases employee performance.

Motivational factors have an influential function on performance as all organizations opt to increase productivity and growth.   Therefore, there is a significant relationship between motivational factors and employee performance.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Regarding the first study objective that sought to analyze the impact of motivation on employee performance on selected private universities in Lusaka district, the findings from the study concludes that there are many factors that impacts motivation on employee performance.  This can be either positive or negative impact. These factors include job security, communication processes, salary, company policy and promotion among others. Payment incentives or commissions payment is another high motivator for employee performance.  Money is the greatest motivator, but this does not mean that it’s the only motivator. It was however noted that a high number of employees that are well paid are highly motivated.

Motivation can increase or decrease performance depending on the type of motivation used.  If the form of motivation used meets the needs of employees their performance will increase.  While on the other hand, if the wrong form of motivation is used, it will demotivate employees and decrease performance.  It was found that high employee turnover and high absenteeism leads to decreased employee performance while performance is increased when employees have high moral, are committed to work, have great communication and can express themselves better with management.  Reduced absenteeism and reduced employee turnover increased employee performance in the selected private universities in Lusaka District.  The selected private universities benefited greatly from the increased employee performance as more is achieved including efficiency.   The case study also discovered that the process of motivating employees is a challenging process, as the selected private universities did not know the right time for motivating the members of staff.  Deciding on the best form of motivation has also been a challenge.

In conclusion, employees that are motivated achieved personal goals, have great employee performance, are satisfied with the job, and showed a lot of zeal to succeed.

Findings on the research study, based on the objective of examining the effectiveness of the policy on motivation of employees in the selected private universities in Lusaka District, concludes that the policy on motivation is not well managed.  Policy on motivation should be an effective tool, but from the findings, the policies are not well managed and there is too much bureaucracy with the procedures. It’s not easy to implement the motivation policies in the selected private universities. Some employees do not even know which type of policies exit.  Regarding the third study objective which sought to determine whether there is a relationship between motivational factors and improved performance in the selected private universities in Lusaka district, the study concludes that Motivation and employee performance are positively related to each other.  Motivation factors such as job security, promotion, training, friendly working environment, salary and recognition for work well done has a positive effect on the quality employee performance.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on this study, the researcher makes the following recommendations:

• The government of the Republic of Zambia should get involved in the requirements of employees as far as motivation is concerned. Amendments of the labor laws must be considered.
• Organizations must have regular inhouse training or workshops for all staff members to improve on communication skills, and effectively manage employees. People management skills must be introduced to managers.
• Basic motivational requirements to employees should be introduced in learning institutions, regardless of the course being pursued.
• It is also recommended that stakeholder meet halfway in making sure that there’s a great balance between employee’s needs and organizational needs.
• Motivation if implemented rightly, has a positive impact on employee performance.
• Unrealistic workloads must to be broken down into manageable sections and the to do list planned daily.
• Universities, just like any other organization should see to it that policies on motivation are well managed and communicated to all employees.
• Armstrong, M., & Taylor, S. (2014). Armstrong’s Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice. London: Ashford Color Press Ltd.
• Albrecht, S. L., Bakker, A. B., Gruman, J. A., Macey, W. H., & Saks, A. M. (2015). Employee engagement, human resource management practices and competitive advantage: An integrated approach. Journal of Organizational Effectiveness: People and Performance.
• Forson, J. E. (2012). Impact of Motivation on the Productivity of Employees at GTBank Ghana. Lagos: Kwame Nkrumah University.
• Ganta, V. C. (2014). Motivation in the Work Place to Improve Employee Performance. International Journal of Engineering Technology, Management and Applied Sciences , 1-10.
• Havinal, V. (2009). Management and Enterpreurship. Bellary: New Age International Publishers.
• Hichibala, C. (2003). Motivation Theory X and Y: A Zambia Perspective. Ndola: Copperbelt University.
• Kuranchie-Mensah, E. B., & Amponsah-Tawiah, K. (2015). Employee Motivation and Work Performance: A Comparative Study of Mining Companies in Ghana. Journal of Industrial Engineering and Management, 8.
• Maduka, E. C., & Okafor, O. (2014). Effect of Motivation on Emploee Productivity: A Study of Manufacturing Companies in Nnewi. International Journal of Managerial Studies and Research , 1-11.
• Masaiti, G., & Naluyele, P. N. (2011). Strategies to retain and motivate employees in Africa: Examining the case of the Ministry of Education in Zambia. African Journal of Political Science and International Relations , 1-15.
• Salanova, A., & Kirmanen, S. (2010). Employee Satisfaction and Work Motivation: Research in Prisma Mikkeli. Mikkeli: Mikkeli University.
• Vanderstoep, S., & Johnston, D. (2009). Research Methods for Everyday Life: Blending Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons.
• Whiteley, P. (2002). Motivation. Chichester, U.K.: Capstone Publishing.
• William, A. N. (2010). Employee Motivation and Performance; Ultimate Companion Limited. Douala- Cameroon: Mikkeli University of Applied Sciences.

Article Statistics

Track views and downloads to measure the impact and reach of your article.

PDF Downloads

Subscribe to Our Newsletter

Sign up for our newsletter, to get updates regarding the Call for Paper, Papers & Research.

Email Address * Subscribe

Track Your Paper

Enter the following details to get the information about your paper

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• My Account Login
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts
• Open access
• Published: 10 May 2024

On-farm crop diversity, conservation, importance and value: a case study of landraces from Western Ghats of Karnataka, India

• G. M. Puneeth 1 ,
• Ravi Gowthami 2 ,
• Ashvinkumar Katral 3 ,
• Kerekoppa Manjunatha Laxmisha 1 ,
• Ramesh Vasudeva 4 ,
• Gyanendra Pratap Singh 2 &
• Sunil Archak 2  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  10712 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

48 Accesses

Metrics details

• Natural variation in plants
• Plant breeding

Landraces are important genetic resources that have a significant role in maintaining the long-term sustainability of traditional agro-ecosystems, food, nutrition, and livelihood security. In an effort to document landraces in the on-farm conservation context, Central Western Ghat region in India was surveyed. A total of 671 landraces belonging to 60 crops were recorded from 24 sites. The custodian farmers were found to conserve a variety of crops including vegetables, cereals and pulses, perennial fruits, spices, tuber and plantation crops. The survey indicated a difference in the prevalence of landraces across the sites. A significant difference with respect to the Shannon-diversity index, Gini-Simpson index, evenness, species richness, and abundance was observed among the different survey sites. Computation of a prevalence index indicated the need for immediate intervention in the form of collecting and ex situ conservation of landraces of some crops as a back-up to on-farm conservation. The study also identified the critical determinants of on-farm conservation, including (i) suitability to regional conditions, (ii) relevance in regional cuisine and local medicinal practices, (iii) cultural and traditional significance, and (iv) economic advantage. The information documented in this study is expected to promote the collection and conservation of landraces ex situ. The National Genebank housed at ICAR-NBPGR, New Delhi conserves around 550 accessions of landraces collected from the Central Western Ghats region surveyed in this report. Information collected from custodian farmers on specific uses will be helpful to enhance the utilization of these accessions.

