footnotes versus bibliography

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Differences Between Footnotes, Endnotes, and Parenthetical Citations

There is a lot of terminology when it comes to citations and giving proper credit to sources. Three of the terms that sometimes get mixed up are footnotes, endnotes, and parenthetical citations. Each is different, as we will see below.

No matter which of these types of in-text citations you use, you will need to include a works cited list or bibliography at the end of your paper that includes the full references for your sources. Your instructor may also ask you to create an annotated bibliography where you also include a short paragraph summarizing and evaluating each source along with its full reference.

Here’s a run-through of everything this page includes:

What is a footnote?

Footnotes vs. endnotes, parenthetical citations, troubleshooting.

A footnote is a type of in-text citation. The information in the text body is marked with a superscript number 1 (raised number), and the corresponding source citation and note is at the bottom (or the foot ) of the page the superscript appears on.

Both footnotes and endnotes are common writing tool features implemented when using various citation styles. They provide writers with a clear method in directing the reader to further information on the research topic and additional citations . Though the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, footnotes and endnotes have a few key differences.

The most obvious difference between footnotes and endnotes is the placement of each within a paper. Footnotes are found at the bottom of a page (i.e. in the footer) and endnotes are located at the end of a complete document, or sometimes at the end of a chapter or section .

While the content in footnotes and endnotes can look the same, they serve different functions. Footnotes are used as a citation vehicle for a short citation, while endnotes can contain more text without compromising the format of the paper. They each also typically use a different numbering system, which allows the reader to determine where they should look for the additional information (either in the footer of the page, or at the end of the document).

APA format only uses parenthetical citations/reference list. MLA format can have footnotes and/or endnotes, but more commonly uses parenthetical citations and work cited. Chicago format almost always has footnotes or endnotes.

Both footnotes and endnotes tend to be supplemented by a bibliography or works cited page, which displays the complete citation of each source the writer cited in each footnote and endnote throughout their paper. Depending on the citation style, the footnote/endnote entry provides more specific location information than the entry in the bibliography. For instance, when citing a whole book in Chicago Manual of Style, the page number of the cited information is contained in the footnote, whereas this localized information is omitted from that source’s entry in the bibliography.

Footnote Entry Example :

F. Scott Fitzgerald, This Side of Paradise (New York: Scribner, 1920), 25.

Bibliography Entry Example :

Fitzgerald, F. Scott. This Side of Paradise . New York: Scribner, 1920.

Parenthetical Citations are citation tools commonly used in APA and format  MLA format . They usually contain the cited works author’s name, and an additional piece of information that further describes the source, usually the publication date of the source or the page number where the cited material can be located within the source.

Parenthetical Citations are used directly following the quote or cited material written in the document. Typically, they come at the end of the sentence that contains the cited material. They let the reader know when the author is using information or words that are not their own. While they demonstrate that a citation is being made, they should not be treated as a substitute for quotation marks when an author’s words are being presented exactly. They should also be included even when paraphrasing someone else’s work.

Each parenthetical citation made in a document should correspond to an entry in a works cited page or reference list at the end of the document. The entry in the works cited or reference list provides further detail about the source being cited.

Parenthetical Citation Example:

(James, 2009)

Reference List Entry Example:

James, Henry. (2009). The ambassadors. Rockville, MD: Serenity Publishers.

Solution #1: How to choose between using footnotes, endnotes, or parenthetical in-text citations

1. Look at the citation style’s guidelines; what does it recommend to use for in-text citations?

Most citation styles favor a certain in-text citation format, but allow flexibility to use notes if needed.

Generally, use parenthetical in-text citations for these styles

• MLA — Notes are allowed in some cases (bibliographic notes, content notes), but are not often used. Click here for more information.
• APA– Notes are allowed in some cases (content footnotes, copyright attribution), but are not encouraged. Click here for more information.
• Chicago, author-date

Use notes for:

• Chicago, notes-bibliography

2. What in-text citation style does your instructor, journal, colleagues, or even area of expertise usually use?

Ask others or examine guidelines from your instructor or journal. Context matters! For example, Chicago style has two styles of citation: notes-bibliography (uses footnotes) and author-date (uses parentheticals).

• Notes-Bibliography :  Often used in the humanities.
• Author-Date:  Often used in the science and social sciences.

Solution #2: How to create small, raised numbers (superscript) numbers for footnotes

The small, raised numbers you see in footnotes are called superscript . It looks like this:

See the example of superscript at the end of this sentence. 1

Below, we will cover how to create superscript in a Google Doc, in a Word document, and via HTML.

• Highlight the number you want to turn into superscript.
• Go to the “Format” section and follow this page:  Format –> Text –> Superscript
• Select “Superscript” to format the number.
• Windows:   [Ctrl] and [.]
• Mac:  [Command] and [.]

Word document

• On the “Home” editing bar/menu, look for the superscript button. It looks like this: [X 2 ]

Place the number you want as super script with the tags ¹.

Find free citing help for  MLA format  at www.easybib.com! We also have guides to help anyone make APA citations for books, websites, and other sources.

• Annotated Bibliography
• Block Quotes
• Citation Examples
• et al Usage
• In-text Citations
• Page Numbers
• Reference Page
• Sample Paper
• APA 7 Updates
• View APA Guide
• Bibliography
• Works Cited
• MLA 8 Updates
• View MLA Guide

The DOI is not included in parenthetical citations. The DOI is usually only included in a source’s full reference in the bibliography.

For more information, see these guides on citing a journal in MLA and citing a journal in APA .

A parenthetical citation is a form of in-text citation. The only difference is it is enclosed in parentheses unlike a narrative citation (APA style) or a citation in prose (MLA style). Narrative citation and citation in prose are incorporated into the text and act as a part of the sentence along with the text.

Rutledge (2018) urged the need for a proper education system.

Parenthetical:

The need for a proper education system is urged (Rutledge, 2018).

Citation in prose:

First occurrence: Bill Rutledge urged the need for a proper education system.

Subsequent occurrences: Rutledge urged the need for a proper education system.

The need for a proper education system is urged (Rutledge).

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Notes and Bibliography: Sample Citations

Go to Author-Date: Sample Citations

The following examples illustrate the notes and bibliography system. Sample notes show full citations followed by shortened citations for the same sources. Sample bibliography entries follow the notes. For more details and many more examples, see chapter 14 of The Chicago Manual of Style . For examples of the same citations using the author-date system, follow the Author-Date link above.

1. Zadie Smith, Swing Time   (New York: Penguin Press, 2016), 315–16.

2. Brian Grazer and Charles Fishman, A Curious Mind: The Secret to a Bigger Life (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2015), 12.

Shortened notes

3. Smith, Swing Time , 320.

4. Grazer and Fishman, Curious Mind , 37.

Bibliography entries (in alphabetical order)

Grazer, Brian, and Charles Fishman. A Curious Mind: The Secret to a Bigger Life . New York: Simon & Schuster, 2015.

Smith, Zadie. Swing Time . New York: Penguin Press, 2016.

For many more examples, covering virtually every type of book, see 14.100–163 in The Chicago Manual of Style .

Chapter or other part of an edited book

In a note, cite specific pages. In the bibliography, include the page range for the chapter or part.

1. Henry David Thoreau, “Walking,” in The Making of the American Essay , ed. John D’Agata (Minneapolis: Graywolf Press, 2016), 177–78.

