solutions to water problems in africa

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Water Scarcity in Africa: Causes, Effects, and Solutions

The problem of water scarcity has cast a shadow over the wellbeing of humans. According to estimates, in 2016, nearly 4 billion people – equivalent to two-thirds of the global population – experience severe water scarcity for a prolonged period of time. If the situation doesn’t improve, 700 million people worldwide could be displaced by intense water scarcity by 2030. Africa, in particular, is facing severe water scarcity and the situation is worsening day by day. Resolute and substantial action is needed to address the issue.

Water Scarcity in Africa: An Overview

Water scarcity is the condition where the demand for water exceeds supply and where available water resources are approaching or have exceeded sustainable limits. 

The problem of water scarcity in Africa is not only a pressing one but it is also getting worse day by day. According to the World Health Organization (WHO) , water scarcity affects 1 in 3 people in the African Region and the situation is deteriorating because of factors such as population growth and urbanisation but also climate change.

Water scarcity can be classified into two types: physical and economic. Physical water scarcity occurs when water resources are overexploited for different uses and no longer meet the needs of the population. In this case, there is not enough water available in physical terms. Economic water scarcity, on the other hand, is linked to poor governance, poor infrastructure, and limited investments. The latter type of water scarcity can exist even in countries or areas where water resources and infrastructure are adequate. 

As reported by the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa in 2011, arid regions of the continent – mainly located in North Africa – experience frequent physical water scarcity, while Sub-Saharan Africa undergoes mainly economic water scarcity. Indeed, the latter region has a decent levels of physical water , mainly thanks to the abundant, though highly seasonal and unevenly distributed supply of rainwater. This region’s access to water, however, is constrained due to poor infrastructure, resulting in mainly economic rather than physical water scarcity.

Figure 1: Map of physical and economic water scarcity at basin level in 2007 across the African continent.

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In a 2022 study conducted on behalf of the United Nations University Institute for Water Environment and Health (UNU-INWEH), researchers employed indicators to quantify water security in all of Africa’s countries. They found that only 13 out of 54 countries reached a modest level of water security in recent years, with Egypt, Botswana, Gabon, Mauritius and Tunisia representing the better-off countries in Africa in terms of water security. 

19 countries – which are home to half a billion people – are deemed to have levels of water security below the threshold of 45 on a scale of 1 to 100. On the other hand, Somalia, Chad, and Niger are the continent’s least water-secure countries.

Egypt performs the best regarding access to drinking water while the Central African Republic performs the worst. The latter, however, has the highest per capita water availability while half of North African countries are characterised by absolute water scarcity. This again shows that Sub-Saharan Africa and Central Africa face economic water scarcity more than physical water scarcity. 

Causes of Water Scarcity in Africa

Human activities, which result in overexploitation and global warming, are the main culprit for the water scarcity in Africa. Overexploitation is the main contributor to physical water scarcity. A 2018 report published by the Institute for Security Studies stated that more than 60% of South Africa’s rivers are being overexploited and only one-third of the country’s main rivers are in good condition. Lake Chad – once deemed Africa’s largest freshwater body and important freshwater reservoir – is shrinking because of overexploitation of its water. According to a 2019 report , for this reason alone, the water body of the lake has diminished by 90% since the 1960s, with the surface area of the lake decreasing from 26,000 square kilometres in 1963 to less than 1,500 square kilometres in 2018. 

Figure 2: The size of Lake Chad shows a massive shrinking between 1972 and 2007.

The underlying cause for overexploitation can be further broken down to the increase in water demand, driven by the rise in population growth and rate of urbanisation. 

Population in Sub-Saharan Africa is growing at a rate of 2.7% a year in 2020, more than twice that of South Asia (1.2%) and Latin America (0.9%). Meanwhile, the population of Nigeria – a country in West Africa – is forecasted to double by 2050. As for the rate of urbanisation, according to the United Nations , 21 out of the 30 fastest-growing cities in the world in 2018 are deemed to be in Africa. Cities such as Bamako in Mali and Yaounde in Cameroon have experience explosive growth. 

The booming population will inevitably lead to more food demand, a faster rate of urbanisation and an rise in industrial activities, all of which require abundant water supply.

Climate change and global warming – mainly caused by an increase in human and commercial activities – equally contribute to water scarcity in Africa. As a report by the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa found, a 1C rise in global temperatures would result in a reduction of runoff   – excess rainwater that flows across the land’s surface – by up to 10%. Another study stated that the declining trends of rainfall caused by global warming will continue in North Africa, limiting groundwater recharge and exacerbating groundwater depletion. Although in areas closer to the equator, a soar in precipitation will likely occur as a result of global warming, the increased potential evapotranspiration   – the combined loss of water through the plant’s process of transpiration and evaporation of water from the earth’s surface – and drought risks in the majority of the continent still outweigh the increased rainfall in these areas. 

Consequences of Water Scarcity in Africa

Water scarcity is expected to affect the economic condition, the health of citizens as well as ecosystems in Africa. 

In economic terms, the agriculture sector is likely to be hampered under severe water scarcity. Agriculture is one of the most pivotal economic sectors for Africa, employing the majority of the population. In Sub-Saharan Africa alone, it accounts for nearly 14% of the total Gross Domestic Product (GDP). As the sector that relies on water the most, agriculture is already heavily impacted by water scarcity and the situation is expected to further deteriorate, leading to other issues such as food shortages and, in the worst cases, famine.

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Not surprisingly, water shortage is an immense threat to human’s health. In times of water scarcity, people are often forced to get their water supply from contaminated ponds and streams. When ingested, polluted water results in widespread diarrhoeal diseases including cholera, typhoid fever, salmonellosis, other gastrointestinal viruses, and dysentery. Quality of healthcare services in many African countries is low, with only 48% African people having access to healthcare. The poor system has made diarrhoeal diseases life-threatening and in many cases even fatal. 

A study published in 2021 found that severe diarrheal disease accounts for about 600,000 deaths each year in sub-Saharan Africa, with the majority being children and elderly. Diarrheal disease is the third-leading cause of disease and death among African children under the age of five, a situation that public health authorities blame on poor quality of water and sanitation. 

Lastly, water shortages jeopardise ecosystems and contribute to a loss in biodiversity. Africa is home to some of the most unique freshwater ecosystems in the world. Lake Turkana is the world’s largest desert lake, while Lake Malawi hosts the richest freshwater fish fauna in the world, home to a staggering 14% of the world’s freshwater fish species. If not tackled, water scarcity will disrupt and likely terminate freshwater and marine ecosystems in the continent. 

You might also like: 10 of the Most Endangered Species in Africa

Solutions to Water Scarcity in Africa

Remedies for water scarcity are observed on a local, national, and international scale. 

Local communities are taking adaptation action. Many opt for drought-tolerant crops instead of crops that require large amounts of water, a strategy to mitigate both water scarcity and food insecurity. Conservation or regenerative agriculture is also introduced to help infiltration and soil moisture retention through mulching and no-tillage approaches. Countries such as Zimbabwe, Zambia, and Ethiopia have all adopted such techniques in recent years.

Several governments are also taking steps to tackle water scarcity across the continent. For example, the government of Namibia financed the construction of a urban wastewater management in the capital Windhoek, significantly improving the management of water resources and thus lowering the risk of water scarcity. 

International organisations also lend a helping hand in times of water scarcity. In recent years, the United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) promoted several initiatives and implemented innovative financing model to alleviate this pressing issue. In regions in eastern and southern Africa, UNICEF is cooperating with the European Investment Bank (EIB), the Development Bank of Southern Africa (DBSA) and other international agencies and organisations to evaluate and implement bankable projects in a blended financing mode, particularly targeting the urban areas. For example , the European Union donated €19 million for the construction of water supply systems in the Eswatini’s cities of Siphofaneni, Somntongo, and Matsanjeni. Similarly, the DBSA contributed about €150 million to the construction of the Lomahasha Water Supply. Booster pumping stations as well as reinforced concrete reservoirs are also constructed with the support of international actors.

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All in all, the water scarcity problem in Africa is likely to exacerbate under the ever-increasing water demand and rise in global temperatures. Tangible action from all parties is constantly required to tackle this massive problem. Individuals can equally play an important role in alleviating water scarcity in Africa by adopting a more environmental-friendly lifestyle and taking actions in their daily lives to mitigate the effect of climate change and they can develop mindful practises that help safe water, one of the most important resources for life on Earth.

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• Africa’s Water Opportunity: Science, Sustainability, and Solutions

Africa’s Water Opportunity: Science, Sustainability, and Solutions April 21 – 22, 2021

The theme of Climate Change, Agriculture, and Health in Africa is a key research focus for the Harvard Center for African Studies. A changing climate will have adverse impact on crop yields and quality, resulting in reduced availability of food or food of poorer nutritional quality, and that a lack of nutritious food puts a population at greater risk for communicable and non-communicable diseases.

            On April 21 – 22, 2021, the Harvard Center for African Studies will reconvene our Climate Change, Agriculture, and Health in Africa initiative around the theme of water for a two-day virtual conference on Africa’s Water Opportunity: Science, Sustainability, and Solutions . Water has been a central and defining theme of Africa’s development agenda for decades. Climate change across the African continent will result in altered rainfall patterns, with some areas becoming drier and others seeing increased levels of precipitation. Agricultural crop yields are greatly impacted by the availability of water or the occurrence of drought, as demonstrated by a growing body of research. And, water remains central to our livelihoods: for hydration and cooking, for healthcare, and for industry and manufacturing. Indeed, it was in recognition of water’s essentiality to human life that in “July 2010, the United Nations General Assembly explicitly recognized the human right to water and sanitation and acknowledged that clean drinking water and sanitation are essential to the realization of all human rights.”

            As implied by the title of the conference, each panel and keynote will focus on science, sustainability, and solutions. What does the latest research reveal about each theme for discussion, and what novel or innovate research is taking place? How can national governments, local communities, and the private sector in Africa develop sustainable water solutions? And, what best practices should be held up as models for addressing the water question in Africa? To address Africa’s water opportunity, panels will feature a diverse mix of faculty and researchers,private sector representatives, NGOs, and non-profits working on 21 st century solutions to water. We will identify participants from across Africa (ensuring regional diversity including North Africa) as well as the international community.

#HarvardAfricaWater

Wednesday, April 21

9:00AM            Welcome and Introductions

Professor Wafaie Fawzi , Harvard Center for African Studies Interim Oppenheimer Faculty Director, Richard Saltonstall Professor of Population Sciences, and Professor of Nutrition, Epidemiology, and Global Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health

Provost Alan Garber, Harvard University

9:15AM           Panel: Water and Health

The panel will explore the connection between water and health, including sanitation and hygiene. Cholera remains endemic in most of Central and East Africa, with more cases than any other region in the world. Drinking contaminated water can spread diseases including diarrhea, dysentery, typhoid, and polio. The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic presented a new challenge as water scarce communities are encouraged to practice increased levels of hand washing. Waste water and sewage treatment are also pertinent to the discussion and an area where novel methods can reutilize waste water for commercial use. This panel will discuss novel and innovative approaches for accessing clean, potable water for communities and the related implications for health and healthcare systems.

Moderator: Professor John Macomber , Senior Lecturer, Harvard Business School Panelists:

• Dr. Richard Cash , Senior Lecturer on Global Health, Harvard T.H Chan School of Public Health
• Dr. Guéladio Cissé , Professor of Sanitary Engineering & Environmental Epidemiology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute
• Dr. Guy Hutton , Senior Adviser, WASH Section, UNICEF
• Dr. Cush Ngonzo Luwesi , Focal Regional Manager for the Volta and Niger, CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems
• Ms. Jennifer Sara , Global Director, Water Global Practice, World Bank  

10:15AM         Keynote Address: Annual Joseph S. Agyepong Distinguished Lecture on Public Health in Africa

" Water for health in Africa -  A rights-based approach to development"  Keynote by: Dr. Martin Fregene, Director of Agriculture and Agro-Industry, African Development Bank Group (AfDB) Moderated by Professor Robert Paarlberg,  Associate, Sustainability Science Program, Harvard Kennedy School

11:15AM         Panel: Water, Climate, and Agriculture

With a changing climate, some areas of Africa will have decreased levels of precipitation while others will be more susceptible to flooding. Temperature change in Africa is projected to be more extreme than anywhere else in the world. As droughts become more frequent and sustained, crop production will be threatened, resulting in diminished food security. Lakes that are shrinking due to climate change impact the food source and livelihoods of surrounding communities. These challenges present not only a threat to food security but also economic security. This panel will explore how a changing climate might impact agriculture, the solutions that government and farmers might adopt, as well as the implications of the Paris Agreement for Africa.