Similar content being viewed by others

State of ex situ conservation of landrace groups of 25 major crops

Diversity, trait preferences, management and utilization of yams landraces (Dioscorea species): an orphan crop in DR Congo

An increase in food production in Europe could dramatically affect farmland biodiversity

Introduction.

Plant genetic resources (PGR) are the foundation for crop improvement and global food security 1 . The genetic diversity of crop plants has been maintained by farming communities by cultivating landraces. Landraces are variously known as heritage, heirloom or primitive cultivars or folk and farmers’ varieties 2 . Villa et al. 3 defined landrace as “a dynamic population of a cultivated plant that has historical origin, distinct identity and lacks formal crop improvement, as well as often being genetically diverse, locally adapted and associated with traditional farming systems.” Due to the adaptive evolution, landraces constitute a reservoir of genes for nutritive value and tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses 4 . Landraces play a significant role in maintaining the long-term stability of traditional agro-ecosystems.

Since landraces are lost due to genetic erosion 5 , 6 , genebanks around the world have captured their diversity in the form of 7.4 million germplasm accessions 7 . Although these ex situ collections have been providing the base material for crop improvement programs around the world, the material is no longer continuously adapting to changes in the environment, such as new races of pest or diseases, or major climatic changes. On the other hand, the population conserved on-farm continues to be dynamic in response to changes in local biotic and abiotic interactions as well as selection by custodian farmers thereby retaining its adaptation to the local environment and its distinguishing characteristics. In fact, landraces continue to exist “on farm” resulting in a traditional set up of “conservation by cultivation”. On-farm conservation has been defined as “the sustainable management of genetic diversity of locally developed traditional crop varieties, with associated wild and weedy species or forms, by farmers within traditional agricultural, horticultural or agri-silvicultural cultivation systems” 8 . Advantage of adaptive evolution offered by landraces, such as locally adapted alleles and allele complexes, exist only under on-farm conservation 9 .

Researchers have been endeavoring to document the on-farm conservation activities in many parts of the world 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 . However, insufficient documentation, inadequate transfer of ethnobotanical relevance from generation to generation, lack of interest among younger generations and inefficient policy intervention have led to and poor conservation and inadequate exploitation of landraces in plant breeding.

Western Ghats are a chain of mountains lying along the western coast of peninsular India for a length of 1600 km with an average elevation of 1500 m above mean sea level covering Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu 15 . Western Ghats in India form one of the 34 biodiversity hotspots in the world 16 . As one of the four biodiversity hotspots in India, Western Ghats are home to 5000 angiosperm species, of which 34% are endemic 17 . The region is a primary center of origin for many crop species and houses a vast diversity of cultivated and wild crop plants. In addition to diverse flora and fauna, the Western Ghats are also native to diverse social, religious, cultural and linguistic groups. The crop biodiversity of the Western Ghats region has been documented previously by Asha et al. 18 ; Gajanana et al. 19 and Ramachandra et al. 20 .

Landraces should not be perceived merely as farmers’ cultivars that are reservoirs of useful traits. Landraces in an on-farm setup also include components of cultural landscapes and conservation agriculture and vistas to new market opportunities. Therefore, standalone inventorization of material becomes an inadequate exercise of documentation. On the other hand, documentation of the landraces in the on-farm conservation context provides insights into food-systems and sustainability. The present study was conducted in the context of the Central Western Ghats region of Karnataka state of India (i) to document the on-farm landrace diversity and conservation practices and (ii) to determine factors affecting on-farm conservation practices.

Methodology

Sampling methods and data collection.

The survey to document the on-farm conservation was conducted in Central Western Ghats covering four districts viz ., Uttara Kannada, Shivamogga, Dakshina Kannada and Belagavi of Karnataka state in the southern part of India (Fig.  1 ). Initially, basic information regarding the distribution and type of crops, landraces and custodian farmers were collected by communicating with the resource-rich persons, local Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs), agriculture colleges, non-government organizations and Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers' Rights Authority, (PPV&FRA) New Delhi.

Map showing the survey area ( a ) India map highlighted with the survey state ( b ) Karnataka map with four survey districts (highlighted with different colours).

With the gradual replacement of landraces and changes in cropping pattern, there is a significant reduction in the on-farm conservation sites where landraces are cultivated. In such a scenario, where participants are difficult to locate, surveyors have used snowball sampling techniques 21 . We also used this nonprobability technique to identify potential on-farm conservation sites. Snowball sampling or chain referral sampling is a useful tool for analyzing rare instances or in our case, unexposed conservation sites. Resource persons from local KVKs and/or other organizations provided information about farmers conserving landraces in the respective jurisdiction.

The survey was conducted from November 2020 to November 2021 to record the landrace diversity of different crops and their status. Based on the initial information obtained, farm households/farmers engaged in landrace conservation or mainly practicing low-input organic agriculture were pooled for information. The data was collected using socio-metric survey with snowball sampling technique 22 where, custodian farmers were identified through data provided by other fellow farmers. A simple questionnaire was used to conduct the survey, which was based on an interview method and field observations. Farmers’ fields were visited to record the details of landraces and factors determining their conservation and use. Farmsteads were mapped based on geo-coordinates. Each landrace was recorded with botanical name, common name and the local name. Further, the farmers were also interviewed to obtain personal information, their farm details (landrace cultivation area, total farm area, cropping pattern), cultivation constraints, reasons for not growing landraces, community knowledge of biodiversity conservation and on-farm conservation, present and past use of landraces, traditional and cultural uses associated with the landraces, etc. Efforts were made to document the purpose of cultivating each crop species based on the total economic value (Fig.  2 ). In the entire exercise, we made sure to comply with relevant institutional, national, and international guidelines and legislations while documenting of on-farm conservation of landraces.

The nature of total economic value of landraces.

Features of the study area

The Western Ghats Region in Karnataka, locally known as Malenadu lies between 12° 2′ 7″ N and 15° 44′ 46″ N latitude and 74° 14′ 3″ E and 75° 76′ 17″ E longitude. The Central Western Ghats Region extends through an area of 37,000 km 2 covering areas of Chamarajanagara, Mysuru, Kodagu, Dakshina Kannada, Udupi, Hassan, Chikkamagaluru, Shivamogga, Uttara Kannada and Belagavi districts. The climate in the Western Ghats varies with the altitudinal gradation and distance from the Arabian Sea coast. The climate is humid and tropical in the lower reaches tempered by the proximity to the sea. Mean temperatures range from 20 °C (68°F) to 24 °C (75°F). The area is plain and the climate is humid along the west coast; thick forest and hilly area in the center; and tropical monsoon climate with undulated area towards the east side. Agricultural land in this region comprises of a variety of soil types including red soils, laterite soil, black soils and humid soils. Rice, spices, areca nut, jackfruit, cashew nut and sugarcane crops cover majority of the agricultural land area 23 , 24 . Weather parameters, land utilization and cropping pattern of the surveyed area are given in Table 1 .

Statistical analysis

The data on the status of on-farm conservation and management in the region was gathered from multiple survey visits over a period of one-year. The data was analyzed by considering the cultivation of landraces across different districts in order to determine diversity and distribution. The following indices were computed to interpret the collected data:

where H = Shannon diversity index; P i  = Proportion of individuals of ith species in a whole community 25 .

where n = Individuals of a given type/species; N = Total number of individuals in a community.