Shortened note

2. Thoreau, “Walking,” 182.

Bibliography entry

Thoreau, Henry David. “Walking.” In The Making of the American Essay , edited by John D’Agata, 167–95. Minneapolis: Graywolf Press, 2016.

In some cases, you may want to cite the collection as a whole instead.

1. John D’Agata, ed., The Making of the American Essay (Minneapolis: Graywolf Press, 2016), 177–78.

2. D’Agata, American Essay , 182.

D’Agata, John, ed. The Making of the American Essay . Minneapolis: Graywolf Press, 2016.

For more examples, see 14.103–5 and 14.106–12 in The Chicago Manual of Style .

Translated book

1. Jhumpa Lahiri, In Other Words , trans. Ann Goldstein (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2016), 146.

2. Lahiri, In Other Words , 184.

Lahiri, Jhumpa. In Other Words . Translated by Ann Goldstein. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2016.

For books consulted online, include a URL or the name of the database. For other types of e-books, name the format. If no fixed page numbers are available, cite a section title or a chapter or other number in the notes, if any (or simply omit).

1. Herman Melville, Moby-Dick; or, The Whale (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1851), 627, http://mel.hofstra.edu/moby-dick-the-whale-proofs.html.

2. Philip B. Kurland and Ralph Lerner, eds., The Founders’ Constitution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), chap. 10, doc. 19, http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/.

3. Brooke Borel, The Chicago Guide to Fact-Checking (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016), 92, ProQuest Ebrary.

4. Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice (New York: Penguin Classics, 2007), chap. 3, Kindle.

5. Melville, Moby-Dick , 722–23.

6. Kurland and Lerner, Founder s ’ Constitution , chap. 4, doc. 29.

7. Borel, Fact-Checking , 104–5.

8. Austen, Pride and Prejudice , chap. 14.

Austen, Jane. Pride and Prejudice . New York: Penguin Classics, 2007. Kindle.

Borel, Brooke. The Chicago Guide to Fact-Checking . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016. ProQuest Ebrary.

Kurland, Philip B., and Ralph Lerner, eds. The Founders’ Constitution . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987. http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/.

Melville, Herman. Moby-Dick; or, The Whale . New York: Harper & Brothers, 1851. http://mel.hofstra.edu/moby-dick-the-whale-proofs.html.

For more examples, see 14.1 59 –63 in The Chicago Manual of Style .

Journal article

In a note, cite specific page numbers. In the bibliography, include the page range for the whole article. For articles consulted online, include a URL or the name of the database. Many journal articles list a DOI (Digital Object Identifier). A DOI forms a permanent URL that begins https://doi.org/. This URL is preferable to the URL that appears in your browser’s address bar.

1. Susan Satterfield, “Livy and the Pax Deum ,” Classical Philology 111, no. 2 (April 2016): 170.

2. Shao-Hsun Keng, Chun-Hung Lin, and Peter F. Orazem, “Expanding College Access in Taiwan, 1978–2014: Effects on Graduate Quality and Income Inequality,” Journal of Human Capital 11, no. 1 (Spring 2017): 9–10, https://doi.org/10.1086/690235.

3. Peter LaSalle, “Conundrum: A Story about Reading,” New England Review 38, no. 1 (2017): 95, Project MUSE.

4. Satterfield, “Livy,” 172–73.

5. Keng, Lin, and Orazem, “Expanding College Access,” 23.

6. LaSalle, “Conundrum,” 101.

Keng, Shao-Hsun, Chun-Hung Lin, and Peter F. Orazem. “Expanding College Access in Taiwan, 1978–2014: Effects on Graduate Quality and Income Inequality.” Journal of Human Capital 11, no. 1 (Spring 2017): 1–34. https://doi.org/10.1086/690235.

LaSalle, Peter. “Conundrum: A Story about Reading.” New England Review 38, no. 1 (2017): 95–109. Project MUSE.

Satterfield, Susan. “Livy and the Pax Deum .” Classical Philology 111, no. 2 (April 2016): 165–76.

Journal articles often list many authors, especially in the sciences. If there are four or more authors, list up to ten in the bibliography; in a note, list only the first, followed by et al . (“and others”). For more than ten authors (not shown here), list the first seven in the bibliography, followed by et al .

7. Rachel A. Bay et al., “Predicting Responses to Contemporary Environmental Change Using Evolutionary Response Architectures,” American Naturalist 189, no. 5 (May 2017): 465, https://doi.org/10.1086/691233.

8. Bay et al., “Predicting Responses,” 466.

Bay, Rachael A., Noah Rose, Rowan Barrett, Louis Bernatchez, Cameron K. Ghalambor, Jesse R. Lasky, Rachel B. Brem, Stephen R. Palumbi, and Peter Ralph. “Predicting Responses to Contemporary Environmental Change Using Evolutionary Response Architectures.” American Naturalist 189, no. 5 (May 2017): 463–73. https://doi.org/10.1086/691233.

For more examples, see 14.1 68 – 87 in The Chicago Manual of Style .

News or magazine article

Articles from newspapers or news sites, magazines, blogs, and the like are cited similarly. Page numbers, if any, can be cited in a note but are omitted from a bibliography entry. If you consulted the article online, include a URL or the name of the database.

1. Rebecca Mead, “The Prophet of Dystopia,” New Yorker , April 17, 2017, 43.

2. Farhad Manjoo, “Snap Makes a Bet on the Cultural Supremacy of the Camera,” New York Times , March 8, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/08/technology/snap-makes-a-bet-on-the-cultural-supremacy-of-the-camera.html.

3. Rob Pegoraro, “Apple’s iPhone Is Sleek, Smart and Simple,” Washington Post , July 5, 2007, LexisNexis Academic.

4. Tanya Pai, “The Squishy, Sugary History of Peeps,” Vox , April 11, 2017, http://www.vox.com/culture/2017/4/11/15209084/peeps-easter.

5. Mead, “Dystopia,” 47.

6. Manjoo, “Snap.”

7. Pegoraro, “Apple’s iPhone.”

8. Pai, “History of Peeps.”

Manjoo, Farhad. “Snap Makes a Bet on the Cultural Supremacy of the Camera.” New York Times , March 8, 2017. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/08/technology/snap-makes-a-bet-on-the-cultural-supremacy-of-the-camera.html.

Mead, Rebecca. “The Prophet of Dystopia.” New Yorker , April 17, 2017.

Pai, Tanya. “The Squishy, Sugary History of Peeps.” Vox , April 11, 2017. http://www.vox.com/culture/2017/4/11/15209084/peeps-easter.

Pegoraro, Rob. “Apple’s iPhone Is Sleek, Smart and Simple.” Washington Post , July 5, 2007. LexisNexis Academic.

Readers’ comments are cited in the text or in a note but omitted from a bibliography.

9. Eduardo B (Los Angeles), March 9, 2017, comment on Manjoo, “Snap.”

For more examples, see 14.1 88 – 90 (magazines), 14.191–200 (newspapers), and 14.208 (blogs) in The Chicago Manual of Style .

Book review

1. Michiko Kakutani, “Friendship Takes a Path That Diverges,” review of Swing Time , by Zadie Smith, New York Times , November 7, 2016.

2. Kakutani, “Friendship.”

Kakutani, Michiko. “Friendship Takes a Path That Diverges.” Review of Swing Time , by Zadie Smith. New York Times , November 7, 2016.