Moderator: Professor Rob Paarlberg , Associate, Sustainability Science Program, Harvard Kennedy School

• Professor Peter Huybers , Professor of Health and Planetary Sciences, Harvard University
• Dr. Paul Orengoh , Director of Programs, African Ministers’ Council on Water
• Dr. Claudia Ringler , Deputy Division Director,  Environment and Production Technology Division, International Food Policy Research Institute
• Dr. Karen Villholth , Principal Researcher and Coordinator, International Water Management Institute

12:15PM         Day One Closing Remarks  

Thursday, April 22

9:00AM            Welcome and Recognition of Earth Day 2021

Dean Douglas Elmendorf , Harvard Kennedy School

Professor Rainer Sauerborn , Senior Professor, Heidelberg University

9:15AM           Panel: Water, Migration, and Human Rights

Access to water for drinking, agriculture, and fishing has driven human migration patterns for centuries. As changes to climate impact the availability of water or lead to more extreme weather events, migration for water-related reasons is anticipated to increase. With migration can come conflicts over land territory, water rights, and cross-national borders. It is important however that water as a cause of migration not be over simplified and offered as a single explanation for complex migratory patterns, or that water-driven migration be viewed as a net negative. This panel will explore the role of water as a cause of migration as well as the question of water as a human right.

Moderator: Professor Jacqueline Bhabha , FXB Director of Research, Professor of the Practice of Health and Human Rights at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, the Jeremiah Smith Jr. Lecturer in Law at Harvard Law School, and Adjunct Lecturer in Public Policy at the Harvard Kennedy School

• Ms. Hind Aïssaoui Bennani , Migration, Environment, and Climate Change Regional Specialist, International Organization for Migration
• Professor Reshmaan N. Hussam , Assistant Professor of Business Administration, Harvard Business School
• Ms. Aimée-Noël Mbiyozo , Senior Research Consultant, Institute for Security Studies, Africa
• Dr. Kira Vinke , Project Lead, East Africa Peru India Climate Capacities (EPICC), Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research (PIK)  

10:15AM         "Africa’s water opportunities: Policy actions for driving economic growth and strengthening resilience" Keynote Address   by Dr. Apollos Nwafor , Vice President, Policy and State Capability, Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA)

11:15AM         Panel: Africa’s Water Opportunity

We will take a holistic look at water—linking the themes of health, agriculture, and migration—with an eye towards Africa’s Water Opportunity. We will ask a multidisciplinary panel to synthesize a way forward with solutions-oriented recommendations about next steps and policy outcomes. We may explore these themes through innovations in water management, climate-smart food systems using circular agriculture and sustainable fishery, and the involvement of humanitarian organizations in applied research.

Moderator: Professor Ina Danquah , Robert Bosch Junior Professor for Sustainable Nutrition in sub-Saharan Africa, Heidelberg University

• Mr. Kitchinme Bawa , Sanitation Project Manager, African Ministers’ Council on Water
• Mr. Jorge Alvarez-Sala , WASH Specialist – Systems Strengthening for Sustainable WASH Services, WASH, UNICEF
• Mr. Sylvain Usher , Executive Director, African Water Association (AfWA)

12:15PM         Day Two Closing Remarks

Dr. Joseph S. Agyepong, Founder and Executive Chairman, JOSPONG Group of Companies

Biographies

Concept Note

            Improvements in water accessibility in Africa have had mixed results in the last decade. In 2012, the UNICEF and WHO shared that “the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) target of halving the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water” had been achieved, in advance of its 2015 deadline. Africa, however, was left behind: “Only 61% of the people in sub-Saharan Africa have access to improved water supply sources compared with 90% or more in Latin America and the Caribbean, Northern Africa, and large parts of Asia. Over 40% of all people globally who lack access to drinking water live in sub-Saharan Africa.” By the 2015 deadline, according to a report commissioned by the German Agency for International Development, “Only 56% of city-dwellers have access to piped water, down from 67% in 2003, and just 11% to a sewer connection.”

            The United Nations reports that “warming in Africa has increased significantly over the past 50 to 100 years, with clear effects on the health, livelihoods and food security of people in Africa. Climate change is likely to lessen crop yields, increase water scarcity, aggravate biodiversity loss and contribute to desertification, hence imposing a severe challenge on the continent.” Several contemporaneous events have converged to bring about renewed focus on issues of water in Africa. From 2017 to 2018, drought levels in Cape Town, South Africa became dire enough for projections of a “Day Zero” when the city’s water reserves would fall to a level requiring shut off of the municipal water supplies. Rains and flooding in East Africa through October 2020 have had adverse impacts for between 4 and 6 million people. And, in July 2020, Ethiopia completed constructed of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, expected to power half of the country once fully operational but with downstream impacts for water and irrigation in Sudan and Egypt.

            Despite the challenges and threats enumerated, many opportunities exist for Africa as it relates to water and climate: “Recent research from the Global Commission on the Economy and Climate finds that bold climate action could deliver at least $26 trillion in economic benefits through 2030.” Innovative solutions to provide clean “drinking water and sanitation, manage drought risk for farmers, and invest in green infrastructure” have the power to secure livelihoods and reap economic benefits. Improvements have been made in access to water and sanitation over the past three decades, with access to water sources for households improving more than 125 percent.

As implied by the title of the conference, each panel and keynote will focus on science, sustainability, and solutions. What does the latest research reveal about each theme for discussion, and what novel or innovate research is taking place? How can national governments, local communities, and the private sector in Africa develop sustainable water solutions? And, what best practices should be held up as models for addressing the water question in Africa? To address Africa’s water opportunity, panels will feature a diverse mix of faculty and researchers, government officials, private sector representatives, NGOs and non-profits, and philanthropists working on 21 st century solutions to water. We will identify participants from across Africa (ensuring regional diversity including North Africa) as well as the international community.

Co-Sponsors

Nutrition and Global Health Program at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health  

• Africa - Asia Initiative
• Africa's Leaders Speak
• Religion and Public Life
• Distinguished Lectures
• Conferences

Addressing Africa’s extreme water insecurity

Subscribe to africa in focus, leo holtz and leo holtz former research assistant - global economy and development , africa growth initiative @leoholtz_ christina golubski christina golubski associate director - africa growth initiative @cmgolubski.

July 23, 2021

Access to clean, affordable, and safe drinking water is both a fundamental human right recognized by the United Nations and Goal 6 of the United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals . However, access to this essential resource in Africa is not yet universal, with 1 in 3 Africans facing water scarcity and approximately 400 million people in sub-Saharan Africa lacking access to a basic drinking water . Access to water remains a pervasive development issue across the continent, as a 2019 report by the World Resources Institute (WRI) revealed: Indeed, addressing climate change and poor management of water resources and services is paramount to tackling Africa’s water stress.

Aqueduct , an online geographic information system (GIS) tool produced by the WRI to map global water-related risks, reveals Africa’s extensive exposure to water-related risks (Figure 1). Their model accounts for a variety of metrics, such as vulnerability to floods and droughts, water stress, and seasonal variability. “Extremely high water risk,” demarcated in dark red, covers large swaths of arid northern Africa, southern Africa, and eastern Africa. However, water risk throughout the continent is quite heterogeneous, as light patches, such as those along the Nile River, are interspersed with the areas suffering from critically high water risk. The equatorial and tropical regions around the Democratic Republic of the Congo also enjoy significant surface area with noticeably less water risk than their continental neighbors.

Figure 1. Africa faces some of the highest water risk in the world

Source: “ Climate Change Is Hurting Africa’s Water Sector, but Investing in Water Can Pay Off,” World Resources Institute, 2019.

The authors maintain that understanding the continent’s water risk factors is an essential prerequisite to instituting changes to the poor management of its water resources and services, alongside bolstering climate resilience. As such, the authors highlight several areas within the water sector that require investment to improve climate resilience and better public service delivery.

Africa’s agricultural sector, the authors claim, is poised to face significant exposure to water-related climate risks in the future. As 90 percent of sub-Saharan Africa’s rural population depends on agriculture as their primary source of income and more than 95 percent of the region’s farming is reliant on rainfall, the consequences of unpredictable rainfall, rising temperatures, extreme drought, and lower crop yields expose one of Africa’s poorest communities to increasingly intense climate- and water-related hazards. Considering these hazards, WRI proposes that intergovernmental risk-pooling mechanisms, such as the African Union’s African Risk Capacity (ARC) , could be increasingly important sovereign insurance mechanisms to mitigate climate disasters, as they provide faster payouts than humanitarian aid.

The effort will be expensive: According to the authors, securing universal safe drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene in sub-Saharan Africa requires $35 billion per annum in capital costs. While efficient “smart design” of water management systems can promote greater climate resilience for water and sanitation services, the WRI attributes securing adequate revenue to maintain new infrastructure as the biggest challenge facing African policymakers and engineers in the water sector.

Investing in climate-resilient green infrastructure provides a myriad of benefits throughout the economy, namely, generating jobs, alleviating poverty, and diminishing the impact of climate change on Africa’s most vulnerable and marginalized communities. African governments, according to the WRI, should actively factor in these water risks to develop infrastructure systems that protect people, save money in the long run, and preserve the delicate ecosystems that their economies and the livelihood of their citizens depend upon.

For more on climate change in Africa, read “ Figure of the week: Climate change and African agriculture ,” “ Climate adaptation and the great reset for Africa ,” and “ Africa can play a leading role in the fight against climate change .”

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Water scarcity in Africa is a dire situation, and is only getting worse. As Africa’s population continues to grow and climate change continues to rob the continent of the finite resource, it is predicted that by 2025 , close to 230 million Africans will be facing water scarcity, and up to 460 million will be living in water-stressed areas. 

The year 2025 is around the corner, just three years away, and that time will pass in the blink of an eye. Just think about what’s happened in the past five years. The series finale of Game of Thrones was released almost five years ago. The cinematic event of the decade, Avengers: End Game dominated the box office, and Lil Nas X’s "Old Town Road" became our favourite earworm four years ago. 

Those events feel like they happened just the other day. Now think about Africa’s water crisis, and consider how close it really is to becoming catastrophic.

There’s only so many ways we can say “time is running out” and only so many analogies to indicate how serious the situation will soon be if we don’t see critical action from world leaders now. So perhaps the next best thing to do so is to lay out what everyone should know about water scarcity in Africa, who the key players are that can address the situation, and what we can all do to help.

What Is Water Scarcity and How Is It Impacting Africa? 

Water scarcity describes the growing lack of access to water. There are two types of water scarcity: economic and physical. 

Economic water scarcity refers to water being inaccessible because of institutional failings that include lack of planning, investment, and infrastructure. Physical scarcity is a byproduct of climate change, and includes droughts and changes in weather patterns. 

Africa is dealing with both ; because the continent’s population is increasing at a rapid rate, the demand for water will continue to grow and if there’s no planning and preparation to accommodate the needs of Africa’s people, economic water scarcity will continue to be a huge problem. 

On the other hand, and perhaps more critically as it is not as easy to control, Africa has been dealing with some of the most severe droughts it has ever seen as the world continues to report hotter and hotter years as a result of climate change. Lakes and rivers that used to supply ample amounts of water are running dry , and communities are having to travel excruciating distances to access liveable amounts of water. 

3 Key Facts About Water Scarcity in Africa: 

• 1 in 3 African citizens are impacted by water scarcity . 
• 400 million people in sub-Saharan Africa lack access to basic drinking water. 
• Citizens in sub-Saharan Africa travel 30 minutes on average daily to access water. 

Who Is Most Affected and Why? 

It’s not an exaggeration to say that almost every African is impacted by water scarcity, both directly and indirectly. Those directly affected have no immediate access to water and have to travel long distances to provide water for their households and businesses. Water access to some citizens is not as easy as opening a tap or flushing the toilet. 

Water scarcity is also a massive driver of conflict and stressed areas have increasingly borne witness to violence over the resource. Communities surrounding Lake Chad, for example, have been exposed to violence between those in need of water and those who are unwilling to compromise. This has mainly been an agricultural dispute between farmers and fishing communities, but has impacted those who need access to water for households, and for sanitation purposes. The violence has also led to mass displacement, with the United Nations reporting the destruction of villages caught in the middle of the dispute. 