The Gini-Simpson index (or Simpson's index of diversity) measures the probability that the two randomly selected individuals belong to different species 26 .

where n i  = Number of individuals in the i th species; and N = Total number of individuals in the community.

Informed consent

The authors have obtained the consent from the custodian farmers and they are aware of the intended publication of information and images of the same.

Results and discussion

Landrace diversity, inventory of landraces and prevalence.

Landraces were documented from the Central Western Ghats spanning four districts of Karnataka. Snowball sampling allowed us to reach 24 farmsteads during the study. A total of 671 unique landraces belonging to 60 different crops were documented. These landraces belonged to fruits (8 crops, 181 landraces), vegetables (9 crops, 54 landraces), spices (8 crops, 40 landraces), pulse crops (4 crops, 15 landraces), plantation crops (3 crops, 11 landraces), tuber crops (4 crops, 32 landraces) and few miscellaneous plants (23 crops, 24 landraces). Rice was the only cereal crop documented in the region. However, out of the 671 unique landraces documented, 314 belonged to rice. Rice and fruits together accounted for three fourths of the total landraces documented.

The survey indicated that farmsteads with on-farm conservation and custodian farmers involved in cultivation of landraces were few and far between. It was clearly observed that even farmers immediately neighboring the on-farm farmsteads were not cultivating landraces. If a given landrace is cultivated at more than one on-farm conservation site, there is greater probability of continuity of conservation and availability. In other words, it is important to understand the prevalence of a landrace during the documentation process.

Based on the nomenclature synonymy of landraces, a Prevalence Index (PI) for on-farm conserved landraces was assessed as:

where O is the occurrence frequency of landraces in the surveyed area; N is the number of landraces recorded; n is the number sites surveyed.

Out of 671 landraces documented during the survey, it was found that as many as 243 landraces were cultivated by two or more custodian farmers. It was observed that frequency of occurrence ranged from 1 to 7 (Table 2 ). The prevalence index was highest for banana (1.95). The PI of rice was 1.53 followed by chili (1.5), jackfruit (1.35), mango (1.33), ridge gourd (1.28), pepper (1.26), lab-lab bean (1.25) and brinjal (1.06) (Table 2 ). Meanwhile, for remaining 28 crops the value of PI was 1, showing that only one occurrence per landrace was recorded across the survey area.

A solitary farmstead practicing on-farm conservation of local landraces in a given area is matter of pride as well as concern. A family practicing on-farm cultivation of traditional cultivars singlehandedly contributes, as the custodians, towards conservation and perpetuity of landrace diversity. On the other hand, discontinuation of this practice by the custodian family due to any reason could possibly lead to irreversible loss of the landraces. Germplasm explorations by collectors may need to urgently focus on such landraces to ensure that these are conserved ex situ. Stakeholders may also look at promoting seed exchange among the farming community in order to increase their chance of “conservation by use”.

Importance of landraces

The landraces across farmsteads were documented to be conserved for their specific uses such as culinary purposes in raw, cooked, pickled and processed form, medicinal value or multiple uses (Table 3 ).

Fruit landraces were found growing on the bunds, near the roadside, on marginal lands, in kitchen gardens and in between plantation crops in the fields mainly for personal use and not as commercial crops. Mango landraces have been conserved for their use in making pickles 27 . One of the unique landraces of mango to this region, Appemidi (used for pickle preparation only) has got Geographical Indication (GI) for Shivamogga and Uttara Kannada region. Neeru Kukku, a special landrace of Dakshina Kannada, can be soaked in salt water for 1–2 years without damaging the quality (named for this quality) and is also used in making huli for sambar (adds aroma and sour taste to sambar instead of tamarind) (Fig.  3 a). This area also accommodates huge diversity of jackfruit, kokum and banana landraces than any region, owing for their adaptation and good growing conditions in the region. In jackfruit, soft fruited ( Biluva or Ambli types) varieties are used in preparation of local cuisines ( idli, kadubu ) and hard fruited ( bakke type) landraces are used in the production of processed food products such as paapad and chips (matured fruit before ripening); and is also consumed as a fruit. Mankale Red , a landrace of jackfruit from Mankale, a place in Sagara (Shivamogga) has red fruits in which both rags and tendrils have a pleasant flavor when consumed (Fig.  3 b). Banana landraces like Elakki Baale , Mitli; pineapple landrace like Ananus Local and jamun landraces are used as dessert fruit; Hoo Baale (flowers), Kadhali/Deva Baale (flowers), Sakkare Baale are used as vegetable (Fig.  3 c). Landraces like Betta Baale (pseudo-stem is used for kidney stones) and Kallu Baale (used to treat kidney stones and grows on stones in the hilly regions) have medicinal properties. Meanwhile, some kokum landraces like Uppage Local (making huli for sambar, extract oil from seeds, juice preparation), Muruga Huli and Punarpuli (Fig.  3 d) are well-maintained. Vasugi et al. 27 assessed the diversity and morphological variations of Appemidi mango varieties in the same region. In the same way, Pradeep et al. 28 observed cultivation of many landraces (> 20 each) in native crops such as mango and banana in Kerala, which is adjacent to our study area.

( a ) Neeru Kukku, a local mango landrace, ( b ) farmer with original tree of ‘ Mankale Red’ a jackfruit variety, ( c ) Elakki Baale, grown in a farmer field, ( d ) A farmer with landrace, Bili Murugalu , of kokum.

Spices are high-value crops with large-scale export potential 29 . As a result, collecting and preserving spice crop germplasm is critical. In this regard, the Central Western Ghats holds a vast diversity of spice landraces for yield traits, resistance to disease and pests than improved varieties. Karimunda (spicier, good keeping quality i.e., 50–100 years), Vakkalu , Gejje Hipli , Malligesara (good yield potential) (Fig.  4 a) and Thekkam Bunch Pepper (Fig.  4 b) are few landraces of pepper 30 . Maavina Kaayi Arishina and Kukku Shunti were fragrant type landraces in turmeric and ginger respectively. While Jawari Arishina (turmeric) (Fig.  4 c) contains more curcumin (7–8%) content and Jawari Shunti (ginger) is spicier and more pungent than the released varieties as per the farmers’ knowledge. Nutmeg used for preparation of ayurvedic formulations. Highly fragrant landrace of clove and some cardamom landraces like Naati Yelakki (Fig.  4 d) , Kilara, Lambodi Thali and Gundu Kaalu were recorded during the survey. Saji et al. 31 reviewed the conservation aspects and cultivar diversity of different spices of Western Ghats in particular and India in general.

Representative photos of the spice landraces observed in the survey area ( a ) Malligesara, landrace of pepper, ( b ) Thekkam Bunch Pepper , landrace of pepper, ( c ) Jawari Shunti, landrace of turmeric ( d ) Naati Yelakki, landrace of cardamom.