1. Kory Stamper, “From ‘F-Bomb’ to ‘Photobomb,’ How the Dictionary Keeps Up with English,” interview by Terry Gross, Fresh Air , NPR, April 19, 2017, audio, 35:25, http://www.npr.org/2017/04/19/524618639/from-f-bomb-to-photobomb-how-the-dictionary-keeps-up-with-english.

2. Stamper, interview.

Stamper, Kory. “From ‘F-Bomb’ to ‘Photobomb,’ How the Dictionary Keeps Up with English.” Interview by Terry Gross. Fresh Air , NPR, April 19, 2017. Audio, 35:25. http://www.npr.org/2017/04/19/524618639/from-f-bomb-to-photobomb-how-the-dictionary-keeps-up-with-english.

Thesis or dissertation

1. Cynthia Lillian Rutz, “ King Lear and Its Folktale Analogues” (PhD diss., University of Chicago, 2013), 99–100.

2. Rutz, “ King Lear ,” 158.

Rutz, Cynthia Lillian. “ King Lear and Its Folktale Analogues.” PhD diss., University of Chicago, 2013.

Website content

It is often sufficient simply to describe web pages and other website content in the text (“As of May 1, 2017, Yale’s home page listed . . .”). If a more formal citation is needed, it may be styled like the examples below. For a source that does not list a date of publication or revision, include an access date (as in example note 2).

1. “Privacy Policy,” Privacy & Terms, Google, last modified April 17, 2017, https://www.google.com/policies/privacy/.

2. “About Yale: Yale Facts,” Yale University, accessed May 1, 2017, https://www.yale.edu/about-yale/yale-facts.

3. Katie Bouman, “How to Take a Picture of a Black Hole,” filmed November 2016 at TEDxBeaconStreet, Brookline, MA, video, 12:51, https://www.ted.com/talks/katie_bouman_what_does_a_black_hole_look_like.

4. Google, “Privacy Policy.”

5. “Yale Facts.”

6. Bouman, “Black Hole.”

Bouman, Katie. “How to Take a Picture of a Black Hole.” Filmed November 2016 at TEDxBeaconStreet, Brookline, MA. Video, 12:51. https://www.ted.com/talks/katie_bouman_what_does_a_black_hole_look_like.

Google. “Privacy Policy.” Privacy & Terms. Last modified April 17, 2017. https://www.google.com/policies/privacy/.

Yale University. “About Yale: Yale Facts.” Accessed May 1, 2017. https://www.yale.edu/about-yale/yale-facts.

For more examples, see 14. 20 5–10 in The Chicago Manual of Style . For multimedia, including live performances, see 14. 261–68 .

Social media content

Citations of content shared through social media can usually be limited to the text (as in the first example below). A note may be added if a more formal citation is needed. In rare cases, a bibliography entry may also be appropriate. In place of a title, quote up to the first 160 characters of the post. Comments are cited in reference to the original post.

Conan O’Brien’s tweet was characteristically deadpan: “In honor of Earth Day, I’m recycling my tweets” (@ConanOBrien, April 22, 2015).

1. Pete Souza (@petesouza), “President Obama bids farewell to President Xi of China at the conclusion of the Nuclear Security Summit,” Instagram photo, April 1, 2016, https://www.instagram.com/p/BDrmfXTtNCt/.

2. Chicago Manual of Style, “Is the world ready for singular they? We thought so back in 1993,” Facebook, April 17, 2015, https://www.facebook.com/ChicagoManual/posts/10152906193679151.

3. Souza, “President Obama.”

4. Michele Truty, April 17, 2015, 1:09 p.m., comment on Chicago Manual of Style, “singular they.”

Chicago Manual of Style. “Is the world ready for singular they? We thought so back in 1993.” Facebook, April 17, 2015. https://www.facebook.com/ChicagoManual/posts/10152906193679151.

Personal communication

Personal communications, including email and text messages and direct messages sent through social media, are usually cited in the text or in a note only; they are rarely included in a bibliography.

1. Sam Gomez, Facebook message to author, August 1, 2017.

Gladhill Learning Commons FAQ: Citations

What is the difference between footnotes or endnotes and a bibliography when you are using the chicago manual of style.

In the Chicago Manual of Style (also known as Turabian), a bibliography is an alphabetical list of all of the sources that you have quoted, paraphrased, and/or summarized in the body of your research-based assignment. Bibliographies are usually included at the end of your paper. Bibliographies are optional in the Chicago Manual of Style, but be sure to ask your professor for their requirements.

Footnotes or endnotes  are how you give credit to a source in the text itself. You use a superscript number in the text that corresponds to a note with citation information at the end of the document (endnotes) or at the bottom of the page (footnotes). Footnotes/endnotes are formatted differently than bibliography citations.

If you do not include a bibliography, the footnotes/endnotes in your paper must be full citations. If you include a bibliography, or if you are citing a source for the second time, you can use shortened citations  for your footnotes or endnotes.

For example:

" Lincoln's vision of democracy—a vision, it should be noted, strongly shared by Tarbell—could only be saved if the Union was saved." 1

1  Robert G. Wick, “‘He Was a Friend of Us Poor Men’: Ida M. Tarbell and Abraham Lincoln’s View of Democracy,”  Indiana Magazine of History  114, no. 4 (December 2018): 255, https://doi.org/10.2979/indimagahist.114.4.01.

Footnote/endnote-Shortened Citation:

     1  Wick,"Poor Men," 256.

Citation in Bibliography 

Wick, Robert G. “‘Poor Men’: Ida M. Tarbell and Abraham Lincoln’s View of Democracy.”  Indiana Magazine of History  114, no. 4 (December 2018): 255–82. https://doi.org/10.2979/indimagahist.114.4.01.

For more examples, go to the Chicago Manual of Style website.

More Resources:

How to Add Footnotes/Endnotes in Microsoft Word

OWL at Purdue- Chicago Manual of Style

What is a DOI

Shortened Citations in the Chicago Manual of Style

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Citing Sources -- Chicago -- Bibliography style

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Chicago's bibliography style of citation

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Chapter 14 of the Chicago Manual of Style presents Chicago's bibliography style of citation.  This style uses a system of notes, whether footnotes or endnotes or both, and usually a bibliography.

Footnotes and endnotes are formulated in exactly the same way -- the only difference is that footnotes appear on the bottom of the page on which a work is cited, whereas endnotes appear at the end of a manuscript.  Citations in a bibliography are formulated in a similar way to a footnote or endnote, but do have slight variations from the way a footnote or endnote is formulated.

Most courses at Chico State that use Chicago's bibliography style ask you to cite sources using footnotes as opposed to endnotes.  All courses require a bibliography to accompany your notes.  Ask your instructor if you have further questions about the elements of the Chicago style s/he wants you to use in completing your coursework.

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The Footnote / Bibliography Referencing System

How do i do it.

The Footnote/Bibliography method requires two elements: footnotes throughout your assignment, and a bibliography or list of references at the end.

How do I do a footnote?

Footnotes (sometimes just called ‘notes’) are what they sound like—a note (or a reference to a source of information) which appears at the foot (bottom) of a page. In a footnote referencing system, you indicate a reference by:

• Putting a small number above the line of type directly following the source material. This number is called a note identifier. It sits slightly above the line of text.