Most of sub-Saharan Africa is agriculture dependent, and agriculture is a main source of income for almost half of the continent’s citizens. African countries are also reliant on prosperous agriculture to maintain and increase their gross domestic product (GDP) and to preserve food security for citizens. With droughts increasingly becoming the norm across the region in recent years, economies have become more prone to instability, and food insecurity has increased . 

How Does This Relate to Ending Extreme Poverty and Its Systemic Causes?

Poverty and access to water are interlinked, as a lack of water increases vulnerability and leads regions further and further away from achieving several of the United Nations’ Global Goals, 17 goals that work together to end extreme poverty, including issues like access to nutritious food and health care. The issue directly impacts Global Goal 6 for the availability of clean water and sanitation, as African citizens are denied access to water as their basic human right.

Other Global Goals directly affected include Goals 2 and 3 which call for an end to hunger, and access to good health and well-being for all people. Water access impacts food security, and therefore increases hunger rates. Without water for sanitation, meanwhile, it is also difficult to provide communities with basic health care and to protect citizens from preventable diseases.

Finally, climate change — recognised by the Global Goal 13 for climate action — is a massive cause of this issue, and so long as there is no action taken to combat it, African citizens will continue to be faced with drying rivers and lakes despite having done the least to have caused the climate crisis at hand. 

Who Are the Key Players in Improving Africa’s Water Access? 

The continent is seeing an impressive rise in young activists and advocates putting their feet down and demanding action to tackle climate change and its impacts, such as lack of water access. These include Vanessa Nakate, Leah Namugerwa, Yola Gogwana, Ayakha Melithafa, and so many more that are bringing awareness to Africa’s climate-driven water crisis. 

One such activist, Kenya’s Elizabeth Wathuti, touched the world when she described to delegates at the UN’s COP26 Climate Conference what the water crisis in Africa actually looked like. 

“I have seen with my own eyes, three young children crying at the side of a dried up river after walking 12 miles with their mother to find water,” she said . 

While young people are at the forefront of calling for the end of physical water scarcity, there are organizations leading the charge against economic scarcity. Organizations that include the United Nations’ agencies, and social enterprises like Water Access Rwanda and global solution-oriented organisations like the Water Resources Institute . 

What Action Can We All Take to Help? 

The best action we can take against water scarcity is acting immediately against climate change, and calling on world leaders and business leaders to put the planet first. You can take action with us here to support our Defend the Planet campaign and add your voice to the call for action. 

Global Citizen Explains

Defeat Poverty

Water Scarcity in Africa: Everything You Need to Know

Feb. 1, 2022

Welcome to the United Nations

Water-insecure Africa gets some wins at the UN Water Conference

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“Water is life” is a familiar refrain that emphasizes the indispensability of water to living organisms, particularly humans.

Yet a recently released Global Water Security 2023 Assessment by the United Nations University Institute for Water, Environment and Health finds that out of nearly 7.8 billion people in 186 countries, 5.2 billion (72 per cent) are water insecure. That includes 1.3 billion Africans—Africa’s entire population.

In fact, 13 African countries are critically water insecure, according to the report. These include: Chad, Comoros, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Liberia, Libya, Madagascar, Niger, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Sudan and Sudan.

The report lists key drivers of water insecurity as global population and economic growth, conflicts, and the effects of climate change.

It notes “a sharp disparity in water security across global regions and sub-regions. The least water-secure regions are Africa, including the Sahel, the Horn of Africa, and parts of West Africa, in addition to South Asia, and Small Island Developing States (SIDS) across the world.”

It adds that “Europe and the Americas are significantly more water secure than other global regions.”

The report was released during last month’s UN Water Conference in New York, the first in nearly 50 years. The aim of the gathering was to reach a “bold Water Action Agenda that gives our world’s lifeblood the commitment it deserves,” said UN Secretary-General António Guterres.

Many consider the conference’s  outcomes  a cup half-full; others say it’s half-empty. Mr. Guterres called the Water Action Agenda an “ambitious vision.”

“The conference should have included binding commitments for investments in water, particularly in the global south, to meet SDG 6 targets in all countries,” says Charlotte MacAlister, the lead author of the assessment report, in a post-conference interview with Africa Renewal .

Nevertheless, Africa got many important wins at the water conference , she says.

 “A clear win [for Africa] was the spotlight shone on the poor progress in WASH [water and sanitation hygiene].” Specifically, she highlights the WASH commitments made by five African countries.

• Ethiopia – to revise the policy to accommodate loan access for water and sanitation for businesses and consumers. It will establish a strong accountability framework that aligns with the ONEWASH National Programme.
• Ghana – to establish a National Sanitation Authority, reduce inequalities in water and sanitation services, particularly in poor and rural communities, and make Ghana’s cities some of the cleanest in Africa.
• Liberia – to increase access to basic sanitation, end open defecation, and create a unifying monitoring mechanism at all governance levels to improve institutional coordination.
• Uganda –to increase public financing for water, sanitation, and hygiene.
• Zimbabwe – to create a State of Emergency on Water and Sanitation and prioritize budget and coordination.

There is the paradox of Africa having abundant water availability yet being the most water-insecure region. Ms. MacAlister explains why: “When water availability is assessed using the SDG 6.4.2 indicator (level of freshwater stress), 45 out of the 54 African countries score very highly, indicating that more water is available than is used.

“However, almost all [African] countries scored very low for the level of access to safely managed water and sanitation (WASH services), with the exceptions of Algeria, Egypt, The Gambia, Ghana, Morocco and Tunisia.”

At the same time, she says, “Almost all countries have very low levels of wastewater treatment, with Algeria and South Africa as notable exceptions.”

Quoting WHO 2019 data , Ms. MacAlister says low levels of wastewater treatment link to high mortality rates resulting from unsafe WASH services. The data shows 20 African countries “have extremely high mortality rates,” which is between 46 and 108 deaths per 100,000 population annually.

Countries’ deaths per 100,000 population

• Lesotho 108.1
• Somalia 99.2
• Central African Republic 97
• Nigeria 71.7
• Sierra Leone 69.5
• South Sudan 68.1
• Eritrea 66.5, Mali 66.1
• Burkina Faso 60.9
• Guinea 57.8
• Burundi 53.3
• Democratic Republic of the Congo 52.3
• Guinée-Bissau 49.4
• Angola 48.9
• Cameroon 47.3
• Côte d'Ivoire 47
• Eswatini 46.5

Sources – WHO

During the Water Conference, Nigeria officially became the 48th Party  to the Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes , also known as the Water Convention . and the seventh African nation to join since 2018 (following Chad, Senegal, Guinea-Bissau, Ghana, Togo and Cameroon).

Nigeria shares with its neighbours most of its water resources, which include Lake Chad and the River Niger. According to the UN Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE), that services the Convention’s secretariat, joining neighbouring Parties will bolster conflict prevention, climate change adaptation and development.

Silver lining

The good news is, between 2016 and 2019, 18 countries made progress in reducing WASH-related deaths, according to the Water Security Assessment.

Another bright spot for Africa is that countries such as Angola, Gabon, the Republic of Congo, Botswana, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo are using water efficiently , even as most countries scored low for water use efficiency.

Ms. MacAlister says that “In terms of water resource stability, 33 countries are severely impacted by fluctuations from year to year… which can mean drought one year, flood the next. But only 10 of those countries are currently able to mitigate this variability with large reservoir storage.”

“It is impossible to achieve any of the SDGs without water security. Maybe that is why the world is failing in so many targets. We live on a blue planet—what can be achieved without water?” she questions.

18 countries made progress reducing WASH-related deaths

Recommendations

“Africa desperately needs investment in WASH and water infrastructure , and this must also come with accelerated capacity building , which must properly address the gender inequities in the sector,” recommends Ms. MacAlister.

She further says that “This means safely managed drinking water and sanitation, appropriate and accessible hygiene measures at home, at school, in health care and other public facilities, and in the workplace.

• Sierra Leone
• South Sudan

Source: Global Water Security 2023 Assessment

“This requires water infrastructure development that provides appropriate water supply for domestic, agricultural, service sector and industrial use, and ensures wastewater management for all of those sectors.”

“It is important to maintain environmental flows to support freshwater ecosystems and watershed health, and planning for a future where available fresh water is going to be more and more uncertain, so mitigation and adaptation strategies are critical.”

Planning for the future and taking “a full range of mitigation measures through different kinds of storage, large and small, surface, groundwater, and green water, and potentially unconventional water sources” are also important, she advises.

The International Union of Soil Sciences defines the three colours of water as “green water being evapotranspired rainwater from soil, blue water used for irrigation and grey water contaminated by agrichemicals.”

What citizens can do

What top three things should ordinary Africans be doing to improve water security?

Ms. MacAlister says, first, citizens must hold their local and national governments accountable because “safe water and sanitation are human rights and must be a development priority.”

• citizens “can conserve water through simple practices such as rainwater harvesting, planting drought-resistant crops, and using grey water for irrigation.” She advises governments to carry out public education campaigns to raise awareness of water conservation.
• she urges citizens and communities to be involved in decisions and actions taken in water governance and management. “It is essential that women and marginalized groups have a voice—all stakeholders must have a seat at the table.”

With the water conference over, Ms. MacAlister says water security need not be an issue for one news cycle. “ We've been aware of water security issues since the 80s; we have been aware of water management issues and water insecurity in Africa for much longer. Why is it still an issue?

“ There is a drought or a famine or a catastrophic event, and it makes the news, but then what happens afterward? We need to do more than just raise the issue. We need to take action.”

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Solving the water crisis is key to climate action and sustainable development

COVID-19: Solving Africa’s water crisis is more urgent than ever

As the coronavirus (COVID-19) spreads through Africa, it is time to make the water crisis a core focus for our political leaders. 

Many African cities have had to take drastic measures in recent years to tackle water shortages. Cape Town’s historic shortage in 2018 is fresh in our minds. South African authorities narrowly avoided disaster by rationing drinking water to 50 liters per inhabitant per day in a city that was used to consuming large volumes of water.

That same year, Bouaké in Côte d’Ivoire received emergency financing of $8.5 million from the World Bank to cope with a serious water shortage. The intervention solved the shortage by building two compact water treatment plants, boring and fitting 20 new wells, rehabilitating 82 hand pumps in the villages connected to the city’s water system, and distributing safe water by water tankers.

Water, sanitation and hygiene central to the COVID-19 crisis

The World Health Organization’s number one recommended protective measure against the coronavirus is to wash hands frequently with soap. Ensuring the availability of safe water for all is clearly vital to keep up the fight against the spread of COVID-19 and future pandemics.

Yet in Sub-Saharan Africa, nearly 63% of people in urban areas, representing the main clusters of the virus, find it hard to access basic water services and cannot wash their hands.   An estimated 70% to 80% of the region’s diseases are attributable to poor water quality. Dysentery and cholera, for example, are among the leading causes of infant mortality.

African governments have now put in place rapid response plans to combat the COVID-19 emergency. Yet most of these plans concentrate on the immediate health care response and focus less on improving access to water and sanitation, other than outfitting health centers and other public places with handwashing facilities.

Rapid urbanization calls for sustainable solutions to improve access

The crucial issue of access to safe water is especially important in a region facing rapid urban growth. By 2050, over 1.6 billion Africans will be living in cities and urban slums.   The coming years will see populations doubling in some 100 major cities. Some, such as Lagos in Nigeria, with its 23 million inhabitants today, and Kinshasa in the Democratic Republic of Congo, with 12 million, are megalopolises already. The world will also see other pandemics. And climate change will increase the episodes of drought.

Hence it is vital for African governments to put strategies in place, earmark part of their budget, and develop policies to supply water, sanitation, and hygiene services for all their people. A number of solutions are available to them:

• Increase investments in water and sanitation:  To meet Sustainable Development Goal 6 , Africa will need to invest massively in the water and sanitation sectors over the next 10 years. Some $10-15 billion a year will be needed to supply the entire population with safe drinking water and provide basic sanitation service. Currently, African countries allocate no more than 0.5% of their GDP to the sector and invest only a very small proportion of international assistance in this area.
• Guarantee the financial viability of water utilities:  A recent World Bank study on the performance of water supply services in Africa finds that half of the region’s utilities do not have the revenues to cover their operation and maintenance costs. Countries urgently need to build up the operational capacities and resilience of both public and private utilities to be able to supply sufficient volumes of high-quality water.  And they need to do this at a politically and socially acceptable tariff while remaining financially viable.
• Re-use wastewater:  For many countries, wastewater management has become an important way to meet the demand for water, especially around urban areas where market gardens are being developed and providing vital food supplies to city residents. In Israel for example, 91% of wastewater is treated, and 71% of it is then used to irrigate crops. In African countries, however, just 10% of wastewater is treated. An increase in the reuse of it to irrigate cropland could secure the region's food security as countries apply circular economy approaches to water security.