Plantation crops

Plantation crops like areca nut, coffee, coconut and betel vine are the major crops grown in the region, hence their landraces too. Betel wine landraces namely, Kasaravalli, Lakkavalli, Naagavalli and Panchavalli are recorded during the study with limited information of the same regarding their importance and characteristics 31 . Areca nut landraces like Sonda and Dodda Adike are reported from the locality. Tiptur Local is a famous variety of coconut grown all over the Karnataka state.

Though the climate and weather of the Central Western Ghats region restrict the commercial cultivation of vegetables, many farmers grow landraces of different vegetables which are adapted to the locality’s soil and climate (Fig.  5 ). They grow, maintain, promote and preserve these landraces by harvesting the matured fruits for seeds to sow in the next generation. These landraces develop special traits over the years for its climate and soil conditions. Brinjal landrace Udupi Mattu Gulla has very thin skin and small spines on the fruit surface 32 . It has a unique taste and virtually gets dissolved while cooking and is also less astringent and less bitter when compared to other varieties of brinjal, and has got GI tag in the Udupi region, and Marabadane/Kudane (bacterial wilt resistance/used grafting) are among other brinjal landraces. Landraces of okra conserved are Bahuvarshika Bende (perennial), Aane Kombu Bende (very long fruits), Sunkada Bende (fruit contain protective hairs) and Entugere Bende (8 ridged fruit, large size) (Table 2 ). Cucumber is one of the important vegetables and many dual-purpose cucumber landraces are conserved. Aane Mottu/Hegge Southe (red pulp, pumpkin size, sweet taste), Aati Southe (in rainy season), Ibbudla (juice making), Neeru Southe (waterier content, grown near canals), Oddu Southe (for summer season, bitter pulp) are some of the landraces conserved on-farm. Landraces of other crops includes Sihi Haagala (bitter gourd) vegetable with no bitterness used by diabetes patients, Sooji Menasu (chili pepper) with spicy richness used for preparation of dishes and also act as a pain killer and a coolant. Likewise, Latha et al. 32 recorded and documented different vegetables and their landrace diversity in the Western Ghats region of India. In a comparable manner the landrace variety of vegetables in the Italian Pugglia region was documented by Conversa et al. 11 .

Representation of different landraces of vegetables ( a ) Chili, ( b ) Brinjal, ( c ) Ridge gourd, ( d ) Pumpkin.

Tubers are important for food and nutrition security, as well as adaptation to climate change. Among the tuber crops, Kunabi Mudli (taro) (3ft long, big size, soft after boiling) is used in the preparation of patrode (a local dish). Most of the tuber landraces viz ., Bili Genasu, Thuppada Genasu, Kempu Genasu, Nagar Cone and Taambde Cone (yam) are used as vegetable and making sambar. Some tubers like Chirike (highest vitamins) (yam) and Taikilo (taro) (immunity booster and healing of wounds as antiseptic) are also used for their medicinal properties. In a special case of Kunabi tribes in the Joida area of Uttara Kannada, different tuber crops and their wild relatives were documented. Some of the documented landraces are also mentioned by Asha et al. 18 . Similar documentation work in tuber crops was also conducted by Alwis et al. 10 in Sri Lanka.

Cereals (Rice)

Rice is the staple crop of the region. Despite having many adversaries, many farmers are indulging themselves in cultivating, maintaining, promoting hundreds of rice landraces, which are very well adapted to the region’s climate and other agro-ecological factors. Some of the interviewed farmers are preserving hundreds of landraces because of their passion for conservation, market value, and in order to maintain the legacy of their ancestors. Some of the famous landraces maintained even now in the region are Nereguruli Batta (thrives in submergence for 40 days), Rajamudi (high tillering ability, organic cultivation, kernels are red and white rice type with soft rice, good for diabetes and was once patronized by kings of Mysuru Wodeyars), Kayime and Kutti Kayime (red seed kernel, high fodder yield, rabi season variety) and Kempu Hasudi (higher yield; resistant to diseases; red grains with good taste). Puffed rice ( Adnen Kelti , Bili Hegge ), medicinal value for humans and livestock diseases ( Athikaraya, Chitaga ), for making sweets ( Bile Aloorsanna ), for dose and idli ( Mallige Sanna ), aromatic rice and for making sweet dishes ( Gandasaale, Gulvadi Sanna, Indrani, Kaagi Saale ), red rice landraces to increase blood hemoglobin ( Hasudi, Hejje Batta ), can be grown in saline water ( Kagga Batta ), increases milk in lactating women, good for pregnant, more iron content ( Kare Gajuli ), good for snacks ( Mullare, Bili Halaga ), good for diabetes ( Rajamudi, Sorata ). Importance of rice landrace conservation and their characteristics are also highlighted by Rathi et al. 33 in Chhattisgarh region and by Agnihotri et al. 34 in Kumaon region of Uttarakhand.

People consume pulses as their side dish along with staple food. There were six type of pulses were documented during the survey. Only few farmers are growing the pulses though not as main crop but as intercrop or in bunds. Lab–lab bean, a crop mainly grown in southern India, has different morphological variation in each landrace ( Chapparada Avare, Matti Avare, Katti Avare, Chaturbuja Avare ). Same for Bengal gram ( Kempu Kadale, Hasiru Kadale, Kappu Kadale ) and cowpea ( Kappu Halasande, Kempu Halasande, Bannada Halasande ) has variation in colour of the seeds and pods. Immature pods and leaves of some pulses use as vegetable.

Miscellaneous crops

India is known for traditional medicine system since ancient times. Thus, significance of the medicinal plants is known as part of Indian codified medicinal systems like Ayurveda as well as indigenous traditional knowledge about the medicinal uses by the community. In our survey, some plants were recorded for their multipurpose utility including medicine. The people in the region were found to treat various ailments since generations using local plants including Kalmegh ( Jeerad Kaddi ) for fever, Basella’s ( Basale Soppu ) leaves as coolant, wild purslane ( Golisoppu ) as leafy vegetable to increase hemoglobin, etc. Other popular plants included Malabar tamarind, Wild coriander, Indian coffee plum, Indian sorrel, Curry leaf, etc.

Diversity indices

Based on the landrace nomenclature, Shannon-diversity index (H), Gini-Simpson index (1-D), Evenness (E), Species richness (R), and Abundance (A) were assessed between the crop groups of different districts. Significant differences in these parameters among the four study areas were observed. Shannon diversity index (H) dictates how diverse the species in a given area. Higher the index, more diverse the nature of species in that habitat 35 . Among the study areas, Shannon diversity (H) of Uttara Kannada (H = 2.01) was highest, followed by Shivamogga (H = 1.85), Dakshina Kannada (H = 1.61), and Belagavi (H = 1.3) had limited landrace diversity (Fig.  6 ). The value of Gini-Simpson's index (1-D) reflects how many different types of species are in a community and how evenly each species is distributed. Similarly, Uttara Kannada showed more diversity in landraces with a Gini-Simpson index value of 0.77 and Belagavi showed very less diversity with a value of 0.56. In terms Gini-Simpson index, Belagavi and Dakshina Kannada exhibited comparable diversity levels with values of 0.56 and 0.59, respectively (Fig.  6 ). Ocimati et al. 15 assessed the same for Musa cultivars in Rwanda and found a lower diversity index, which was prone to genetic erosion. Species evenness (E) is the measurement of the relative abundance of different species. The species evenness ranges from zero to one, with zero signifying no evenness and one signifying complete evenness. Shivamogga had more diverse landraces than other districts in terms of Evenness (E) with a value of 0.5 followed by Dakshina Kannada (E = 0.556), Uttara Kannada (E = 0.591) and Belagavi (E = 0.625) (Fig.  6 ). The highest species richness (R) was observed in Shivamogga (40) followed by Uttara Kannada (29), Dakshina Kannada (18) and Belagavi (7) (Fig.  6 ). The current study revealed that Uttara Kannada and Shivamogga had more landrace diversity for their practice of sustenance farming in remote areas, use of landraces in local food systems, traditional and cultural links. While, Belagavi had less diversity in all the terms due to various probable reasons like commercialization of agriculture, use of more improved and hybrid varieties and, so on.