It looks like this. 1

• Putting the same number, followed by a citation of your source, at the bottom of the page. Footnoting should be numerical and chronological: the first reference is 1, the second is 2, and so on. The advantage of footnoting is that the reader can simply cast their eyes down the page to discover the source of a reference which interests them.

Second and subsequent footnotes

Second and subsequent references to the same source don’t need to be as detailed as the first note—they just need the minimum information to clearly indicate which text is being referred to.

With a single author:

Provide all the necessary information in the first footnote. If you want to refer to the same source again, a simple method is to give the author’s name, the year of publication and the page number. For example:

1 K Reid, Higher Education or Education for Hire? Language and Values in Australian Universities , CQU Press, Rockhampton, 1996, p. 87.

3 Reid, p. 98. 

If two or more works by the same author are referred to in the text, include the title:

1 E Gaskell, North and South , Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1970, p. 228.

2 E Gaskell, The Life of Charlotte Brontë , Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1975, p. 53.

3 Gaskell, North and South, p. 222. 

Subsequent references to articles are done in a similar way: 

17 M Doyle, ‘Captain Mbaye Diagne’, Granta , vol. 48, August 1994, pp. 99-103.

19 Doyle, Granta , p. 101.

Abbreviations for subsequent footnotes

Another way to shorten second or subsequent references is with Latin abbreviations. For example:

ibid = same as last entry

Use ibid when two references in a row are from the same source. 

op. cit.= as previously cited

Use op. cit. when you have already given full details of that source in an earlier note. When using op. cit., you still need to provide information such as the author’s name to make the source clear. These abbreviations should be in lowercase, even when they appear at the beginning of a note. For further information, see p. 214- 5 of the Style Manual.

11 K Reid, Higher Education or Education for Hire? Language and Values in Australian Universities , CQU Press, Rockhampton, 1996, p. 87.

12 ibid., p. 26.

13 M Doyle, ‘Captain Mbaye Diagne’, Granta , vol. 48, August 1994, p. 99.

14 Reid, op. cit., p. 147.

• Citing different sources

Footnote/bibliography referencing

• Bibliography or list of references
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Turabian Footnote/Endnote Style

Table of Contents: Books E-books Journal Articles (Print) Journal Articles (Online) Magazine Articles (Print) Magazine Articles (Online) Newspaper Articles Review Articles Websites For More Help

The examples in this guide are meant to introduce you to the basics of citing sources using Kate Turabian's A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations (seventh edition) .  Kate Turabian created her first "manual" in 1937 as a means of simplifying for students The Chicago Manual of Style ; the seventh edition of Turabian is based on the 15th edition of the Chicago Manual . For types of resources not covered in this guide (e.g., government documents, manuscript collections, video recordings) and for further detail and examples, please consult the websites listed at the end of this guide, the handbook itself or a reference librarian .

Whenever you refer to or use another's words, facts or ideas in your paper, you are required to cite the source. Traditionally, disciplines in the humanities (art, history, music, religion, theology) require the use of bibliographic footnotes or endnotes in conjunction with a bibliography to cite sources used in research papers and dissertations. For the parenthetical reference (author-date) system (commonly used in the sciences and social sciences), please refer to the separate guide Turabian Parenthetical/Reference List Style . It is best to consult with your professor to determine the preferred citation style.

Indicate notes in the text of your paper by using consecutive superscript numbers (as demonstrated below). The actual note is indented and can occur either as a footnote at the bottom of the page or as an endnote at the end of the paper. To create notes, type the note number followed by a period on the same line as the note itself. This method should always be used for endnotes; it is the preferred method for footnotes. However, superscript numbers are acceptable for footnotes, and many word processing programs can generate footnotes with superscript numbers for you.

When citing books, the following are elements you may need to include in your bibliographic citation for your first footnote or endnote and in your bibliography, in this order:

1. Author or editor; 2. Title; 3. Compiler, translator or editor (if an editor is listed in addition to an author); 4. Edition; 5. Name of series, including volume or number used; 6. Place of publication, publisher and date of publication; 7. Page numbers of citation (for footnote or endnote).

Books with One Author or Corporate Author

Author: Charles Hullmandel experimented with lithographic techniques throughout the early nineteenth century, patenting the "lithotint" process in 1840. 1

Editor: Human beings are the sources of "all international politics"; even though the holders of political power may change, this remains the same. 1

Corporate Author: Children of Central and Eastern Europe have not escaped the nutritional ramifications of iron deficiency, a worldwide problem. 1

First footnote:

1 Michael Twyman, Lithography 1800-1850 (London: Oxford University Press, 1970), 145-146.

1 Valerie M. Hudson, ed., Culture and Foreign Policy (Boulder: L. Rienner Publishers, 1997), 5.

1 UNICEF, Generation in Jeopardy: Children in Central and Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union , edited by Alexander Zouev (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), 44.

Note the different treatment of an editor's name depending on whether the editor takes the place of an author (second example) or is listed in addition to the author (third example). 

Subsequent footnotes:

       Method A: Include the author or editor's last name, the title (or an abbreviated title) and the page number cited.

2 Twyman, Lithography 1800-1850, 50.

2 Hudson, ed., Culture and Foreign Policy, 10.

2 UNICEF, Generation in Jeopardy, 48.

       Method B: Include only the author or editor's last name and the page number, leaving out the title.  

2 Twyman, 50.

2 Hudson, ed., 10.

2 UNICEF, 48.

Use Method A if you need to cite more than one reference by the same author.

1. Michael Twyman, Lithography 1800-1850  (London: Oxford University Press, 1970), 145-146.

Ibid., short for ibidem, means "in the same place."  Use ibid. if you cite the same page of the same work in succession without a different reference intervening.  If you need to cite a different page of the same work, include the page number.  For example:   2 Ibid., 50.

Bibliography:

Hudson, Valerie, N., ed. Culture and Foreign Policy . Boulder: L. Rienner Publishers, 1997.

Twyman, Michael. Lithography 1800-1850 . London: Oxford University Press, 1970.

UNICEF.  Generation in Jeopardy: Children in Central and Eastern Europe and the             Former Soviet Union . Edited by Alexander Zouev. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1999.

Books with Two or More Authors or Editors

1 Russell Keat and John Urry, Social Theory as Science, 2d ed. (London: Routledge and K. Paul, 1982), 196.

1 Toyoma Hitomi, "The Era of Dandy Beauties," in Queer Voices from Japan: First-Person Narratives from Japan's Sexual Minorities,  eds. Mark J. McLelland, Katsuhiko Suganuma, and James Welker ( Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2007), 157.

For references with more than three authors, cite the first named author followed by "et al." Cite all the authors in the bibliography.

1 Leonard B. Meyer, et al., The Concept of Style , ed. Berel Lang (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979), 56.

2 Keat and Urry, Social Theory as Science , 200.

2 Meyer, et al., The Concept of Style , 90.

Keat, Russell, and John Urry. Social Theory as Science , 2d. ed. London: Routledge and K. Paul, 1982.

Hitomi, Toyoma. "The Era of Dandy Beauties." In Queer Voices from Japan: First-Person Narratives from Japan's Sexual Minorities,  edited by Mark J. McLelland, Katsuhiko Suganuma, and James Welker, 153-165.   Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2007.