Today’s historic health crisis will deal a long-term blow to the global economy, but it will hit the fragile African economies even harder. The faster these economies respond, the more resilient they will become. A sustainable response to COVID-19 and the pandemics that will follow must include a focus on water and sanitation.

• COVID-19 (coronavirus)

Senior Water & Sanitation Specialist

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Water Resilience in a Changing Urban Context:  Africa's Challenge and Pathways for Action

This Report is part of Urban Water Resilience Initiative within Freshwater , WRI Ross Center for Sustainable Cities , Climate Resilience Practice , Water Security , and Urban Development . Reach out to an Initiative Expert for more information.

Cities in Africa face escalating water-related challenges, compounded by worsening climate change and rising urbanization. Water insecurity threatens economies, livelihoods and the health and wellbeing of billions. The answer: smart, systematic investments in urban water resilience that ensure communities have safe, reliable and affordable water; and that water resources are protected through disaster preparedness and water-sensitive infrastructure. Water Resilience in a Changing Urban Context: Africa's Challenge and Pathways for Action, demonstrates that African cities can address these challenges with a fresh approach centered on water resilience. This publication frames core challenges and major barriers that prevent water resilience in African countries. The authors, experts in water resilience, highlight the potential power of city-regions in Africa to drive transformation. It offers four priority pathways for action as a starting point for cities to build urban water resilience: 1) plan for water, 2) prioritize the most vulnerable, 3) create change at scale and 4) get finance right. Water resilience is essential to many development goals, from the Sustainable Development Goals and UN Habitat’s New Urban Agenda, to the African Union’s Agenda 2063 and the Paris Agreement.

Key Findings

Most urban areas in Africa are confronting escalating water-related challenges compounded by climate change and projected growth. Current urbanization patterns, existing water supply systems, and governance and financial models will be unable to meet the unprecedented rise in demand and increasing water-related risks.

There are approaches that can help connect local realities to basin-level issues and link action to crosscutting urban issues, such as service provision and land use. Efforts to build urban water resilience have immense potential to inform practice and move urban regions towards more resilient, equitable systems.

This report frames the challenge, the rising role for cities, and four priority pathways for urban and water-related stakeholders. It is based on an extensive literature review, key informant interviews and the authors’ collective experience working on these issues.

Four priority pathways are highlighted for action:

• Plan for water: mainstream risk-informed land management and water-sensitive urban development
• Prioritize the most vulnerable: increase equitable access to safe water and sanitation
• Create change at scale: develop innovative institutions and pursue partnerships for water resilience
• Get finance right: increase and align water-resilient investments across sectors

Ultimately, transitioning to a water-resilient city will require collaborative action and alignment across hydrologically linked regions as well as public sectors at various levels of government.

Connected to this report

Lessons from durban’s approach to water resilience, unaffordable and undrinkable: rethinking urban water access in the global south, untreated and unsafe: solving the urban sanitation crisis in the global south, as cities grow across africa, they must plan for water security, combating the coronavirus without clean water, we're grossly underestimating the world's water access crisis, 3 things cities can learn from cape town’s impending “day zero” water shut-off, water is essential to achieving ethiopia’s development goals.

Urban Water Resilience Initiative

Building sustainable, adaptive, resilient urban water systems.

Water for Sustainable Development in Ethiopia

WRI is working with partners in Ethiopia to better understand water risk, improve water-wise planning, and advance integrated water resources management toward a more sustainable and resilient development path.

Urban Development

Designing and influencing urban spaces that build resilience, improve health, and equitably connect people and opportunities. 

Scaling Urban Nature-based Solutions for Climate Adaptation in Sub-Saharan Africa

Helping urban communities develop and implement gender-responsive nature-based solutions to address water risks

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Water shortage in Africa is a deadly problem - but this innovative solution could change that

While more than 90% of Africa's agriculture is rain-fed, farmers are facing increasing rainfall variability due to climate change, say environmental experts. Image:  REUTERS/Philimon Bulawayo

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• Solar pumps collect data to monitor underground reserves of fresh water.
• The pumps' sensors record real-time data such as energy usage and pump speed, which is used to calculate groundwater extraction rates and levels.
• The technology could help tackle water scarcity and monitor water usage across the continent.

High-tech solar pumps mapping underground freshwater reservoirs across Africa are collecting data that can help prevent them running dry, according to the project's developers.

Manufactured by British social enterprise Futurepump, the solar pumps are being used by thousands of small-scale farmers in 15 African nations, including Kenya and Uganda, as a cleaner, cheaper option to diesel and gasoline-powered ones.

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The pumps' sensors record real-time data such as energy usage and pump speed in each location, which is shared with the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) to calculate groundwater extraction rates and levels.

"We fitted remote monitoring sensors on to our pumps for our own in-house reasons - for looking at their technical performance - and we've collected tens of millions of data points," said Toby Hammond, Futurepump's managing director.

"So this project is a really exciting opportunity to do something far richer with the data. We want to make it available for the good of the sector - for those advocating solar irrigation and those working to ensure sustainable water use."

Many of the world's major aquifers are stressed because too much water is being taken out for household, agricultural and industrial use and not enough surface water is seeping in to replenish the underground rock formations.

While more than 90% of Africa's agriculture is rain-fed, farmers are facing increasing rainfall variability due to climate change, say environmental experts.

To ensure food security for the continent's 1.3 billion - and growing - population, countries need to manage their water resources more efficiently, from harvesting rainwater to maintaining aquifers, or underground water basins.

Studies by the Sri Lanka-based IWMI suggest that in many regions of Africa there is still much untapped and sustainable groundwater potential - particularly if recharge from the surface is managed.

But there is a shortage of local data to develop policies.

IWMI plans to use the data from Futurepump's 4,000 pumps to calculate how much water is being extracted at any given time, which can help governments ensure it is used sustainably, with limits on extraction or a shift to less water-intensive crops.

"People often see solar pumps as 'free energy' ... They feel since it's not going to cost extra to extract more water, it can be taken," said IWMI's David Wiberg, who uses tech to make water use more efficient.

"But once you put in place an information system like this, farmers will be able to see that pumping extra amounts of water is not helping them or their neighbours grow extra crops."

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Evidence for the effectiveness of nature-based solutions to water issues in Africa

M Acreman 1,2 , A Smith 3 , L Charters 4 , D Tickner 4 , J Opperman 5 , S Acreman 6 , F Edwards 1 , P Sayers 7 and F Chivava 8

Published 7 June 2021 • © 2021 The Author(s). Published by IOP Publishing Ltd Environmental Research Letters , Volume 16 , Number 6 Citation M Acreman et al 2021 Environ. Res. Lett. 16 063007 DOI 10.1088/1748-9326/ac0210

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Author affiliations

1 UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Wallingford, United Kingdom

2 Hydro-Ecology Consulting Ltd, Wallingford, United Kingdom

3 University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom

4 WWF-UK, Woking, United Kingdom

5 WWF-US, Washington, DC, United States of America

6 University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden

7 Sayers and Partners, Watlington, United Kingdom

8 WWF—Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia

S Acreman https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5117-4447

• Received 24 February 2021
• Accepted 17 May 2021
• Published 7 June 2021

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Method : Double-anonymous Revisions: 1 Screened for originality? Yes

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There is increasing global interest in employing nature-based solutions, such as reforestation and wetland restoration, to help reduce water risks to economies and society, including water pollution, floods, droughts and water scarcity, that are likely to become worse under future climates. Africa is exposed to many such water risks. Nature-based solutions for adaptation should be designed to benefit biodiversity and can also provide multiple co-benefits, such as carbon sequestration. A systematic review of over 10 000 publications revealed 150 containing 492 quantitative case studies related to the effectiveness of nature-based solutions for downstream water quantity and water quality (including sediment load) in Africa. The solutions assessed included landscape-scale interventions and patterns (forests and natural wetlands) and site-specific interventions (constructed wetlands and urban interventions e.g. soakaways). Consistent evidence was found that nature-based solutions can improve water quality. In contrast, evidence of their effectiveness for improving downstream water resource quantity was inconsistent, with most case studies showing a decline in water yield where forests (particularly plantations of non-native species) and wetlands are present. The evidence further suggests that restoration of forests and floodplain wetlands can reduce flood risk, and their conservation can prevent future increases in risk; in contrast, this is not the case for headwater wetlands. Potential trade-offs identified include nature-based solutions reducing flood risk and pollution, whilst decreasing downstream water resource quantity. The evidence provides a scientific underpinning for policy and planning for nature-based solutions to water-related risks in Africa, though implementation will require local knowledge.

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Corrections were made to this article on 1 July 2021. The author affiliations were amended.

1. Introduction

Globally, for the period between 2001 and 2018 floods and droughts affected over three billion people and caused total economic damage of almost US$700 billion. (UNESCO 2020 ). For the period between 1995 and 2015, droughts accounted for 5% of natural disasters, affecting 1.1 billion people, killing 22 000, and causing US$100 billion in damage (UNISDR 2015 , Wallemacq and Below 2015 ). Africa is experiencing many serious water issues including floods (Di Baldassarre et al 2010 , Ekwezuo and Ezeh 2020 , Lumbroso 2020 ), droughts (Haile et al 2019 ) and river pollution (Fayiga et al 2018 ), presenting major risks to economies and societies. Furthermore, these issues may worsen in the future as the climate changes (De Wit and Stankiewicz 2006 , Douglas et al 2008 ). Seven African countries are in the recent top ten rank of countries with the highest risk of drought for combined agricultural systems of rainfed and irrigated crops (Meza et al 2020 ). Floods are associated with a 35% decrease in total and food per-capita consumption and 17 percentage point increase in extreme poverty (Azzarri and Signorelli 2020 ). Consequences will continue to impair economic development and poverty alleviation, increasing risks linked to conflict and migration (Scholes et al 2018 ).

There is increasing interest in Africa, as well as globally, in employing nature-based solutions to help address water issues (Boelee et al 2017 , Kalantari et al 2018 , Frantzeskaki et al 2019 , Seddon et al 2020 ). These can include protection and/or restoration of naturally occurring systems, such as regrowth of natural forests, removal of non-native vegetation, reconnecting floodplains with their rivers and constructed interventions, including installing green roofs and creating artificial wetlands. Past studies have shown how landscape elements, such as natural wetlands (Bullock and Acreman 2003 ) and forests (Dadson et al 2017 , Filoso et al 2017 ), can alter the hydrological cycle, and how site-based interventions, such as constructed wetlands (Kivaisi 2001 ) can be effective for wastewater treatment in developing countries.

A widely acknowledged definition of nature-based solutions, used by IUCN, is 'Actions to protect, sustainably manage, and restore natural or modified ecosystems, that address societal challenges effectively and adaptively, simultaneously providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits' (Cohen-Shacham et al 2019). In contrast, other solutions, such as dams, embankments or pipelines to transfer water between catchments often disrupt natural processes and lack biodiversity benefits. Nature-based solutions for adaptation can also produce multiple additional benefits, such as carbon sequestration (Reid et al 2006 ), thus addressing the Triple Challenge of simultaneously minimising climate change, restoring biodiversity and addressing food security and other development priorities (Baldwin-Cantello et al 2020 ). Nature-based solutions are increasingly attracting the attention of governments and non-state actors in climate, conservation and natural resource management arenas. For instance, they feature in national climate change adaptation policies in African countries (Seddon et al 2021 ). Yet, there is a lack of scientific evidence on nature-based solutions and their effectiveness, particularly in Africa (FAO 2015 ) and limited meta-analysis of available evidence; this has led to the emergence of 'popular narratives', such as in forest hydrology, that are not consistent with the best available scientific evidence (Gilmour 2014 ).