Diversity and distribution assessment of landraces using SDI = Shannon Diversity Index, SiDi = Gini-Simpson Index, E = Evenness. A = Abundance, R = Richness for four surveyed districts.

On-farm conservation and management

Socio-economic characteristics of custodian farmers.

Among the 24 sites of on-farm conservation, three farmers possessed more than 10 ha farm land, 12 had medium sized farms (2–10 ha), whereas nine were found to have small farms (< 2 ha). Landraces of field crops (rice and pulses) along with vegetables and tuber crops were found conserved mainly on the small farms. On the other hand, perennial species including fruits, spices and plantation crops were in medium to large farms. Among the 24 on-farm conservation sites, the age of the custodian farmers ranged from 35 to 75 years; majority (12) were in the age bracket of 40–60 years. The two young farmers (< 40 years) actively engaged in on-farm conservation were exclusively involved in commercially attractive activity of maintaining the rootstocks of traditional cultivars of perennial crops (pepper, mango and jackfruit) popular for their adaptation and resistance to pests and diseases 36 .

However, it was starkly clear in our survey that younger generation of farmers is not inclined to engage in on-farm conservation. It was evident from the interaction with farmers that traditional knowledge accumulated over the years with the experienced farmers could be in danger of not finding next-generation custodians.

From the current study, it was also found that majority of farmers are conserving many landraces dedicated to few crops instead of single landrace covering entire farming area. Few farmers conserve rice landraces, by growing most of the landraces in a 10 m 2 area in order to maintain and preserve their self-interest and passion for conservation; and only a few landraces are grown in a large area because of their potential use. For example, Nereguruli Batta (rice) tolerates submergence condition up to 40 days in Shivamogga district. Fruits were grown majorly as an intercrop with spice and plantation crops. Some vegetables, fruits (mango and jackfruit) and miscellaneous crops were well-looked-after and maintained in home gardens for their use in preparing traditional dishes (mango-pickle, jackfruit-chips, idli ) and traditional medicine. The marketing of the farm produce is distinct for different farmers based on the reason for cultivation. Many farmers grow landraces mainly for their personal use and are part of local food systems (pickling varieties of mango and vegetable landraces). Few landraces have cultural and traditional importance along with some quality traits that enjoy demand in local markets and weekly fairs (jackfruit varieties, local tuber crops). Very few landraces have demand in the countrywide market for their nutritional and medicinal importance ( Navara and Ambe Mohar in rice).

Custodian farmers in the study area are majorly residing in remote villages and villages located in the vicinity of the forest. It was found that, the nearest proper road was 20–25 km away from the on-farm conservation sites. In the absence of market attraction, these farmers were found to cultivate landraces mainly for home consumption. At best, grains are sold at the local weekly bazaars and seeds are exchanged with fellow farmers and relatives. In exceptional cases, farmers who reside nearer to markets of nearby towns (< 10 km) were observed to get good prize for their produce.

Farmers generally designate local landraces names after specific characteristics. The appearance of seed and kernel, crop plants, taste, aroma, maturity, plant size, use and growing conditions are all crucial factors in determining a landrace name 33 , 37 . The same pattern of use/characteristics and other features are used to name traditional landraces/cultivars in the Central Western Ghats. It was observed that number of farmsteads having on-farm conservation activity was very less. Farmers belonging to post-green revolution era (born after 1970’s), tend to cultivate high yielding modern varieties with a focus on enhanced income generation. In the absence of formal documentation, the only source of information about names of landraces and their specialty uses is the senior farmers belonging to age bracket of 60 and above.

Determinants of on-farm conservation

Farmers have indulged in selecting, growing and maintaining landrace biodiversity within and among the crops in their fields and community seed banks from generation to generation. Farmers were well aware of the benefits of local cultivars, which includes high market value 10 , adaptation to adverse weather conditions, good eating quality, lodging resistance, resistance to pests and diseases, low production costs, and a consistent yield 14 . Scientific investigations in rice provided some insights into the utility of the landraces in crop improvement programs 38 , 39 . The Central Western Ghats is a partial forest area and few farms under this study are located in the vicinity of the forest area (Joida, Sagara, Sirsi, and Thirthahalli). The region receives heavy rainfall during monsoon (June–September) and a good amount of groundwater facility enhances agriculture in the region. Agriculture practiced in the region is mainly rainfed with few exceptions. This has led farmers to follow organic farming with fewer inputs, which indirectly chooses the local traditional varieties for their adaptation to the local environment for generations 14 .

From the present survey, it was observed that one set of farmers conserved landraces on-farm with sound knowledge on importance of landrace and conservation (direct conservation), while another set of farmers conserved landraces for their food and other needs without any knowledge on importance of landrace and awareness of conservation (indirect conservation). Special mention for the Kunabi tribes from the Joida area of Uttara Kannada, for their cultivation of unique rice and tuber crops’ landraces in marginal land, forest land and kitchen gardens for the sake of family sustenance and tradition without knowing the actual importance of these landraces in national plant genetic resources system. The distribution of tuber crop landraces in the area follows the ideal environment for their growth and development, such as soils, precipitation, elevations and drainage are in line with the results reported by Alwis et al. 10 in Sri Lanka. This shows that many farmers were not aware of the concept of biodiversity conservation and on-farm germplasm conservation. However, they have contributed to on-farm germplasm conservation without their theoretical knowledge and awareness of germplasm conservation.

Though the economic benefit is the major driver of conservation 12 , 40 , non-economic factors like prestige for being the owner of diversity 12 , exchange of specific landraces and their products with neighbors, relatives and family friends 22 are among the others which motivate farmers to engage in on-farm conservation. Landraces/traditional folk varieties are also conserved because of their adaptability to agro-climatic conditions viz., higher rainfall in the western side of the Western Ghats (adaptation of rice landraces for rainfed condition ( Kayime ), Rabi season ( Kutti Kayime ) in Dakshina Kannada, low fertility of forest soils in Uttara Kannada (tuber crops in Joida) 18 and Shivamogga. Socio-economic conditions including fragmented land, limited availability of inputs, poor financial condition of farmers and tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses (e.g., Anthara Saale for drought and weed tolerance in rice; Marabadane/Kudane for bacterial wilt resistance in brinjal) have motivated farmers to cultivate landraces. Similarly, unique biological traits such as—size in Mituga banana, colour 41 in red rice Kempu Sanna , flavor 14 in Adderi Jeerige (mango) and Kothambri Saale (rice) and/or specific use viz., pickles in case of mango 27 and Ibbudla (cucumber) for making juice; preparation of traditional meals viz., sweet dish, puffed rice, kaayi kadubu , subzi, patrode 18 , 42 also motivate farmers to conserve and promote conservation of landraces.