Meyer, Leonard B., Kendall Walton, Albert Hofstadter, Svetlana Alpers, George Kubler, Richard Wolheim, Monroe Beardsley, Seymour Chatman, Ann Banfield, and Hayden White. The Concept of Style . Edited by Berel Lang.  Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979.  

Electronic Books

Follow the guidelines for print books, above, but include the collection (if there is one), URL and the date you accessed the material.

1 John Rae, Statement of Some New Principles on the Subject of Political Economy (Boston: Hillard, Gray and Company, 1834), in The Making of the Modern World,   http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/MOME?af=RN&ae=U104874605&srchtp=a&ste=14  (accessed June 22, 2009).  

2 Rae, Statement of Some New Principles on the Subject of Political Economy .

Rae, John.  Statement of Some New Principles on the Subject of Political Economy. Boston: Hillard, Gray and Company, 1834. In The Making of the Modern World,   http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/MOME?af=RN&ae=U104874605&srchtp=a&ste=14  (accessed June 22, 2009).  

PERIODICAL ARTICLES

For periodical (magazine, journal, newspaper, etc.) articles, include some or all of the following elements in your first footnote or endnote and in your bibliography, in this order:

1. Author; 2. Article title; 3. Periodical title; 4. Volume or Issue number (or both); 5. Publication date; 6. Page numbers.

For online periodicals   , add: 7. URL and date of access; or 8. Database name, URL and date of access. (If available, include database publisher and city of publication.)

For an article available in more than one format (print, online, etc.), cite whichever version you used.

Journal Articles (Print)

1 Lawrence Freedman, "The Changing Roles of Military Conflict," Survival 40, no. 4 (1998): 52.

Here you are citing page 52.  In the bibliography (see below) you would include the full page range: 39-56.

If a journal has continuous pagination within a volume, you do not need to include the issue number:

1 John T. Kirby, "Aristotle on Metaphor," American Journal of Philology 118 (1997): 520.

Subsequent footnotes :

2 Freedman, "The Changing Roles of Military Conflict," 49.   

2 Kirby, "Aristotle on Metaphor," 545.

Freedman, Lawrence. "The Changing Roles of Military Conflict."   Survival 40, no. 4 (1998): 39-56.

Kirby, John T. "Aristotle on Metaphor."  American Journal of Philology 118 (1997): 517-554.  

Journal Articles (Online)

Cite as above, but include the URL and the date of access of the article.

On the Free Web

1 Molly Shea, "Hacking Nostalgia: Super Mario Clouds," Gnovis 9, no. 2 (Spring 2009), http://gnovisjournal.org/journal/hacking-nostalgia-super-mario-clouds  (accessed June 25, 2009).

Through a Subscription Database

1 John T. Kirby, "Aristotle on Metaphor," American Journal of Philology 118, no. 4 (Winter 1997): 524, http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/american_journal_of_philology/v118/118.4.kirby.html  (accessed June 25, 2009).

1 Michael Moon, et al., "Queers in (Single-Family) Space," Assemblage 24 (August 1994): 32, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3171189  (accessed June 25, 2009).

Subsequent Footnotes:

2 Shea, "Hacking Nostalgia."

2 Kirby, "Aristotle on Metaphor," 527. 

2 Moon, "Queers in (Single-Family) Space," 34. 

Shea, Molly. "Hacking Nostalgia: Super Mario Clouds," Gnovis 9, no. 2 (Spring 2009), http://gnovisjournal.org/journal/hacking-nostalgia-super-mario-clouds  (accessed June 25, 2009).

Kirby, John T. "Aristotle on Metaphor," American Journal of Philology 118, no. 4 (Winter 1997): 524, http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/american_journal_of_philology/v118/118.4.kirby.html  (accessed June 25, 2009).

Moon, Michael, Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, Benjamin Gianni, and Scott Weir. "Queers in (Single-Family) Space." Assemblage 24 (August 1994): 30-7, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3171189  (accessed June 25, 2009).

Magazine Articles (Print)

Monthly or Bimonthly

           1 Paul Goldberger, "Machines for Living: The Architectonic Allure of the Automobile," Architectural Digest, October 1996, 82.

1 Steven Levy and Brad Stone, "Silicon Valley Reboots," Newsweek , March 25, 2002, 45.

          2 Goldberger, "Machines for Living," 82.

          2 Levy and Stone, "Silicon Valley Reboots," 46.

Goldberger, Paul.  "Machines for Living: The Architectonic Allure of the Automobile." Architectural Digest, October 1996.

Levy, Steven, and Brad Stone. "Silicon Valley Reboots." Newsweek , March 25, 2002.

Magazine Articles (Online)

Follow the guidelines for print magazine articles, adding the URL and date accessed.

1 Bill Wyman, "Tony Soprano's Female Trouble," Salon.com, May 19, 2001, http://www.salon.com/2001/05/19/sopranos_final/ (accessed February 13, 2017).

1 Sasha Frere-Jones, "Hip-Hop President." New Yorker , November 24, 2008, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=35324426&site=ehost-live (accessed June 26, 2009).

Wyman, Bill. "Tony Soprano's Female Trouble." Salon.com, May 19, 2001, http://www.salon.com/2001/05/19/sopranos_final/ (accessed February 13, 2017).

Frere-Jones, Sasha. "Hip-Hop President." New Yorker , November 24, 2008. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=35324426&site=ehost-live (accessed June 26, 2009).

Newspaper Articles

In most cases, you will cite newspaper articles only in notes, not in your bibliography. Follow the general pattern for citing magazine articles, although you may omit page numbers.

        1 Eric Pianin, "Use of Arsenic in Wood Products to End," Washington Post , February 13, 2002, final edition.

        1 Eric Pianin, "Use of Arsenic in Wood Products to End," Washington Post , February 13, 2002, final edition, in LexisNexis Academic (accessed June 27, 2009).

Note: In the example above, there was no stable URL for the article in LexisNexis, so the name of the database was given rather than a URL.

Review Articles

Follow the pattern below for review articles in any kind of periodical.

1 Alanna Nash, "Hit 'Em With a Lizard," review of Basket Case, by Carl Hiassen, New York Times , February 3, 2002, http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=105338185&sid=2&Fmt=6&clientId=5604&RQT=309&VName=PQD (accessed June 26, 2009).  

1 David Denby, "Killing Joke," review of No Country for Old Men , directed by Ethan and Joel Coen,  New Yorker, February 25, 2008, 72-73, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=fah&AN=30033248&site=ehost-live (accessed June 26, 2009). 

Second footnote:

2 Nash, "Hit 'Em With a Lizard."

2 Denby, "Killing Joke."

In most cases, you will be citing something smaller than an entire website. If you are citing an article from a website, for example, follow the guidelines for articles above. You can usually refer to an entire website in running text without including it in your reference list, e.g.: "According to its website, the Financial Accounting Standards Board requires ...".

If you need to cite an entire website in your bibliography, include some or all of the following elements, in this order:

1. Author or editor of the website (if known) 2. Title of the website 3. URL 4. Date of access

Financial Accounting Standards Board .  http://www.fasb.org  (accessed April 29, 2009).

FOR MORE HELP

Following are links to sites that have additional information and further examples:

Turabian Quick Guide (University of Chicago Press)

Chicago Manual of Style Online

RefWorks Once you have created an account, go to Tools/Preview Output Style to see examples of Turabian style.