This paper presents the results of a systematic review of the available evidence for nature-based solutions to water-related risks in Africa. Systematic reviews were designed specifically to find, classify and analyse all available scientific evidence in a comprehensive, objective, transparent and repeatable manner. We focus on blue water issues of floods and water resources in rivers and aquifers (Falkenmark and Rockström 2006 ); we do not cover green water in soils and solutions such as conservation agriculture. We considered solutions at the landscape scale, (forests and natural wetlands) and site-specific scale (constructed wetlands and urban interventions). This evidence provides the basis for identifying the potential for nature-based solutions to current and future water risks in Africa and can guide policy development, strategic planning and investments.

Whilst most studies start with an assessment of past literature, reviews can vary enormously in methods employed and quality. In some cases, specific evidence may be selected to justify a pre-determined viewpoint at the exclusion of contrary evidence (Goldacre 2009 ) or interpreted in a manner to create fake science (Hopf et al 2019 ). Systematic evidence reviews provide a means of collating in a comprehensive and unbiased manner all available science to produce conclusions and summary statements supported by an audit trail back to original studies. They originated in medical research (Cook et al 1997 ), have been widely accepted as best practice to develop health policies and are now applied to environmental issues, including effectiveness of protected areas for freshwater biodiversity conservation (Acreman et al 2019 ) and impacts of riverine aggregate mining on freshwater ecosystems (Koehnken et al 2020 ).

We undertook a systematic evidence review to answer focused questions (table 1 ), by applying the preferred reporting items of systematic reviews and meta-analyses (Moher et al 2009 ) and guidance produced by the UK Government's Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Collins et al 2015 ). Our review included search and selection protocols based on the population, intervention, comparator and outcome framework (table 1 ). The search strategy, search terms and inclusion/exclusion criteria were peer-reviewed and amended before searching.

Table 1.  PICO elements.

We searched the Web of Science database (including SciELO) and Google Scholar, made requests to experts and institutions and scanned reference lists of review papers and books (termed 'snow-balling') to obtain publications containing evidence of the effectiveness of nature-based solutions in Africa. Throughout the rest of this paper, the term 'searches' refers to this activity. These searches returned a range of information including published papers and unpublished reports and brochures from conservation organisations, UN agencies and development banks. Some documents referred to more than one study area or water metric (e.g. nitrate concentration or flood peak magnitude); these were each recorded as separate case studies. Only those containing primary quantitative evidence related to the effectiveness of nature-based solutions to downstream water issues (floods, water quality, water resource quantity) were retained. This meant rejecting other documents that reported the same study results. We also rejected publications that reported confounding factors, which precluded unambiguous, firm conclusions; for example where recorded hydrological changes could have resulted either from deforestation or from concurrent urban development. Documents that reported other hydrological metrics, such as evaporation or infiltration rates, from which floods or water resource quantity had to be inferred, were also discarded. Furthermore, we rejected documents recording metrics downstream of wetlands or forests that lacked comparative data for reference sites (without wetlands or forests) or before interventions. The exception to this was for process studies that clearly demonstrated the link between interventions and hydrological metrics, particularly related to groundwaters. Modelling studies not supported by data were excluded from the review. However, studies were included where pre-intervention reference conditions were simulated using a model, but where post-intervention data were employed. Because we were primarily interested in local and landscape-scale effects of nature-based solutions, the review excluded studies of regional or continental processes, such as deforestation in the tropics altering the hydrology of higher latitudes. Key information was recorded for each case study (table 2 ).

Table 2.  Meta-data collected for each case study.

Water resource quantity metrics were of three types: 'annual flow volume', 'dry season flow volume', 'wet season flow volume'. The flood metrics are predominantly peak flow during flood events. Water quality metrics were primarily percentage removal of pollutants (e.g. nutrients, biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), cadmium, zinc, pharmaceuticals, coliforms, petroleum products and sediment).

In this paper we use the term afforestation to refer to planting of trees where the species would not have occurred naturally, such as use of non-native species or planting any species on land that would have been grassland in the past. We use reforestation to refer to planting of native trees where they would have existed or allowing natural regrowth of native trees.

3. Overall results

The searches returned 10 633 publications. After applying inclusion/exclusion criteria, we were left with 150 publications containing 492 case studies from across Africa (table 3 ), all meta-data for which are provided in the supplementary file (available online at stacks.iop.org/ERL/16/063007/mmedia ). Only 13 case studies were explicitly referred to by the authors as 'nature-based solutions', five were urban and eight rural. They covered a range of intervention types, such sustainable urban drainage.

Table 3.  Numbers of case studies in African countries.

Of the 133 forest case studies, 50 were of native forests, 45 related to non-native forests, whilst 14 were mixed native and non-native. In 24 forest case studies the forest type was not specified. These 133 case studies reported mainly downstream water resource quantity metrics, though a small number reported impacts on floods and sediment loads.

Afforestation case studies totalled 35, with 31 explicitly planting non-native trees, two planting a mix of native and non-native and in two cases the tree species were not specified. Only two studies involved reforestation. Deforestation case studies totalled 92 studies, with 50 involving removal of native trees, 10 removal of non-native trees, 12 removal of mixed tree species, whilst in 20 case studies the tree species were unspecified.

The 144 natural wetland case studies reported a range of water resource quantity and quality parameters and groundwater interactions. The 202 constructed wetland case studies only reported water quality parameters comparing input concentrations of pollutants with outputs from the wetland to calculate effectiveness of removal.

In the following sections we present the numbers of case studies grouped according to different associations between land cover and hydrological metrics; we also provide graphs of the associations. The cases studies of various species, at different scales and employing a range of analysis techniques and method of inference. Furthermore, the majority were single observational studies rather than experimentally designed with replicates, and few provided statistical significance of their results. Therefore, we avoid making definitive conclusions but indicate tendencies in the evidence found.

4. Hydrological response to forest

4.1. forests and water resource quantity.

Of the 133 case studies involving forests, 97 reported effects on downstream surface water resource quantity. Most (32 of the 35) afforestation case studies showed decreased downstream surface water quantity, with 30 non-native species examples and two mixed forest types (figure 1 ). Most studies were for a single time period, and only a few reported flow changes at different stages of tree growth. For example, after replanting of pine trees (following clear-felling and flow increases) in Jonkershoek, South Africa, flows reduced to preclearing levels within 12 years, with the peak decrease after 20 years; thereafter the reduction was less (Scott et al 2000 ). The two reforestation case studies in Ethiopia were of exclosures that allowed natural tree regrowth, without replanting; they reported a significant decrease in runoff generation, which continued for 20 years (Descheemaeker et al 2006 ).

Figure 1.  Numbers of case studies reporting changes in downstream surface water resource quantity (increase, neutral or decrease) under deforestation (left) and afforestation (centre) and reforestation (right). Case studies of native forest studies are shown as triangles, non-native forest studies as circles, mixed forest studies as diamonds and unspecified forest studies as squares. 'annual' indicates mean annual flow was measured, whereas 'dry' and 'wet' refer to the season that flows were recorded.

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Deforestation was reported to increase downstream surface water resource quantity, in almost 60% (35 of 59) of case studies. Most studies considered only one time period, so changes in hydrological impact over time were not present, but studies directly after deforestation showed effects were immediate. Of these 35, 15 case studies concerned native species, 11 non-native, three mixed species and six unspecified. Almost one third (19 of 59) of deforestation case studies reported decreased surface water quantity. Of the 19, eight were native species studies, one non-native, five mixed and five unspecified. Of the case studies reporting dry season flows, just of over half (8 of 15) recorded a decrease following deforestation, whilst 40% (6 of 15) recorded an increase. Considering only studies of native or mixed forests, twice as many (8) showed a decrease in dry season flows in response to deforestation as those that showed an increase (4).

A subset of case studies reported the percentage changes in water resources. Of these, more than 70% (17 of 24) of the case studies of afforestation show decreases in surface water resource quantity of greater than 60%. Changes were less consistent for deforestation. Most (7 of 8) case studies of native tree deforestation reported increased water quantity of greater than 80%, with one reporting a decrease of over 80%. Almost half (13 of 28) of the case studies of non-native deforestation (e.g. Scott et al 2000 ) showed increases in water quantity of greater than 40%, whereas one third (9 of 28) show decreases.

A few studies showed maps of forest cover change, which were distributed across the catchment, but most simply reported the percentage change within the catchment. Therefore, it was not possible to assess the differing impacts of forest change in different locations, such as in headwaters or along the main channel. All case studies reported at a single measuring point at the outlet of the catchment under study, so it was not possible to determine how changes in water resources might propagate downstream.

Figure 2 shows the percentage change in surface water resource quantity for a given change in percentage of the catchment forested for the subset of the case studies that reported both values. The maximum decrease in surface water quantity from deforestation was 50% from clear-felling native trees in Tanzania (Lundgren 1980 ), though this was from a micro-plot study of 12 m 2 . In contrast, several studies reported 100% decrease (drying of the river) from afforestation. The general trend was for increasing water resource quantity as the percentage of the catchment covered by forests decreases and decreasing water resource quantity as the percentage of the catchment forested area increased. Changes in water resource quantity were generally greater for non-native than for native species. Case studies covered a range of ecoregions and forest types found in Africa, but two types found on the continent and not represented in the literature were tropical rainforests and cloud forests. There was no clear pattern of the direction of change in water resource quantity with native forest type or ecoregion (table 4 ).

Figure 2.  Relationship between change in forest cover (% of catchment area) and change in downstream surface water resource quantity (%). The vertical axis is truncated at 250% to aid visualisation of lower values, which excludes the four most extreme increases in resource quantity due to deforestation (maximum 3450%).

Table 4.  Type of native forests (ecoregion from Olson et al 2001 ) in case studies of deforestation impacts on water resource quantity Reproduced with permission from Olson et al ( 2001 ). CC BY-NC 3.0 .

4.2. Forests and floods

The 20 case studies of flood response to changes in forest cover were from a range of catchment sizes from >17000 km 2 to <1 km 2 and show a diverse pattern of responses. Three quarters (12 of 16) of deforestation case studies reported an increase in downstream flood peak flow (e.g. Mumeka 1986 ), whilst three showed no effect (e.g. Mwendera 1994 ). The afforestation case studies reported increases (1 of 4), decreases (1 of 4) and no effect (2 of 4) on flood magnitude. Sub-dividing the case studies into native and non-native did not reveal strong trends, partly due to the small numbers of studies.

The ten case studies providing numerical values for percentage change in flood magnitude and percentage in catchment area forested are shown in figure 3 ; there were no studies providing quantitative results of afforestation effects on floods. Although data were limited, they suggested that greater deforestation was associated with a greater increase in flood magnitude.

Figure 3.  Relationship between change in forest cover (%) and change in flood magnitude (%). The horizontal axis shows negative value for deforestation.

Most case studies reported flood metrics at a single time period after deforestation. One exception was in Kapchorwa, Kenya, where the conversion from forest to agricultural land in the first 5 years caused half of the total increases in flood discharge (Recha et al 2012 ).

4.3. Forests and sediment yield

There were 11 case studies of change in sediment yield in response to alterations in forest cover. Most (9 of 11) case studies indicated that deforestation was associated with increases in sediment yield downstream and one showed decreasing sediment yield with afforestation. One study reported higher sediment loads in naturally forested catchment than a savannah catchment in the Congo (Coynel et al 2005 ), but sediment concentrations from both catchments were very low, so the difference may not be significant.

Only 5 of the 11 case studies reported the percentage change in sediment yield and percentage in catchment area forested (figure 4 ). Their data suggested sediment yield increases with decreasing forest cover, with up to a four-fold increase in sediment following clear-felling.

Figure 4.  Relationship between change in forest cover (%) and sediment yield (%). The horizontal axis shows negative value for deforestation and positive for afforestation Reproduced with permission from Olson et al ( 2001 ). CC BY-NC 3.0 .

5. Hydrological response to natural wetlands

5.1. classification of natural wetlands.

The searches returned 144 case studies reporting changes to water metrics associated with the presence of natural wetlands within catchments ranging in size from >300 000 km 2 to <1 km 2 . Although a range of wetland types was represented (characterised by different vegetation and soils), the vast majority were referred to by the authors as one of two types: (a) headwater wetlands including dambos and headwater peat swamps and (b) floodplains including lowland papyrus wetlands, inland deltas and lowland valley swamps. Catchment location is a long-standing simple method of classifying wetlands for functional assessment (Novitski 1978 ). Three case studies involved a statistical analysis of many wetlands of various types, but the remaining 141 studies were divided into the two broad categories: headwater wetlands and floodplains.