Many of the landraces are associated with the traditions and cultural practices of the communities. As a result, ethnic traditional cultural practices and customs play an important role in the preservation of traditional variations and crop genetic diversity on farms. Hence, conserving traditions indirectly helps to conserve landraces 43 . These motivations are in line with the results of Gajanana et al. 19 in India and Alwis et al. 10 in Sri Lanka. The present study is coherent with the results regarding the determinants/factors highlighted by Sthapit et al. 13 . Considering the high level of diversity among custodian farmers and improving their ties with other members of the community can result in on-farm agro-biodiversity conservation in situ 13 , 19 .

Exchange of conserved material

The seed exchange takes place between individuals or families inside the community or between close communities 12 . Seed flow occurs through purchase of seeds from inside or beyond the community mainly in bio-diversity fairs and seed melas , as well as seed borrowing from relatives and fellow farmers. These exchanges and borrowings occur in the study region for a variable number of reasons, including—lack of seed of a particular variety or landraces in the market; a desire to replace poor-quality seeds from old lots and seasons which may have poor germination; an interest in growing better cultivars by seeing other farmers' fields; a desire to test a different landrace/folk variety in search of suitable landrace to replace the existing one for specific land suitability; and exchanging seeds of one landrace for the seeds of different landrace. From the interaction, it was observed that, seed exchange among the farming communities is in practice for several years, which in turn increases the diversity in the farmers’ field and indirectly conserves the specific landrace. Normally, the custodian farmers have a practice of collecting and storing the seeds for the next growing season, contributing to the maintenance of the crop diversity. Custodian farmers are farmers (men and women) who actively maintain, adapt and promote agricultural biodiversity and related knowledge at farm and community levels over an extended period of time, and are recognized by community members for doing so 13 . Often, custodian farmers do not act alone, but rather are actively supported in their efforts by family or household members. These features of seed conservation and exchange were discussed by Conversa et al. 11 in vegetable landraces conservation in the Puglia region of Italy. Similar kind of exchange was also found in our study area, where a collective exchange happens during events such as local markets or traditional ceremonies where a group of farmers or communities from different parts of the state exchange seeds through purchase or barter system. Furthermore, certain farmers in the study area had a great knowledge on the importance of conservation of landraces and they played an integrated role in motivating/encouraging/involving other fellow farmers in conservation. While interacting with a custodian farmer from Belagavi, who maintains a large number of landraces, we found that he distributed two to five landraces to interested farmers with a motive to increase area under landrace cultivation and to help the fellow farmers to sustain during difficult times. Thus, custodian farmers play a significant role in the seed flow and they are the main source of seeds in the region. Few farmers from Shivamogga develop nursery for sale of landraces, mainly pepper, jackfruit and pickling varieties of mango 36 . Through germplasm movement, these farmers are developing a dynamic process of diversity on their farms 22 . Increased cultivation of landraces achieved through seed exchange within and between communities, diversity fairs, and public awareness of the importance of landraces improves their use and conservation 34 .

Total economic value

Landraces are an essential component of agro-biodiversity conservation due to their direct and indirect benefits to farmers. The farmers conserve landraces to improve the sustainability of food, fuel, medical care and for future. Farmers value the landraces based on the importance. Poudel and Johnsen 44 summarized the total economic value of crop landraces as inclusion of both use value (direct use value, ecological function value, and option use value) and non-use value (existence value and bequest value). Economic valuation of landrace diversity is essential to generate information and knowledge for resource allocation to identify least cost strategies to conserve landraces diversity 45 . Among several species of landraces conserved on-farm, 76.67% (46 species) landraces are conserved for both use and non-use values (Fig.  7 ). The landraces of the majority of the species (46) are conserved on-farm for either existence or/and bequest value in addition to direct use value, ecological function value and option value, highlights the farmers involvement in conservation of landraces for benefit of others in current and future generations.

Total economic value of landraces of different species conserved on-farm by the farmers of Western Ghats.

Constraints for conservation

The custodian farmers are doing their best to maintain, manage and promote the local varieties and landraces through seed exchange. In addition, they are passing traditional knowledge about these cultivars and disseminating their importance among their fellow farmers within and outside their community 13 . Unfortunately, the genetic diversity of landraces is rapidly diminishing in various parts of the world for a variety of reasons. This fact has also been supported by Hammer and Teklu 46 citing the introduction of high yielding varieties (HYVs) leading to replacement of landraces/traditional folk varieties.

Conservation constraints are broadly divided into agro-ecological, socio-economic and technical aspects. Flooding, drought, rainfall during harvest, landslides, poor soil quality and abnormal weather are the main agro-ecological constraints. Whereas socio-economic constraints include inadequate input, lack of availability of seed material, poor yield, lack of marketing facilities, deterioration of culture and traditions, lack of awareness of conservation, adoption of HYVs, lack of interest among young people and their migration to urban areas, the non-multiplication of seeds by the family and poor knowledge transfer. Constraints of technical cultivation comprises of pest and disease infestation, labor scarcity, improper storage conditions and poor germination rate 14 . The Western Ghats encompass hilly area covered with forests that receive heavy rainfall deteriorating soil conditions, by erosion, flooding, submergence of fields, landslides that are common intimidations for cultivar conservation. Based on the information obtained from custodian farmers, the loss of many landraces over the years due to the frequent occurrence of natural calamities in the study area was highlighted. They also emphasized that, lack of prevalence with different farmers in many landraces, they are unable to protect those landraces. Socio-economic conditions make a huge impact on conservation and are the core threatening factors for the conservation of landraces. The practice of adoption of HYVs since the green revolution replaces several landraces, especially in Belagavi and Dakshina Kannada, due to the lack of seed availability and poor yield lead to decrease importance in production and maintenance, especially in rice. Lack of awareness is another major problem for local cultivar conservation, as only a handful of farmers are indulging in cultivar conservation in forest and hilly areas. An increase in desire for a luxurious life and other job opportunities with the inflow of money from natives residing in other cities, states, and countries; agriculture, which was formerly the main occupation of the people, has taken a backseat. In alignment with this, farms and fields in the survey area have been turned into residential plots and commercial (retail) buildings, abandoning cultivation and agriculture 47 .

Deterioration of culture and traditions in rural areas, poor knowledge transfer from elders, increasing technology in cultivation and commercialization of agriculture has led to reduced desire for conservation by young farmers and migration to urban areas 48 . There are no defined and proper market chains for landraces in the Western Ghats region, which also affects the cultivation. Alwis et al. 10 discussed the marketing problems for tubers crops in Sri Lanka. The strengthening of international markets and export incentives for other products like HYVs and the commercialization of agriculture in the area results in further loss of landrace diversity in the future 48 , 49 .