Purdue's Online Writing Lab (OWL) Excellent source for research, writing and citation tips.

Citing Sources Duke University's guide to citing sources. The site offers comparison citation tables with examples from APA , Chicago , MLA and Turabian for both print and electronic works.

How to Cite Electronic Sources From the Library of Congress. Provides MLA and Turabian examples of citing formats like films, photographs, maps and recorded sound that are accessed electronically.

Uncle Sam: Brief Guide to Citing Government Publications The examples in this excellent guide from the University of Memphis are based on the Chicago Manual of Style and Kate Turabian's Manual .

• SHSU Library
• Research Guides
• * How-To Guides and Other Special Topics

Citing Sources: Chicago Notes/Bibliography Style

• Intro to Footnotes

Understanding Footnotes

Creating footnotes in microsoft word, first footnote vs. future footnotes, other general formatting guidelines.

• Intro to Bibliographies
• Citation Examples
• Practice It!
• Additional Chicago Resources
• Citing Ebook Readers
• Citing Archival Materials

You might be familiar with using parenthetical citations in citation styles like MLA: for instance, "This is a quote from Charles Dickens" (Dickens 32) . But the citation for a particular quote, paraphrase, or other reference is done differently in Chicago. You will use a footnote every time you include a quote or an idea from a source.

The words of the quote or idea in your paper will be followed by a number written in superscript (meaning it is smaller than and set a little higher than the surrounding text ). At the bottom of the page, that same number (not in superscript, but in normal font) will appear, followed by a citation for the source.

It is interesting to note that "a large majority of the first students in Sam Houston Normal Institute were State or scholarship students." 1

1. Mary S. Estill, Vision Realized: History of Sam Houston State University (Huntsville, TX: Sam Houston Press, 1970), 12.

The superscript footnote number always goes  outside the punctuation (period, quotations). If you are accustomed to a citation style like MLA that puts parenthetical citations inside the punctuation, this difference may take some adjustment. Check your text carefully!

When you are typing your paper in Microsoft Word and need to insert a footnote, you should generally use the software's built-in command, rather than trying to format all the spacing and orientation yourself.

Put your cursor at the end of the sentence where you want the superscript number for the footnote to appear. Click the References tab in the ribbon, then click the Insert Footnote button. Microsoft Word will automatically add a superscript note number at the end of the sentence and create a matching footnote area at the bottom of the page. All you have to do then is simply add your citation information into the footnote area created for you.

If you reference the same source multiple times in your paper, only the FIRST footnote needs to include the complete citation information.

Future footnotes will be shortened, usually including only the author's last name, a shortened version of the title, and the page number being referenced.

• Double-space text, including the bibliography.  
• Capitalize All the Major Words in a Title (Like This).  
• Titles of "long" works (books, journals, magazines, and newspapers) are written in italics .  
• Titles of "short" works (book chapters, articles, and web pages) are written in "quotes."  
• Note that author names are reversed in footnotes vs. bibliography: they are written as "FirstName LastName" (John Smith) in footnotes, but as "LastName, FirstName" (Smith, John) in the bibliography.  
• In footnotes, the various pieces of information in a citation are separated with commas . In the bibliography, many of those pieces of information are instead separated with periods .  
• In footnotes, certain publication details (like a book's place of publication, publisher, and date of publication)  are enclosed in parentheses. In the bibliography, these parentheses are removed.  
• Use the abbreviations ed. or eds. , comp. or comps. , or trans. to indicate editor , editors , compiler , compilers , or translator .
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Chicago Manual of Style: Footnotes and In-Text Citations

• Chicago Manual of Style

Footnotes and In-Text Citations

• Bibliography
• Useful Links

When writing your Chicago-formatted paper, you will want to use evidence from the resources you have gathered to support your thesis statement. In Chicago, this can be done a couple of ways. But it ultimately depends on if you are using the notes and bibliography system or the author-date system. This should be determined by your professor. If it is not, ask them to verify. 

If you are using the notes and bibliography system, your direct quotes and paraphrased sentences will be cited with footnotes or endnotes. This means that your shortened citation will appear at the bottom of the page (footnote) or at the end of your paper (endnote) and will be noted in the body of your paper with superscript numbers. 

If you are using the author-date system, your direct quotes and paraphrased sentences will be cited in-text. This way of in-text citation will be very similar to that of APA in-text citations. 

This is where the two systems of Chicago vastly differ from each other and is extremely important that you are using the correct system for your citations. Be sure to click on the appropriate tab to see the examples. 

The Chicago Manual of Style

• Chicago Manual of Style Quick Guide The Chicago Manual of Style Quick Guide is a great resource to use when you need to see how to format a foot note and the citation quickly. This is good for basic examples. For more non-traditional resources, consult The Chicago Manual of Style, 17th edition or ask a librarian.
• Notes and Bibliography
• Author-Date

Book with One Author

For the first time that you use a footnote, write out the full note (see number 1). The next time you use the source, use the shortened note (see number 2).

1. First name Last name,  Title: Subtitle ( City of Publication: Publisher, Publication Date), page #.

2. Last name,  Shortened Title , page #.

1.  M ichael  Pollan ,   The Omnivore's Dream: A Natural History of Four Meals  (New York: Penguin, 2006),  88 .

2. Pollan,  The Omnivore's Dream , 92. 

Book with Multiple Authors

Two Authors

1. First name  Last name  and First name Last name,  Title: Subtitle  (City of Publication: Publisher, Date), page #.

2. Last name and Last name,  Shortened Title , page #.

1. Geoffrey C. Ward  and Ken Burns,  The War: An Intimate History, 1941-1945 ( New York: Knopf, 2007), 50.

2. Ward and Burns,  The War , 102. 

Three authors

1. First name La s t name , First name Last name, and First name Last name,  Title: Subtitle ( City of Publication: Publisher, Date) page #.

2. Last name, Last name, and Last name,  Shortened Title , page #. 

1. Joyce Heatherton, James Fitzgilroy, and Jackson Hsu,  Meteors and Mudslides: A Trip through...

2.  Heatherton, Fitzgilroy, and Hsu,  Meteors and Mudslides ,... 

If there are  4 or more authors , cite only the name of the first listed author followed by 'et al' in the note. 

1. Claire Hacek et al., Mediated Lives: Reflections on Wearable Technologies.. .

2. Hacek et al.,  Mediated Lives ...

Book with Author Plus Editor or Translator

1. First name Last name,   T itle: Subtitle, trans./ed.  First name, Last name (City of Publication: Publisher, Date) page #.

2. Last name, Shortened TItle , page #. 

1. Gabriel García   Márquez ,  Love in the Time of Cholera,  trans. Edith Grossman (London: Cape, 1998), 66. 

2. García   Márquez,  Cholera , 33.

Chapter in an Edited Book

1. Chapter author's First name Last name,  "Title of Chapter," in  Title,  ed. First name Last name of Editor ( City  of  Publication: Publisher,

Date), page #. 

2. Chapter author's Last name, "Chapter Title," page #. 

1. Glenn Gould,  "Streisand as Schwarzkopf," in  The Glenn Gould Reader , ed. Tim Page (New York: Vintage, 1984), 310.

2. Gould, "Streidand as Schwarzkopf," 309.

Electronic Books

For books downloaded from a library or bookseller, the note should reflect specifically where it is located and in which format. 