Most case studies recorded metrics immediately downstream of the wetland, compared to immediately upstream or on a similar catchment without a wetland. A few studies used chemical tracers to define hydrological processes. All case studies reported at a single measuring point, none reported changes in metrics at different distances downstream, so it was not possible to determine how an effect might propagate downstream. No case studies reported how metrics varied over time or with different types of wetland management, such as grazing or drainage.

5.2. Natural wetlands and water resource quantity

The 52 case studies reporting surface water resource quantity metrics that could be classified as headwater or floodplain are shown in figure 5 . Most (32 of 52) reported dry season flows, some (17 of 52) reported annual total flows and a few (3 of 52) reported wet season flows. Just over half of the studies (28 of 52) reported that wetlands (of both types) were associated with reduced surface water resources downstream, with less than a fifth (9 of 52) reporting an increase in surface water resources. Of these, most (8 of 9) were floodplains. For example, floodplains were associated with increased dry season flows on the White Volta River, Ghana (Nyarkoa et al 2013 ). In detailed studies of dambo headwater wetlands in Zimbabwe, it was found that dry season depletion of water is dominated by high evaporation from open water and emergent vegetation, thus limiting contributions to downstream river flow (McCartney and Neal 1999 ). Similarly, the water balances of large floodplains (Senegal, Sudd, Niger and Okavango) were dominated by high evaporation (Sutcliffe and Parks 1989 ). The one study reporting an increase in downstream water resource quantity from a headwater wetland in Zambia was for the wet season (Balek and Perry 1973 ).

Figure 5.  Numbers of case studies reporting changes in surface water resource quantity associated with the presence of natural headwater wetlands and floodplains for different flow metrics.

5.3. Natural wetlands and floods

Of the 38 natural wetland case studies reporting flood metrics, two multiple wetland studies reported increases in small floods in the presence of wetlands. The other 36, of which 15 were studies of headwater wetlands and 21 were studies of floodplains, are shown in figure 6 . Almost all (20 of 21) of the floodplain studies reported a decrease in flood magnitude; the one that reported no effect was perhaps due to the small size of wetland (Lacombe and McCartney 2016 ).

Figure 6.  Numbers of case studies reporting changes in flood magnitude resulting from the presence of natural headwater wetlands and floodplains. Case studies of small flood magnitude are shown as small white drips, whilst studies of large floods are shown as large black drips.

In contrast, almost three quarters (11 of 15) of headwater wetlands studies showed increased floods associated with their presence, whilst three report no effect. The only case study reporting a decrease in flood magnitude with a headwater wetland present is of a dambo in Malawi (Smith-Carrington 1983 ); even here there was an apparent duality as the dambo increased flood runoff initially after rainfall before buffering the peak flow. Detailed studies of dambos undertaken in Zimbabwe (McCartney 2000 ) concluded that these headwater wetlands had a small capacity to absorb rainfall at the start of the wet season, when water table levels were low, but soon became saturated and contributed to flood runoff thereafter.

5.4. Natural wetlands and groundwater

Twenty case studies investigated interactions between natural wetlands and underlying aquifers. Of these, 13 assessed groundwater recharge, with nine finding recharge occurred including floodplains of the Senegal River (Hollis 1996 ) and Komoguge–Yobe River, Nigeria (Goes 1999 ); four found recharge did not occur. Seven case studies assessed whether wetlands were groundwater discharge sites; five reported discharge occurred, whilst two reported it did not occur. Overall, the interaction between wetlands and underlying aquifers was site specific and no generalisations can be made from the evidence reported in our case studies.

5.5. Natural wetlands and water quality

Three case studies of natural wetlands reported changes to sediment in downstream water courses. All reported decreases; two reported −70.0% and −79.1%, the third study did not provide data. Seven case studies of natural wetlands reported changes to total nitrogen in downstream water course; all were decreases. Five of these reported numerical values, which ranged from −33.0% to −53.0%. Six case studies of natural wetlands reported changes to total phosphorus in downstream water courses; three reported decreases from −5.0% to −50.0%, one study of Natete wetland, Uganda (Kanyiginya et al 2010 ) reported an increase due possibly to remobilisation of phosphorus from sediments. Eight case studies of natural wetlands reported changes in heavy metals (cadmium, copper, iron, lead, manganese, uranium and zinc) in downstream water courses; all were decreases ranging from −61% to full removal (−100%).

6. Hydrological response to constructed wetland interventions

The searches produced 202 case studies reporting changes to water metrics resulting from the construction of wetlands. Metrics included sediment, ammonia, nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus), BOD, COD, heavy metals (e.g. cadmium, lead, zinc, copper, iron, manganese, mercury), oil and grease, Escherichia coli , parasite eggs, Salmonellae and faecal coliforms. All case studies reported reductions in these metrics. Many case studies were concerned with the relative removal rates of pollutants from different designs of constructed wetlands or types of vegetation employed.

Figures 7 and 8 show some relationship between effectiveness of pollutant removal and wetland size. As catchment area is not a relevant variable, to compare case studies, the wetland size (m 2 ) was standardised by the input flow rate (m 3 d −1 ). There was a tendency towards improved pollutant removal with larger wetlands.

Figure 7.  Changes in BOD and COD with wetland size (as a function of input flow rate).

Figure 8.  Changes in heavy metals and suspended sediment with wetland size (as a function of input flow rate).

7. Hydrological response to other nature-based interventions

The searches returned 1218 publications referring explicitly to nature-based solutions, that tended to be constructed interventions rather than restoration of naturally occurring systems. These included green roofs, sustainable urban drainage and river channel restoration. However, the vast majority focused on direct and local water/climate impacts such as reducing temperatures, draining flood water or collecting water for public use or agriculture. Only nine publications provided quantitative results of impacts on downstream floods, water resource quantity or water pollution, yielding 13 case studies.

Three case studies of greenways linking cities and forests reported reduced runoff coefficients, reduced flood risk, and increased replenishment of subterranean water sources (Sy et al 2014 ). Three case studies of sustainable urban drainage, including semi-vegetated channels, soakaways and miniature bio-retention areas, showed reductions in nitrate, phosphate and COP (Fitchett 2017 ).

8. Discussion

8.1. utility of the database.

Most analyses of nature-based solutions have been based on case studies in north America or Europe (e.g. Kabisch et al 2017 ) and previous reviews have found only a few studies in Africa (Hanson et al 2017 ). However, the current review has revealed 492 case studies undertaken in African countries. It significantly extends existing databases, such as the global review of nature-based solutions for climate change adaptation (Chausson et al 2020 ), which contains 16 examples addressing water issues in Africa.

The conclusions drawn in this paper are based upon the results of studies found in the searches. We recognise the danger of over-generalisation and implying cause-effect, so use terms such 'generally associated with' to convey the balance of scientific evidence found. Forest and wetland land classes cover a vast range of ecosystem types, which do not necessarily work hydrologically in the same way, so results cannot always be transferred between types. Furthermore, Africa is very diverse in terms of climate, geology, topography, soils and other characteristics, such that the hydrological response to land cover alterations will vary in different settings, so local data and scientific understanding are vital to underpin local decisions and actions (Bullock and Acreman 2003 ).

Although it cannot replace robust context-specific analysis, the evidence for hydrological response to afforestation, reforestation and deforestation provides general guidance for the effectiveness of removing or planting trees or allowing forest regrowth. The action of restoring forests is associated with reduced risks from floods and sediment loads but often also reduced water resource quantities, potentially increasing risks of downstream water scarcity. A notable limitation of the current review was the lack of studies of tropical rain forests, particularly cloud forests, especially compared to the many studies in Amazonia (Chishugi et al 2017 ). Many of the forest studies were of deforestation and there were few of native forest restoration (reforestation). This is a significant research gap. However, if a nature-based solution involves restoration of natural forests, results of studies of deforestation of native trees could be used 'in reverse' to some extent, to assess the potential effects of reforestation, such as reduced sediment delivery in forested areas. However, outcomes may depend on the restoration process, as tree planting, for example, may cause some soil erosion or compaction in the short term, whereas natural regeneration may avoid this issue.

The evidence that forests, particularly non-native trees, can reduce water resource quantity supports the action of removing alien trees as a nature-based solution. This is consistent with the studies in South Africa (Van Wilgen et al 2012 , 2020 , Le Maitre et al 2016 ) that have demonstrated the detrimental impacts of alien species, including reductions in water resources, which underpins non-native vegetation removal as a nature-based solution within the Working for Wetlands programme supported by the South African government. Careful practices can avoid side-effects of vegetation removal, such as soil erosion or soil compaction. It should further be noted that planting any trees, whether native or not, in areas not naturally forested, e.g. in grasslands, or savannas, would not meet the IUCN definition of a nature-based solution as it could have negative impacts on biodiversity.

Whilst the presence of headwater wetlands is associated with larger downstream floods than when they are absent, the implication for a nature-based solution is not clear because headwater wetlands cannot readily be created or removed and there is little evidence on the effects of altered management (see section 8.5 ). In contrast, many floodplains have effectively been lost by building of embankments that separate floodplains from their rivers or dredging the river to increase its depth. The results of floodplain case studies can be used to assess flood risk reduction from reconnecting floodplains with their rivers, such as by removing embankments (e.g. Acreman et al 2003 ), though this may also reduce downstream water resource quantity.

We have classified the change in water metrics simply as increase, decrease or unchanged (with quantitative values given where available). The societal implications of metric change will depend on many factors, such as the vulnerability of people to increases in flood flows in a river and the type of local water resource management infrastructure. For example, water supplies reliant on direct river abstraction will be vulnerable to during dry seasons, whereas annual flow volumes will be more critical for water supplied from reservoirs. Furthermore, flooding in the wrong place, e.g. homes, factories, hospitals and most agricultural land, is seen as negative, but in the right place floods can be very beneficial to African people, such as supporting floodplain fisheries and flood-recession agriculture (Acreman 1996 ).

We focus this review on blue water issues and did not cover green water, i.e. water in soils and vegetation, for which a wider set of nature-based solutions exist such as conservation agriculture (e.g. Assefa et al 2019 ). We recognise the need to consider all types of water on the planet—in the atmosphere, soil, surface water, ground water and ice (Gleeson et al 2020 )—in relation to global limits to anthropogenic water cycle modifications (Zipper et al 2020 )

Finally, it should be noted that we did not attempt to address nature-based solutions in coastal or marine environments, although we recognise that coastal ecosystems, such as saltmarshes, mangroves and reefs, can play a vital role in protecting from coastal flooding, erosion and salt water intrusion.

8.2. Comparison of results with other reviews

The evidence found from the searches is consistent with previous reviews. A systematic review of impacts of forest restoration on water yield (Filoso et al 2017 ) found that most studies reported a decrease in water yield resulting from an increase in forest area, including regrowth of native trees. In a general global assessment (Farley et al 2005 ), annual runoff was found to be reduced on average by 44% (±3%) and 31% (±2%) when grasslands and shrublands were afforested, respectively. To observe increases in low-flows following tree planting, the increase in evaporation must be smaller than the increase in infiltration—the 'infiltration trade-off hypothesis' (Bruijnzeel 2004 ); evidence outside Africa shows that this may occur only in limited cases for specific tree species, soil types, soil conditions (degraded or compacted), initial vegetation types and climate conditions (e.g. Bonell et al 2010 , Roa-Garcia et al 2011 , Zhang et al 2019 ). As noted above, we found in Africa that 8 out of 12 studies of deforestation of native or mixed forests resulted in decreases in dry season flow. Planting of fast-growing non-native species, such as eucalyptus and pines, has been widely reported to reduce water yield (Smith et al 2017 , Chausson et al 2020 ). We found strong evidence of this in Africa. Eucalyptus trees are known to be high water users as their deep roots can continue to take up water as they lower the water table (Calder et al 1993 ). The high water use of trees has been incorporated within water policy in South Africa, where afforestation is classified as a Streamflow Reduction Activity (SFRA) under the National Water Act of 1998 (Gush et al 2002 ), such that no forestry can be practiced without an SFRA licence (Edwards and Roberts 2006 ). The IPBES report on land degradation and restoration (Scholes et al 2018 ) reported that land degradation through loss of biodiversity can increase flood risk and soil erosion and also that planting trees in previously non-forested areas, such as grasslands and savannahs can result in loss of water yield.