The Western Ghats is a place of origin and diversity for many plants and animals including insects. Thus, a variety of pests and diseases attack on the plants are reported. Insect and non-insect pests like rodents, macaques, wild boars, peacocks and other birds are major threats during cropping and harvesting time 10 . Improper storage conditions lead to occurrence of storage pests and diseases, thereby enhancing the viability loss and poor germination 40 , 42 . Many of these threats and constraints can be overcome through proper strategies. Promoting self-interest and creating awareness on the importance of landraces would in turn boost the conservation, maintenance and cultivation of landraces.

Conclusion and future implications

India has one of the top three genebanks in the world conserving more than 400K accessions of agri-horticultural crops. About 550 germplasm accessions of seed propagated crops belonging to the surveyed area are conserved in the genebank at ICAR-NBPGR. Our study adds specific information related to use including the indigenous technical knowledge to the passport data of these accessions. This addition is expected to enhance their immediate utilization. Furthermore, the number of landraces that are conserved on-farm in various indigenous crops across the vast swathes of the huge country remains inadequately documented. This report represents only a cross-sectional study of on-farm conservation in Central Western Ghats. Similar studies in other regions of the country need to be carried out to document landraces, their diversity and determinants of on-farm conservation practices.

Current report has documented three significant issues:

On-Farm conservation is practiced by a very few custodian farmers. Younger generation appears to find no incentive to continue the conservation practices.

The on-farm conservation sites vary in size and crop-composition. Some landraces (particularly of rice) are conserved by multiple custodians signifying their culinary popularity.

Landraces being indivisible part of local cuisine and passion of custodian farmers are the most important reasons for con-farm conservation.

Possible ways to attract young farmers to on-farm conservation may include:

Registration of landraces as farmers’ variety (wherever applicable) with PPV&FRA

Popularization of the landraces among niche urban customers may increase demand and sale-price.

Development of improved versions (agronomic value) of these landraces by breeders and researchers may open avenues of benefit sharing by custodian farmers.

With enhanced and assured income generation, next-generation farmers may find incentives to continue on-farm conservation. Else, weakening of cultural traditions, declining economic returns, and changing climate may lead to erosion and ultimately irreversible loss of these invaluable landraces.

Data availability

The data that were generated during the study as well as those that support the findings are included in the paper. The data are also accessible from a database (under development and unpublished) at http://pgrinformatics.nbpgr.ernet.in/onfc/database.aspx .

Ford-Lloyd, B. & Jackson, M. Plant Genetic Resources: An Introduction to Their Conservation and Use 152 (Edward Arnold, London, 1986).

Google Scholar  

Maxted, N., Hunter, D. & Ríos, R. O. Plant Genetic Conservation (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2020).

Book   Google Scholar  

Villa, T., Maxted, N., Scholten, M. & Ford-Lloyd, B. Defining and identifying crop landraces. Plant Genet. Resour. 3 (3), 373–384. https://doi.org/10.1079/PGR200591 (2005).

Article   Google Scholar  

Palni, L. M. S., Maikhuri, R. K. & Rao, K. S. in: Eco-Regional Cooperation for Biodiversity Conservation in the Himalaya 253–290 (UNDP, New York, 1998).

Frankel, O. H. Genetic dangers of the green revolution. World Agric. 19 , 9–13 (1970).

Harlan, J. R. Genetics of disaster. J. Environ. Qual. 1 (3), 212–215. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq1972.00472425000100030002x (1972).

CGIAR. Guardians of diversity: The network of genebanks helping to feed the world (2019).

Maxted, N., Ford-Lloyd, B. V. & Hawkes, J. G. Complementary conservation strategies. In Plant Genetic Conservation, The In Situ Approach (eds Maxted, N. et al. ) 15–40 (Chapman & Hall, 1997).

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Veteläinen, M., Negri, V. & Maxted, N. European Landraces: On-Farm Conservation, Management and Use Vol. 15, 1–359 (Bioversity International, Rome, 2009).

Alwis, L. M. H. R., Dissanayakea, M. U. K. & Rathnayakea, R. M. W. M. C. Species diversity of local root and tuber crops in agricultural habitats in Uva region. J. Agric. Value Addit. 1 (1), 47–61 (2017).

Conversa, G. et al. Exploring on-farm agro-biodiversity: A study case of vegetable landraces from Puglia region (Italy). Biodivers. Conserv. 29 , 747–770. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-019-01908-3 (2020).

Ocimati, W. et al. Musa germplasm diversity status across a wide range of agro-ecological zones in Rwanda. J. Appl. Biosci. 73 , 5979–5990 (2014).

Sthapit, B., Lamers, H. & Rao, R. V. Custodian farmers of agricultural biodiversity: Selected profiles from South and South East Asia. In Proceedings of Workshop on Custodian Farmers of Agricultural Biodiversity, New Delhi, India (2013).

Thant, A. A. et al. On-farm rice diversity and farmers’ preferences for varietal attributes in Ayeyarwady Delta, Myanmar. J. Crop. Improv. 34 (4), 549–570. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427528.2020.1746457 (2020).

Scaria, R. Origin and evolution of peninsular India, Western Ghats, and its diverse life forms. In Microbial Biodiversity, Biotechnology and Ecosystem Sustainability (eds Aguilar, C. N. et al. ) 43–56 (Springer, 2023).

Myers, N., Mittermeier, R. A., Mittermeier, C. G., Da Fonseca, G. A. B. & Kent, J. Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403 (6772), 853–858. https://doi.org/10.1038/35002501 (2000).

Article   ADS   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Nayar, T. S., Rasiya-Beegam, A. & Sibi, M. Flowering Plants of the Western Ghats, India Vol. 2 (Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute, Kerala, 2014).

Asha, K. I. et al. Survey and collection of tuber crops from Joida, Uttara Kannada: An unexplored biodiversity hotspot. J. Root Crops 43 (2), 102–106 (2017).

Gajanana, T. M. et al. Motivation for on-farm conservation of mango ( Mangifera indica L.) diversity in India—a case study. Indian J. Pl. Genet. Resour. 28 (1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.5958/0976-1926.2015.00001.7 (2015).

Ramachandra, T. V., Subash-Chandran, M. D., Joshi, N. V., Prakash, N. M., Sreekantha & Gayatri, N. Agro-Biodiversity in Uttara Kannada, Sahyadri Conservation Series 38, ENVIS Technical Report 68, CES (Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India, 2013).

Naderifar, M., Goli, H. & Ghaljaie, F. Snowball sampling: A purposeful method of sampling in qualitative research. Stride. Dev. Med. Educ. 14 (3), e67670 (2017).

Subedi, A. et al. Who maintains crop genetic diversity and how? Implications for on-farm conservation and utilization. Cult. Agric. 25 (2), 41–50 (2003).

Ramachandra, T. V., Bharath, S., Subash-Chandran, M. D. & Joshi, N. V. Salient ecological sensitive regions of central Western Ghats, India. Earth Syst. Environ. 2 , 15–34 (2018).

Jadhav, R., Datar, M. N. & Upadhye, A. S. Wild relatives of crop plants from Northern Western Ghats of Maharashtra: Diversity and distribution. In Advances in Plant Sciences and Biotechnology (eds Krishan, S. & Rodrigues, B. F.) 17–27 (Goa University Publisher, India, 2015).