1. First name Last name, Title ( City of Publication: Publisher, Date) location, Format.

2. Last name,  Shortened Title , location.  

1. Mary Ann Noe,  Ivory Trenches: Adventures of an English Teacher  (self-pub., Amazon Digital Services, 2016), loc. 444 of 3023, Kindle. 

2. Noe,  Ivory Trenches , loc. 500 of 3023.

For books consulted online or through a database, include the DOI (if available) or the URL (if DOI is not available) as part of the note.

1. First name Last name,  Title ( City of Publication: Publisher, date) location, doi: .

2. Last name, Shortened  Title , location, doi. 

3. First name Last name,  Title  (City of Publication, Publisher, date), page #, stable URL.

4. Last name, Shortened TItle ,  page #. 

​1. Mark Evan Bonds,  Absolute Music: The History of an Idea  (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), chap. 3,

https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199343638.003.0004. 

2. Bonds,  Absolute Music , chap. 11,  https://doi.org/10.1093/ acprof :oso/9780199343638.003.0012.

3. Karen Lystra,  Dangerous Intimacy: The Untold Story of Mark Twain's Final Years  (Berkelley: University of California Press, 2004), 59,

http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/kt8779q6kr/.

4. Lystra,  Dangerous Intimacy , 60-61. 

(Last name Date, page #).

(Pollan 2008, 64)

(Pollan 2008, 79-83)

(Pollan 2008, 88, 95, 103)

For a book with two authors:

(Last name and Last name Date, page #)

(Ward and Burns 2007, 195)

For a book with three authors:

(Last name, Last name, and Last name Date, page #)

(Heatherton, Fitzgilroy, and Hsu 2008, 250)

For a book with  four or more authors , cite only the last name of the first- listed author, followed by  et al.

(Last name et al. Date, page #)

(Hacek et al. 2015, 384)

(Last name of author Date, page #)

(García  M árquez 1988, 230)

Chapter of an Edited Book

(Last name of chapter author Date, page #)

(Gould 1984, 310)

Organization as Author

If there is an abbreviation for the organization, like WHO or NASA, then list the abbreviation first followed by the spelling of the organization name.

(Organization name Date, page #)

(BSI 1985, 23)

Journal Articles

• Author- Date

Physical Journal

1. First name, Last name, "Article Title," Journal Title  vol. number, issue no. (Publication Date): page number.

1. Donald Maletz, "Tocqueville's Tangents to Democracy,"  American Political Thought  4, no. 4 (Fall 2015): 615.

Articles Consulted Online

If you accessed an article through a database, then you will need to include the DOI (digital object identifier) or if there is no DOI available, the stable URL.  If there is no DOI, use the shortened stable URL in the place of the DOI.

1. First name Last name,  "Article Title,"  Journal Title  vol. number, issue no. (Publication Date): page number, https://doi.org/xxxxxx. 

2.  First name Last name,  "Article Title,"  Journal Title  vol. number, issue no. (Publication Date): page number, shortened URL.

1. Miriam Schoenfield, "Moral Vagueness Is Ontic Vagueness,"  Ethics  126, no. 2 (2016): 260-61, https://doi.org/10.1086/683541.

2. Frank P. Whitney, "The Six-Year High School in Cleveland,"  School Review  37, no. 4 (April 1929): 268,

http://www.jstor.org/stable/1078814.

If the URL is very long and not available, list the name of the commercial database in lieu of the the URL. 

1.  First name Last name,  "Article Title,"  Journal Title  vol. number, issue no. (Publication Date): page number, name of Database.

1. Zina Giannopoulou ,  "Prisoners of Plot in José Saramago's  The Cave "  Philosophy and Literature  38, no. 2 (2014): 335, Project Muse.

2. Giannopoulou, "Prisoners," 337.  

This will be the same, whether it is a physical journal article or an article from a database. 

(Last name  Date, page #)

(Maletz 2015, 615)

Magazines and Newspapers

Physical magazine articles.

1. First name Last name, "Article Name,"  Magazine Title , Month and year of publication, page.

1. Beth Saulnier, "From Vine to Wine,"  Cornell Alumni Magazine , September/October 2008, 48. 

2. Jill Lepore, "The Man Who Broke the Music Business," New Yorker , April 27, 2015, 59. 

Magazine Articles Consulted Online

Include the URL at the end of the citation. If the URL is not available, then include the name of the database where you got the article. 

1. First name Last name, "Article Name,"  Magazine Title , Month and year of publication, [page if given], URL/ Database name.

1. Karl Vick,  "Cuba on the Cusp,"  Time , March 26, 2015, http://time.com/3759629/ cuba-us-policy /.

2.  Henry William Hanemann ,  "French as She Is Now Spoken,"  Life,  August 26, 1926, 5,  ProQuest . 

Newspapers are formatted the same way as magazine articles. 

1.  First name Last name, "Article Name,"  Newspaper Title , Month and year of publication [, edition if given].

1. Mike Ryoko, "Next Time, Dan, Take Aim at Arnold,"  Chicago Tribune , September 23, 1992. 

2. Christopher Lehmann- Haupt, "Robert Giroux, Editor, Publisher and Nurturer of Literary Giant, Is Dead at 94,"  New York Times ,

September 6, 2008, New York edition.

If the newspaper article was accessed online, include the URL at the end. If there is no URL and it was accessed via a database, include the database name. 

1.  First name Last name, "Article Name,"  Newspaper Title , Month and year of publication, URL.

2.  First name Last name, "Article Name,"  Newspaper Title , Month and year of publication, Database name.

1. David G. Savage, "Stanford Student Goes to Supreme Court to Fight for Her Moms,"  Los Angeles Times , April 27, 2015, Nation,

http://www.latimes.com/nation/la-na-gay-marriage-children-201504024-story.html.

2. John Meyers, "Invasive Faucet Snails Confirmed in Twin Ports Harbor,"  Duluth (MN) News-Tribune , September 26, 2014, EBSCOhost.  ​

Magazine and Newspaper Articles

Magazine and newspaper article in-text citations will be very similar to that of journal articles, no matter where they were accessed. 

If the page number is listed, include the page number.

If the page number is not listed, still include the last name and date.

(Last name  Date)  

1. "Title of Webpage," Title of Website, Owner or Sponsor of website, [last modified or accessed date], URL. 

1. "Apps for Office Sample Pack," Office Dev Center, Microsoft Corporation, updated October 20, 2015,

https://code.msdn.microsoft.com/office/Apps-for-Office-code-d04762b7.

2. "Privacy Policy," Privacy & Terms, Google, last modified March 25, 2016, http://www.google.com/policies/privacy. 

3. "Balkan Romani," Endangered Languages, Alliance for Linguistic Diversity, accessed April 6, 2016, http://www.endangered

languages.com/lang/5342. 

University of Chicago.  The Chicago Manual of Style . 17th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2017. 

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Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Footnotes and Endnotes

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Note:  This page reflects APA 6, which is now out of date. It will remain online until 2021, but will not be updated. The equivalent APA 7 page can be found here .

APA does not recommend the use of footnotes and endnotes because they are often expensive for publishers to reproduce. However, if explanatory notes still prove necessary to your document, APA details the use of two types of footnotes: content and copyright.

When using either type of footnote, insert a number formatted in superscript following almost any punctuation mark. Footnote numbers should not follow dashes ( — ), and if they appear in a sentence in parentheses, the footnote number should be inserted within the parentheses.