Previous reviews have found that at small spatial scales (<20 km 2 ) forests can reduce flood flows, but not for the most extreme floods, and measured data for impacts in larger catchments (>100 km 2 ) are lacking (Dadson et al 2017 ). Stratford et al ( 2017 ) also found that studies of forest cover changes on large catchments were limited to modelling due to lack of empirical data.

A review of evidence of the role of wetlands in hydrological cycles (Bullock and Acreman 2003 ) and follow-up research (Acreman and Holden 2013 ) concluded that the relationship between wetlands and floods depends largely on available water storage. Catchments containing headwater wetlands, such as dambos in Africa, have greater floods than catchments without headwater wetlands. This is because the combination of rainfall, topography and soils leads to ground saturation at the start of the wet season simultaneously creating wetlands and generating rapid runoff (McCartney 2000 ). In contrast, downstream floodplains reduce floods as they tend to be dry before floods and have large storage volumes. The evidence we found from Africa was consistent with these findings.

A review of the potential for constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment and reuse in developing countries (Kivaisi 2001 ) found these to be effective and efficient for wastewater treatment, and additionally they are low cost, easily operated and maintained, and have a strong potential for application in developing countries, particularly by small rural communities. African case studies support this finding.

8.3. Forest types for which no studies were found in Africa

Some forest types for which case studies were lacking in Africa, including tropical rainforests and cloud forests, have been investigated elsewhere, although results may not be readily transferable because, for example, the climate of African rainforests is, on average, much drier than rainforests on other continents (Malhi et al 2013 ). For tropical forests, analysis by Bruijnzeel ( 1989 , 1990 , 2004 ) concluded that deforestation and conversion to annual cropping or grazing is generally followed by increased surface runoff during the wet season, and often by increased base flow water yield, though this is not always the case. Sometimes dry season streamflows decrease in catchments with extensive deforestation. Bruijnzeel ( 2004 ) concluded that this may be due to a higher proportion of impermeable surfaces within the catchment due to development (including urban areas), or to compaction and degradation of soils during deforestation or subsequent agricultural use, rather than loss of the trees per se .

Some studies show that evapotranspiration in cloud forests is low and large amounts of water are captured by trees from fog, which can make a significant contribution to water yield downstream (e.g. Gomez-Peralta et al 2008 ). Other studies have recorded a loss of water yield downstream following cloud forest clearance (López‐Ramírez et al 2020 ). However, it is difficult to draw generic conclusions due to a complex dependency on local climate and other factors. A Mexican cloud forest at the drier end of the spectrum, with higher evapotranspiration and lower cloud water capture, had lower annual water yield than an adjacent catchment that was converted to pasture but higher dry season base flows, as well as lower runoff during storm events (Bruijnzeel et al 2011 , Asbjornsen et al 2017 ); while conversion of cloud forest to pasture in northern Costa Rica had little effect on streamflow, although local storm flows were doubled (Bruijnzeel et al 2010 ). Extrapolation of results from elsewhere to Africa is thus extremely difficult. Sáenz and Mulligan ( 2013 ) used computer models to explore the role of cloud-affected forests in African river basins containing dams but did not explore the impact of forest loss in the delivery of water.

8.4. Comparison with modelling studies

In the absence of direct measurements of the effects of deforestation and afforestation, particularly at large scale, researchers have turned to the use of mathematical computer models. Modelling of catchments in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Brazil and Tanzania (miombo woodland) found that the impacts of forest removal are highly seasonal; whilst typically increasing mean annual water yield, dry-season flows can decrease depending on pre- and post-forest removal surface conditions and groundwater response times (Peña-Arancibia et al 2019 ). Modelling of reforestation in Brazil generally decreased water quantity throughout the whole basin, though increases were noted in some parts of the basin (Ferreira et al 2019 ). Computer simulated deforestation of the Amazon region more generally could reduce discharge by 6%–36% (Stickler et al 2013 ). None of these model predictions were tested with observed data.

8.5. Management interventions

Most case studies of wetlands and a few of forests found for Africa concerned the presence or absence of features or interventions compared with a reference catchment, e.g. wetland v. no wetland, forest v. grassland. Associated management of forests and wetlands, such as pre-afforestation ploughing, thinning of trees or removal of undergrowth and draining or heavy grazing vegetation of natural wetlands, was rarely mentioned, so their hydrological implications could not be assessed. This is a significant research gap.

Much of the current discussion of nature-based solutions has focused on the benefits and disbenefits of active planting of trees or removal of non-native species. The evidence suggests that protection of existing native forests and other native vegetation types (i.e. no active intervention) could be effective in preventing the increased flood risk and sedimentation that would be associated with deforestation. Also avoidance of afforestation of land that is naturally grassland or savannah can prevent water resource quantity losses.

The type of vegetation planted in constructed wetlands can play an important role in their performance. In Uganda wetlands planted with Cyperus papyrus had higher COD removal rates than those planted with Phragmities mauritianus (Okurut et al 1999 ). Likewise, in Ethiopia, the nutrient removal efficiency of Typha was higher than Phragmites australis and Scirpus (Timotewos et al 2017 ).

Some wetlands are so effective at removing nutrients that these can build-up in the wetland soil to high levels and exceed the concentrations in the water input, therefore turning the wetland from a sink to a source. Because of this, water exiting the Natete wetland, Uganda, was found to have higher phosphorous than water entering (Kanyiginya et al 2010 ). This can be alleviated by periodical mechanical removal of sediment from the wetland.

8.6. Spatial and temporal aspects of nature-based solutions

Most studies found in this review reported downstream hydrological changes for specific single periods, so it was generally not possible to assess the evolution of effects over long periods. This is another research gap. Only a few studies reported how flow reductions resulting from afforestation varied with the age of the trees, such as the continued reduction in flows for 20 years after planting of pine trees in South Africa (Scott et al 2000 ). Similarly, most studies using flood metrics reported a single time period after deforestation. One exception was in Kapchorwa, Kenya, where the conversion from forest to agricultural land in the first five years caused about half of the total observed increases in discharge in relation to rainfall (Recha et al 2012 ).

In case studies of constructed wetlands, residence time was reported as important. For example, the effectiveness of COD reduction increased as retention times increased from 0.5 to 5 days in Arusha, Tanzania (Mtavangu et al 2017 ).

No studies reported hydrological metrics for more than one location, so it was not possible to assess the changes upstream or downstream of this point. Forest cover was usually reported as a percentage change across the catchment so neither the specific location of changes in forest cover (e.g. headwaters) nor an index of fragmentation could be defined. The only exceptions were case studies reporting clear-felling.

8.7. Inter-catchment and regional scale impacts of nature-based solutions

Whilst this review focuses only on the direct downstream hydrological implications of water-related nature-based solutions, hydro-meteorological models have been employed to study water circulation at regional and global scales. For example, regional scale evaporation from agricultural activities and irrigation in the Sahel and Nile basin have been shown to increase moisture supply to the Yangtze, Yensisei, and Niger basins (Wang-Erlandsson et al 2018 ). Furthermore, deforestation of tropical regions has been reported to significantly affect precipitation at mid- and high latitudes (Avissar and Worth 2005 ). Results vary according to the scale of analysis; whilst deforestation within the Xingu River basin (a tributary of the Amazon) increased discharge locally, deforestation across the whole Amazon region reduced rainfall, decreasing discharge within the basin (Strickler et al 2013). It has been suggested that evaporation from the Sudd wetlands in South Sudan is important for rainfall generation in the Ethiopian Highlands (Hurst 1938 ). However, it has been argued more recently that the impact of Sudd evaporation on the regional hydrological budget of the Nile Basin is insignificant compared to the inter-annual rainfall variability, owing to the relatively small area covered by the wetland (Mohamed et al 2006 ).

9. Knowledge gaps

Previous authors have identified knowledge gaps on the effectiveness of nature-based solutions, especially on trade-offs and synergies concerning water management, biodiversity, human health, social and economic issues (Kabisch et al 2017 ), and on case studies in the Global South, as well as comparisons with non-nature-based alternatives (Chausson et al 2020 ). Most studies of changes in forest cover in Africa have been of commercial non-native species; more work on reforestation using native species is required. Published studies tend to describe binary situations, i.e. with/without interventions, and there is little information on the impacts of management, such as changing water levels within wetlands. More work is also needed on effects of the location and scale of nature-based solutions within catchments and how any resultant hydrological alterations may vary in space and time.

Many nature-based solutions are forms of naturalising engineering (rather than engineering nature), including green roofs and sustainable urban drainage. Only a few examples were found for Africa that assessed impacts of these types of intervention on downstream water metrics. No studies assessed the benefits of integrating nature-based solutions with traditional engineering approaches, such as using embankments, sluice gates and weirs to enhance floodplain flood water retention.

Key topics for future research include:

• hydrological effects of native forest protection and reforestation, including cloud forests and rainforests, and native savannah restoration
• effects of management such as grazing, drainage, tree thinning, undergrowth removal
• effects of the location of nature-based solutions within a catchment
• monitoring downstream at various locations to assess propagation of effects
• long term monitoring to assess changes over time following interventions, including seasonal and inter-annual variability
• studies of channel restoration, including reintroduction of meanders and woody debris, reconnection of rivers and floodplains
• continental scale assessment of hydrological effects beyond the catchment of interventions
• effects of combining nature-based solutions with traditional engineering solutions, including sustainable drainage systems, and other water management interventions.

10. Conclusions

This review considered evidence related to nature-based solutions to water risks in terrestrial and freshwater environments across Africa. It found 10 633 publications related to this topic. Of these, 150 reported primary empirical information on the effectiveness of water-related nature-based solutions, generating 492 case studies with a wide distribution across Africa. In general, forests and floodplain wetlands provide a potential nature-based solution for reducing floods and sediment generation, whilst constructed wetlands readily reduce water pollution. Generally, the presence of headwater wetlands and non-native forests was associated with reduced water resource quantity downstream, whilst the evidence is inconsistent for native forests, and there is a lack of evidence in Africa for cloud forests and tropical rainforests. Although there is a need for more studies, including more information on temporal and spatial scales of effects, the results from these publications collectively provide a basis for assessing the likely effectiveness of different nature-based solutions to water risk issues that can support policy and planning decisions.

A strategic approach to landscape or catchment management should consider all potential benefits and disbenefits of nature-based solutions, including water and non-water issues, such as carbon sequestration, food and fuel supply, as well as intrinsic benefits in terms of biodiversity and cultural value. However, local policy and management decisions should ideally be based on finer-scale, context-specific analysis using local knowledge. Our review can provide a guiding frame for such an analysis but should not be a substitute for it. Decisions should also be guided by socio-economic, cultural and political considerations as much as by an understanding of the biophysical dynamics of landscapes and catchments. Stakeholder views will be especially important in influencing policy and management decisions. Even so, an understanding of biophysical dynamics, including this review, can help to draw up potential portfolios of solutions and can provide foundational inputs to the policy discourse.

Acknowledgments

Funding for this work was provided by ABInBev via WWF-UK, and by WWF-Denmark. Prof Acreman acknowledges a research fellowship at the UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology. Dr Edwards was supported by the UK Research and Innovation Economic and Social Research Council [ES/P011373/1] as part of the Global Challenges Research Fund.

Data availability statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available upon request from the lead author.

The data that support the findings of this study are available upon reasonable request from the authors.

Supplementary data

5 Sustainable Clean Water Solutions to The Water Crisis in Africa

• Roger Dunneback
• December 3, 2021

There are a lot of epidemics going on in Africa. While poverty is at the forefront of these problems, there seems to be another which is prevalent but mostly overlooked. This is the lack and access to clean water in Africa. Poverty might not be easily eliminated, but the water crisis in Africa is a solvable issue. Here are five sustainable clean water solutions to the water crisis in Africa.

1. Desalination

Since most African countries are surrounded by salty bodies of water that are not consumable, desalination to solve the global water crisis is the latest proposition. The desalination process involves the removal of saltwater from seawater, to make it fit for human use. It is a sustainable and eco-friendly solution to providing clean water, as opposed to building dams. However, it is a very expensive project but provides an immediate solution to water scarcity in Africa.

2. Rain Catchment Tanks

Some parts of Africa are tropical and receive rainwater frequently. Setting up a rain catchment tank is easy and sustainable to ensure that there isn’t a lack of water. This process is also known as rain harvesting and is a great water conservation method.

Rain catchment tanks serve as an immediate water source in areas where clean, tap water is very scarce. Some water tanks are capable of holding over 100,000 gallons of water, and a continuous collection of this rainwater allows for a steady supply of water all year long.