Shannon, C. E. A mathematical theory of communication. Bell Syst. Tech. J. 27 (3), 379–423. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1538-7305.1948.tb01338.x (1948).

Article   MathSciNet   Google Scholar  

Simpson, E. H. Measurement of diversity. Nature 163 , 688. https://doi.org/10.1038/163688a0 (1949).

Article   ADS   Google Scholar  

Vasugi, C. et al. Genetic diversity in unique indigenous mango accessions ( Appemidi ) of the Western Ghats for certain fruit characteristics. Curr. Sci. 103 (2), 199–207 (2012).

CAS   Google Scholar  

Pradeep, K., Joseph John, K., Latha, M. & Suma, A. Status of crop plants of agricultural importance in Kerala state India: An update. Genet. Resour. Crop. Evol. 68 (5), 1849–1873. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10722-020-01100-5 (2021).

Syamala, G. L. & Pravir, D. A Guidebook on Integration of Biodiversity: For Spice Sector in the Western Ghats (Confederation of Indian Industry, 2019).

Reshma, P., Neethu, R. S. & Sreekala, G. S. Genetic diversity of black pepper ( Piper nigrum L.) in India: A review. J. Pharm. Innov. 11 (10), 832–839 (2022).

Saji, K. V., Sasikumar, B., Rema, J., Aravind, S., & Nirmal Babu, K. in: Conservation and Utilization of Horticultural Genetic Resources 283–320. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-3669-0_9 (2019).

Latha, M., Pradheep, K. & Suma, A. Indigenous and minor vegetables of Western Ghats. Indian Hortic. 65 (3), 39–44 (2020).

Rathi, R. S. et al. On-farm conservation of Rainfed rice landrace diversity in Chhattisgarh, India. Indian J. Pl. Genet. Resour. 32 (1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.5958/0976-1926.2019.00001.9 (2019).

Agnihotri, R. K. On-farm conservation of landraces of rice ( Oryza sativa L.) through cultivation in the Kumaon region of Indian central Himalaya. J. Mt. Sci. 4 (4), 354–360. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-007-0354-3 (2007).

Tandon, P., Abrol, Y. P. & Kumaria, S. Biodiversity and Its Significance 356 (I. K. International Publishing House, 2007).

Ashoka, N. et al. Comparative study of black pepper ( Piper nigrum L.) nursery raising in Karnataka: Traditional variety Sigandhini versus popular variety Panniyur -I. Curr. Sci. 121 (9), 1201–1207 (2021).

Appa Rao, S., Bounphanousay, C., Schiller, J. M., Alcantara, A. P. & Jackson, M. T. Naming of traditional rice varieties by farmers in the Lao PDR. Genet. Resour. Crop Evol. 49 , 83–88. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013843913975 (2002).

Magdum, S. A. & Khadke, S. G. Agro-morphological diversity in rice ( Oryza sativa L.) landraces from Chandoli region of Western Ghats. Int. J. Sci. Res. 9 (15), 43–48 (2022).

Mohana, G. S. & Manjunatha, B. Bio-prospecting studies in traditional rice varieties of central Western Ghats of Karnataka. J. Pharmacogn. Phytochem. 7 (1), 437–439 (2018).

Ocimati, W. et al. On-farm Musa germplasm diversity in different agro-ecologies of Burundi. Int. J. Biodivers. Conserv. 5 (11), 751–760 (2013).

Pusadee, T., Wongtamee, A., Rerkasem, B., Olsen, K. M. & Jamjod, S. Farmers drive genetic diversity of Thai purple rice ( Oryza sativa L.) landraces. Econ. Bot. 73 , 76–85. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12231-018-9436-0 (2019).

de Souza, R., Ogliar, J. B. & Pinto, T. T. Analysis of on farm conservation of sweet corn in a diversity microcenter of Zea mays L. in Southern Brazil. Maydica 65 (1), 11 (2020).

Wang, Y. et al. Influence of ethnic traditional cultures on genetic diversity of rice landraces under on-farm conservation in southwest China. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 12 , 51. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0120-0 (2016).

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Poudel, D. & Johnsen, F. H. Valuation of crop genetic resources in Kaski, Nepal: Farmers’ willingness to pay for rice landraces conservation. J. Environ. Manage. 90 (1), 483–491 (2009).

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Gauchan, D. Economic valuation of rice landraces diversity: a case study of Bara ecosite, Terai, Nepal. in A Scientific Basis of in situ Conservation of Agro-biodiversity on Farm: Nepal’s Contribution to Global Project, NP Working paper No. 1/99 (eds Sthapit, B., Upadhyay, M., Subedi, A. (Eds) (NARC/LI-BIRD/IPGRI, Nepal, Rome, Italy, 1999).

Hammer, K. & Teklu, Y. Plant genetic resources: Selected issues from genetic erosion to genetic engineering. J. Agric. Rural Dev. Trop. Subtrop. 109 , 15–50 (2008).

Kalyanaraman, J. & Koskimaki L. in Provincial Globalisation Research Report No. 6 (Bangalore, India 2013).

Fuentes, F. F., Bazile, D., Bhargava, A. & Martínez, E. A. Implications of farmers’ seed exchanges for on-farm conservation of quinoa, as revealed by its genetic diversity in Chile. J. Agric. Sci. 150 , 702–716. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021859612000056 (2012).

Marti, N. & Pimbert, M. Barter markets for the conservation of agro-ecosystem multi-functionality: The case of the chalayplasa in the Peruvian Andes. Int. J. Agric. Sustain. 5 , 51–69. https://doi.org/10.1080/14735903.2007.9684813 (2007).

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors thank the ICAR-NBPGR for the facilities. Puneeth was supported by ICAR-IARI Fellowship and Sunil Archak was supported by ICAR-National Fellowship. Authors would like to extend heartfelt gratitude towards the custodian farmers for their endeavors in landrace conservation.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Division of Plant Genetic Resources, ICAR - Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa Campus, New Delhi, 110 012, India

G. M. Puneeth & Kerekoppa Manjunatha Laxmisha

ICAR - National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, Pusa Campus, New Delhi, 110 012, India

Ravi Gowthami, Gyanendra Pratap Singh & Sunil Archak

Division of Genetics, ICAR - Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa Campus, New Delhi, 110 012, India

Ashvinkumar Katral

College of Forestry, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, Sirsi, 581 401, India

Ramesh Vasudeva

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

SA and GMP designed the study. GMP carried out the study with the assistance of RV and GPS. AK and KML helped in data curation and analysis. GMP and RG wrote the manuscript. SA, GPS and RV edited and corrected the manuscript. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sunil Archak .

Ethics declarations

Competing interests.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Puneeth, G.M., Gowthami, R., Katral, A. et al. On-farm crop diversity, conservation, importance and value: a case study of landraces from Western Ghats of Karnataka, India. Sci Rep 14 , 10712 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-61428-1

Download citation

Received : 26 October 2023

Accepted : 06 May 2024

Published : 10 May 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-61428-1

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• On-farm conservation
• Documentation
• Western Ghats

By submitting a comment you agree to abide by our Terms and Community Guidelines . If you find something abusive or that does not comply with our terms or guidelines please flag it as inappropriate.

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.