When using the footnote function in a word-processing program like Microsoft Word, place all footnotes at the bottom of the page on which they appear. Footnotes may also appear on the final page of your document (usually this is after the References page). Center the word “Footnotes” at the top of the page. Indent five spaces on the first line of each footnote. Then, follow normal paragraph spacing rules. Double-space throughout.

Content Notes

Content notes provide supplemental information to your readers. When providing content notes, be brief and focus on only one subject. Try to limit your comments to one small paragraph.

Content notes can also point readers to information that is available in more detail elsewhere.

Copyright Permission Notes

If you quote more than 500 words of published material or think you may be in violation of “Fair Use” copyright laws, you must get the formal permission of the author(s). All other sources simply appear in the reference list.

Follow the same formatting rules as with content notes for noting copyright permissions. Then attach a copy of the permission letter to the document.

If you are reproducing a graphic, chart, or table, from some other source, you must provide a special note at the bottom of the item that includes copyright information. You should also submit written permission along with your work. Begin the citation with “ Note .”

Note . From “Title of the article,” by W. Jones and R. Smith, 2007, Journal Title , 21, p. 122. Copyright 2007 by Copyright Holder. Reprinted with permission.

Home » Education » Difference Between Citation and Footnote

Difference Between Citation and Footnote

Main difference – citation vs footnote.

What is a Citation

A citation indicates the source of your information. It tells the readers from where you took the ideas and information. This is done in the text itself. There are different style guides for adding citations to your work.  Stating the name of the author/s and the year of publication is one such method. This method is followed in APA style.

Research into folklore began to emerge as an independent discipline during the period of romantic nationalism in Europe. (Noyes, 2012)

This can also be phrased as,

As Noyes (2012) states, Research into folklore began to emerge as an independent discipline during the period of romantic nationalism in Europe.

However, on MLA referencing style, the page number replaces the year of publication. For example,

Research into folklore began to emerge as an independent discipline during the period of romantic nationalism in Europe. (Noyes 13)

Noyes states, Research into folklore began to emerge as an independent discipline during the period of romantic nationalism in Europe. (13)

What is a Footnote

A footnote is found at the bottom or foot of the page.  Footnotes can not only indicate bibliographic information, but they can also add additional information and comments of the writer.

When a specific fact is obtained from another source, a superscript number can be found within the body of the text. The corresponding comment or information will be found at the foot of the page. For example, the text will look something like this.

Research into folklore began to emerge as an independent discipline during the period of romantic nationalism in Europe. 1  The study of folklore is termed as Folkloristics although many people are           unaware of the existence of this academic field. Folklorists gather data by studying the folklores                      first; then they engage in fieldwork which includes interviewing people.

However, footnotes are not allowed in all style guides. The APA style guide, for example, does not recommend the use of footnotes and endnotes.

Citation refers to a quotation from or reference to a book, paper, or author, especially in an academic work.

Footnote refers to a piece of information printed at the bottom of a page.

Type of Information

Citation contains bibliographical information.

Footnote can contain bibliographical information, author’s comment or additional information.

Style Guides

Citation is allowed in all style guides.

Footnote is not allowed in APA style.

Citation is done in the text itself.

Footnote is included at the bottom of the page.

About the Author: Hasa

Hasanthi is a seasoned content writer and editor with over 8 years of experience. Armed with a BA degree in English and a knack for digital marketing, she explores her passions for literature, history, culture, and food through her engaging and informative writing.

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Dual vs Single Cardioversion of Atrial Fibrillation in Patients With Obesity : A Randomized Clinical Trial

• 1 Division of Cardiac Electrophysiology, Ochsner Medical Center, New Orleans, Louisiana
• 2 Ochsner-West Bank, Gretna, Louisiana
• 3 University of Queensland–Ochsner Clinical School, New Orleans, Louisiana
• 4 Ochsner-Louisiana Health Science Center–Shreveport, Shreveport, Louisiana
• 5 University of Iowa, Iowa City

Question   Is dual direct-current cardioversion a more effective cardioversion strategy than single direct-current cardioversion in patients with atrial fibrillation and obesity?

Findings   In this multicenter, patient-blinded, randomized clinical trial of 200 patients with obesity (body mass index ≥35) and atrial fibrillation, dual direct-current cardioversion was associated with a significantly higher likelihood of cardioversion success (98%) compared with standard single direct-current cardioversion (86%), without increased risk of adverse events.

Meaning   Dual direct-current cardioversion results in a higher rate of success of cardioverting atrial fibrillation in patients with obesity compared with conventional single direct-current cardioversion.

Importance   Atrial fibrillation and obesity are common, and both are increasing in prevalence. Obesity is associated with failure of cardioversion of atrial fibrillation using a standard single set of defibrillator pads, even at high output.

Objective   To compare the efficacy and safety of dual direct-current cardioversion (DCCV) using 2 sets of pads, with each pair simultaneously delivering 200 J, with traditional single 200-J DCCV using 1 set of pads in patients with obesity and atrial fibrillation.

Design, Setting, and Participants   This was a prospective, investigator-initiated, patient-blinded, randomized clinical trial spanning 3 years from August 2020 to 2023. As a multicenter trial, the setting included 3 sites in Louisiana. Eligibility criteria included body mass index (BMI) of 35 or higher (calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared), age 18 years or older, and planned nonemergent electrical cardioversion for atrial fibrillation. Patients who met inclusion criteria were randomized 1:1. Exclusions occurred due to spontaneous cardioversion, instability, thrombus, or BMI below threshold.

Interventions   Dual DCCV vs single DCCV.

Main Outcomes and Measures   Return to sinus rhythm, regardless of duration, immediately after the first cardioversion attempt of atrial fibrillation, adverse cardiovascular events, and chest discomfort after the procedure.

Results   Of 2079 sequential patients undergoing cardioversion, 276 met inclusion criteria and were approached for participation. Of these, 210 participants were randomized 1:1. After exclusions, 200 patients (median [IQR] age, 67.6 [60.1-72.4] years; 127 male [63.5%]) completed the study. The mean (SD) BMI was 41.2 (6.5). Cardioversion was successful more often with dual DCCV compared with single DCCV (97 of 99 patients [98%] vs 87 of 101 patients [86%]; P  = .002). Dual cardioversion predicted success (odds ratio, 6.7; 95% CI, 3.3-13.6; P  = .01). Patients in the single cardioversion cohort whose first attempt failed underwent dual cardioversion with all subsequent attempts (up to 3 total), all of which were successful: 12 of 14 after second cardioversion and 2 of 14 after third cardioversion. There was no difference in the rating of postprocedure chest discomfort (median in both groups = 0 of 10; P  = .40). There were no cardiovascular complications.

Conclusions and Relevance   In patients with obesity (BMI ≥35) undergoing electrical cardioversion for atrial fibrillation, dual DCCV results in greater cardioversion success compared with single DCCV, without any increase in complications or patient discomfort.

Trial Registration   ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT04539158

Read More About

Aymond JD , Sanchez AM , Castine MR, et al. Dual vs Single Cardioversion of Atrial Fibrillation in Patients With Obesity : A Randomized Clinical Trial . JAMA Cardiol. Published online May 22, 2024. doi:10.1001/jamacardio.2024.1091

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