3. Sand Dams

Building sand dams is one of the most cost-effective and sustainable solutions to water scarcity in Africa. Sand dams are basically cemented walls built across a sand river to retain water. By blocking the water ladened with sand, the sand dam retains the clean water, letting the soil or sand flow out. Sand dabs are especially useful in dry areas as they provide useful water. Since sand dams can store an extremely large amount of it, it acts as a reliable supply of water to communities with no access to water.

Constructing wells is one of the easiest and least expensive solutions to the water crisis in Africa . Wells are very useful as they provide almost a lifetime of supply of water to communities, with little cost of maintenance. Also, old wells can be repaired as well to act as a means of water supply. With wells, the problem of water scarcity in Africa is reduced to a minimal level.

5. Natural Springs

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Evidence for the effectiveness of nature-based solutions to water issues in Africa

There is increasing global interest in employing nature-based solutions, such as reforestation and wetland restoration, to help reduce water risks to economies and society, including water pollution, floods, droughts and water scarcity, that are likely to become worse under future climates. Africa is exposed to many such water risks. Nature-based solutions for adaptation should be designed to benefit biodiversity and can also provide multiple co-benefits, such as carbon sequestration. A systematic review of over 10 000 publications revealed 150 containing 492 quantitative case studies related to the effectiveness of nature-based solutions for downstream water quantity and water quality (including sediment load) in Africa. The solutions assessed included landscape-scale interventions and patterns (forests and natural wetlands) and site-specific interventions (constructed wetlands and urban interventions e.g. soakaways). Consistent evidence was found that nature-based solutions can improve water quality. In contrast, evidence of their effectiveness for improving downstream water resource quantity was inconsistent, with most case studies showing a decline in water yield where forests (particularly plantations of non-native species) and wetlands are present. The evidence further suggests that restoration of forests and floodplain wetlands can reduce flood risk, and their conservation can prevent future increases in risk; in contrast, this is not the case for headwater wetlands. Potential trade-offs identified include nature-based solutions reducing flood risk and pollution, whilst decreasing downstream water resource quantity. The evidence provides a scientific underpinning for policy and planning for nature-based solutions to water-related risks in Africa, though implementation will require local knowledge.

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• Tropical-subtropical-dry and monsoon broadleaf forests
• Urban environment

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Africa to drastically accelerate progress on water, sanitation and hygiene – report, if current progress trends continue, very few african union member states may achieve universal access to safely managed drinking water, safely managed sanitation or basic hygiene services by 2030.

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DAKAR, 22 March 2022 – Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) targets on water, sanitation and hygiene in Africa will require a dramatic acceleration in the current rates of progress, according to a UNICEF/WHO special report focused on Africa, launched today at the World Water Forum in Dakar, Senegal. This special report calls for urgent action to be taken on a continent where water scarcity and weak sanitation and hygiene services can threaten peace and development.

Between 2000 and 2020, Africa’s population increased from 800 million to 1.3 billion people. About 500 million people gained access to basic drinking water and 290 million to basic sanitation services, according to a report of the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene (JMP), launched today during a session of the World Water Forum hosted by the African Ministers’ Council on Water (AMCOW) with UNICEF.

On the continent, however, 418 million people still lack even a basic level of drinking water service, 779 million lack basic sanitation services (including 208 million who still practice open defecation) and 839 million still lack basic hygiene services.

Achieving the SDG targets in Africa will require a 12-fold increase in current rates of progress on safely managed drinking water, a 20-fold increase for safely managed sanitation and a 42-fold increase for basic hygiene services, according to the report.

“Equitable access to drinking water, sanitation and hygiene is not only the foundation of health and development for children and communities. Water is life, water is development, water is peace”, said Marie-Pierre Poirier, UNICEF Regional Director for West and Central Africa. “In a time when water scarcity fuels conflicts and water points are targeted, UNICEF calls for urgent actions. We need water, sanitation and hygiene in schools, especially for girls who may miss school because there are no toilets or because they have to fetch water. Women and children need a safe access to water. As climate change puts additional pressure on resources, we need climate risk-sensitive and resilient water, sanitation and hygiene services for children and their communities. And we need it now”.

Significant inequalities persist within countries including between urban and rural, between sub-national regions and between the richest and the poorest. In urban areas, 2 out of 5 people lack safely managed drinking water, 2 out of 3 people lack safely managed sanitation, and half the population lacks basic hygiene services. In rural areas, 4 out of 5 people lack safely managed drinking water, 3 out of 4 people lack safely managed sanitation, and 7 out of 10 lack basic hygiene services. 

Worldwide, UNICEF works in over 100 countries to help provide access to safe water and reliable sanitation, and to promote basic hygiene practices in rural and urban areas, including in emergency situations. We achieve better water, sanitation and hygiene results for children by working directly with schools and healthcare facilities to improve access to these services, providing life-saving support in humanitarian settings. The creativity and commitment of community members supported as agents of change can inspire climate-related collective action, rallying around “nothing about us without us” where community members and government leaders identifying solutions to the challenges they face.

Hosted for the first time in sub-Saharan Africa on 21-26 March 2022 by Macky Sall, the President of Senegal and Chairperson of the African Union, with the support of many partners including UNICEF, the 9th World Water Forum on “Water security for peace and development” aims to provide a unique platform for the water community and decision-makers to find solutions to increase access to water and sanitation across the African continent by 2030.

For more information :

Anne-Isabelle Leclercq Balde, UNICEF West and Central Africa, [email protected] , +221 77 740 69 14

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Water a hurdle in Africa’s development - expert

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WATER, WATER EVERYWHERE BUT... The scarcity of drinkable water is denting the development of Africa as a continent

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10th May 2024

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Water scarcity poses a significant hurdle to Africa's growth and development, with climate change and deteriorating infrastructure intensifying the challenges, says advisory and analytics firm Frost & Sullivan consultant Hannro Steenekamp .

He explains that South Africa’s ongoing water crisis, where about half of Johannesburg's population of over 5.5-million people have been without water or have experienced shortages for weeks, serves as a dire warning.

“Residents often wait in long lines for government water trucks, with the supply frequently running out before reaching everyone,” he says.

This crisis highlights the urgent need for solutions and the immense opportunity for businesses and innovation to make a difference.

He points out the demand for clean water in Africa is only set to skyrocket with population growth and development projects.

The fact that 387-million people in sub-Saharan Africa lack access to essential drinking water in 2020 – up from 350-million in 2000 – demonstrates the staggering scale of need.

Moreover, as of October 2022, roughly 226-million people in Eastern and Southern Africa lacked access to essential water services, and about 381-million lacked basic sanitation.

This issue is particularly acute in nine key countries – namely Angola, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Mozambique, Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda – where 80% of the continent’s underserved people live.

Steenkamp stresses these figures highlight the vast potential market for those providing water solutions.

Conversely, government limitations in tackling the multifaceted water infrastructure challenges underline the crucial role private sector investment and innovation can play.

He suggests decentralised desalination powered by solar energy is a promising solution, particularly in remote or water-stressed communities with access to coastlines or saline aquifers.

“This technology is becoming increasingly crucial for Africa's water supply mix. Another key opportunity is investing in scalable water technology startups focused on advanced treatment solutions,” he says.

These companies lower costs, reduce energy consumption and prioritise environmental sustainability, making them crucial in addressing water shortages. ​

Finally, South Africa's severe water infrastructure challenges are a stark reality.

This presents a significant chance for the private sector to invest in maintenance, skills development, and partnerships with public institutions.

Steenkamp recommends that companies seeking these opportunities should consider bold investments in novel water technologies such as desalination and advanced water treatment.

“Collaborations with research institutions play a vital supporting role,” he adds.

Further, strategic private-public partnerships with local governments and communities will underpin the success of large-scale water projects, ensuring sustainability and long-term viability.

Moreover, earning the support of local communities is crucial, and businesses must engage closely with stakeholders, demonstrating their commitment to addressing local needs and fostering trust.

Addressing these challenges has a vast potential impact. Success in these areas could mirror the progress in Ethiopia, where over 5 000 schools have been equipped with water, sanitation and menstrual hygiene facilities since 2014.

However, he stresses the warnings are clearly indicated in instances such as Cape Town's ‘Day Zero’ crisis in 2018, or Durban's loss of 35% of its water supply to theft, which is just a glimpse of the future.

South Africa's looming water crisis, with the potential for complete water depletion by 2030, highlights the importance of urgent action, he concludes.

Frost & Sullivan is a partner for, and will be attending and speaking at, this year’s Enlit Africa 2024, which will be held at the Cape Town International Convention Centre from May 21 to 23.

Edited by Nadine James Features Deputy Editor

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SA’s Water shortage to get worse in 2025

A S if load shedding was not enough to bring businesses to its knees, South Africans are now confronted with water shortages, with the situation expected to get worse in 2025.

A December 2023 report by the Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS) found that several water supply systems were operating close to or beyond their design capacity, and monitoring and compliance were severely deficient.

The report also stated that this made fixing problems impossible as the scale of the issues at stake was not being identified.

But this was nothing new, as ESI Africa reported in 2020 that: “South Africa is approaching physical water scarcity in 2025 where the country is expected to experience a water deficit of 17% by 2030, and climate change will worsen the situation.”

The effects of the water deficit are now being felt by Johannesburg residents who sometimes go a few days without water.

According to the DWS: “South Africa’s water security is threatened by a decrease in water supply due to negative impact on yields arising from climate change, degradation of wetlands and water resources, siltation of dams, whilst water losses and demand are escalating due to population and economic growth, urbanisation, inefficient use, and changing lifestyles.”

However, the Development Bank of Southern Africa (DBSA) stated in their recent report that one of South Africa’s most prominent water issues was that most people don’t have enough knowledge on how to preserve it.

Research carried out by the Institute for Security Studies found that: “South Africans use more water than the global average. South Africans currently use 234 litres of water per person daily, and the country’s per capita water consumption is higher than the global average of 173 litres. South Africans need to learn how to conserve water if they wish to avoid water scarcity.

“This can be done through tiered pricing, where users are charged when they consume a higher rate than what is considered necessary for daily activities. Other ways include having incentives for consumers to consider purchasing water-efficient appliances and go above and beyond to find ways to use less water,” read the DBSA report.

The DWS 2023 audit report found that the quality of the country’s drinkable water was getting worse. Nearly half (46%) of all water supply systems pose acute human health risks because of bacteria or other pathogens in the drinking water supply.

The report also found that more than two thirds (67.6%) of all wastewater treatment works are close to failure. On top of this it showed that over 47% of all clean and treated water was lost through leaks, or could not be accounted for.

“Water supply systems are in “poor and critical condition”. Almost half of all water supply systems (46%) do not comply with microbiological standards. In these water supply systems, drinking water is contaminated by sewage and bacteria. Viruses and parasites such as Legionella and Cyanobacteria may have grown in the piped water systems and or water sources,” read the report.

Making it worse, the report highlighted that more than half of the country’s municipalities (57%) do not notify water users when they discover that the water has been contaminated.

This placed citizens at risk of contracting water-borne illnesses and is an unacceptable practice due to the possible serious health repercussions of drinking contaminated water.

Associate Professor and Water Management Expert Anja du Plesis from Unisa stated on The Conversation that “The poor drinking water quality, lack of monitoring and unaccountability needed to receive immediate attention because of the human health risks involved.

“We cannot afford another tragic case such as Hammanskraal in South Africa’s Gauteng province, where 31 people died of cholera in May 2023 after drinking contaminated municipal water,” wrote Du Plessis.

Approached for comment, DWS spokesperson Kamogelo Magotsi said the department would respond to questions from the publication, but had not done so by the time of publication.

Meanwhile, the Ministry of Water and Sanitation said on Thursday that it expected to meet with Gauteng municipalities to further engage on plans to address water pollution on Monday next week in Pretoria.

“Minister of Water and Sanitation, Senzo Mchunu, together with Deputy Ministers David Mahlobo and Judith Tshabalala will meet with the Cities of Ekurhuleni, Johannesburg and Tshwane, as well as Mogale City Local Municipality to engage on the plans to address pollution affecting the Upper Crocodile and Upper Vaal Rivers,” read the statement.

The ministry stated that the discussions would address the performance and capacity of the municipalities’ wastewater treatment works, general catchment management that includes waste and stormwater management that have an impact on water quality.

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