motivation theory case study examples

An experiential exercise for teaching theories of work motivation: using a game to teach equity and expectancy theories

Organization Management Journal

ISSN : 2753-8567

Article publication date: 1 July 2020

Issue publication date: 27 November 2020

This paper aims to provide an experiential exercise for management and leadership educators to use in the course of their teaching duties.

Design/methodology/approach

The approach of this classroom teaching method uses an experiential exercise to teach Adams’ equity theory and Vroom’s expectancy theory.

This experiential exercise has proven useful in teaching two major theories of motivation and is often cited as one of the more memorable classes students experience.

Originality/value

To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is an original experiential exercise for teaching the equity and expectancy theories of motivation.

• Work motivation
• Equity theory
• Expectancy theory

Experiential exercise

Swain, J. , Kumlien, K. and Bond, A. (2020), "An experiential exercise for teaching theories of work motivation: using a game to teach equity and expectancy theories", Organization Management Journal , Vol. 17 No. 3, pp. 119-132. https://doi.org/10.1108/OMJ-06-2019-0742

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2020, Jordon Swain, Kevin Kumlien and Andrew Bond.

Published in Organization Management Journal . Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode

Theories of work motivation are central to the field of management and are covered in many introductory management, leadership, human resource management and organizational behavior courses ( Benson & Dresdow, 2019 ; Steers, Mowday, & Shapiro, 2004 ; Swain, Bogardus, & Lin, 2019 ). Understanding the concept of work motivation helps undergraduate students prepare for leading and managing others. Teaching these concepts in the classroom allows students to experiment and share ideas with others in a lower-stakes environment than if they were in an actual place of work with other employees. But teaching students theories of work motivation is not easy. First, there are dozens of theories ranging from Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, to self-determination theory, to goal setting theory, to Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory (a.k.a. two-factor theory), to job characteristics theory, just to name a few ( Anderson, 2007 ; Holbrook & Chappell, 2019 ; Latham & Pinder, 2005 ; Locke & Latham, 1990 ). Second, students tend to evaluate the explanatory power of different motivational theories based on how they relate to their work and life experiences ( Anderson, 2007 ). This tendency to view motivation theories through the lens of personal experience poses a challenge for undergraduate level students who have limited work exposure; they often lack the context to make sense of the various motivational theories ( Mills, 2017 ). Therefore, to provide a common experience through which students can understand theories of work motivation, we developed an experiential activity. Specifically, we use an in-class basketball exercise. This experiential approach not only provides a common context for students to reference in applying theories of work motivation, but also incorporates elements of fun and competition, which have been shown to help engage students more fully ( Helms & Haynes, 1990 ; Azriel, Erthal, & Starr, 2005 ).

While there are numerous theories of work motivation ( Latham & Pinder, 2005 ), like others, we have found focusing on too many of these theories during one class overwhelms students and causes them to question academics’ understanding of the topic ( Anderson, 2007 ; Holbrook & Chappell, 2019 ). However, focusing on too few theories also limits students’ education and understanding of why multiple theories of motivation exist. We find that acknowledging the existence of multiple theories is advisable, and we suggest instructors emphasize the complexity of motivation, but that they do not try to force students to learn or apply the details of a large number of theories of motivation in a single class period. Therefore, our exercise focuses on two basic theories of work motivation – Vroom’s Expectancy Theory and Adams’ Equity Theory. We chose to focus on these two theories because they are among the most influential theories of work motivation ( Anderson, 2007 ; Holbrook & Chappell, 2019 ; Miner, 2003 ) and among the most frequently included in management and organizational behavior courses and textbooks ( Miner, 2003 ; Miner, 2005 ).

Theoretical foundation

Both expectancy and equity theories of motivation have been identified as important frameworks for teaching and understanding motivation, and both emphasize the cognitive approach to motivation ( Miner, 2003 ; Stecher & Rosse, 2007 ).

Adams’ equity theory centers on the perception of fairness ( Adams, 1963 ). When people feel they have been fairly treated, they are more likely to be motivated. When they feel they have not been fairly treated, their motivation will suffer. These perceptions of equity are derived from an assessment of personal input and outputs – or what people put into a task compared to what they receive as a result ( Adams, 1963 ; Kanfer & Ryan, 2018 ). Inputs can include things like time, effort, loyalty, enthusiasm and personal sacrifice. Outputs can include but are not limited to, thing likes salary, praise, rewards, recognition, job security, etc. But the theory is more complex than simply the assessment of personal inputs weighed against outputs. Adams’ equity theory also incorporates the concept of perceived equity ( Adams, 1963 ; Kanfer & Ryan, 2018 ). People compare their inputs and outputs to others. If they feel that another person is putting in the same level of effort, but getting more outputs as a result, that person’s motivation may suffer ( Kanfer, 1990 ; Kanfer & Ryan, 2018 ; Stecher & Rosse, 2007 ). This theory can be summarized using a visual equation that highlights how perceived equity can impact motivation ( Appendix 1 ). This same visual equation can help students understand how leaders can influence motivation in their subordinates; how leaders can impact equity. For example, if inequity exists, leaders may require subordinates to reduce personal inputs, or they may adjust the outcomes. They might also counsel their subordinates to change their comparison points (e.g. a low-level worker should not compare herself to a senior VP with 12+ years of experience).

Expectancy : Is the individual properly trained and do they possess the necessary resources to effectively do the job?

Instrumentality : Does the individual trust that they’ll receive what they were promised if they do what they were asked?

Valence : Does the individual value the reward they were promised ( Kanfer & Ryan, 2018 )?

In this exercise, we use a mini basketball game in class to teach students about both Adams’ equity theory and Vroom’s expectancy theory. Using the game in class ensures students have a common context through which to apply and understand these two theories of work motivation. As noted by Stecher & Rosse (2007) , both theories offer compatible frameworks for understanding work motivation, yet they are most often taught as distinct non-related theories. We find that teaching these two theories using the same experiential exercise helps students understand the complexities of motivation. Specifically, this exercise helps students understand how multiple theories can explain motivation issues for the same situation.

Learning objectives

understand the complexity of motivation and its impact on performance;

explain differences in an individual’s motivation and behavior as a function of common psychological forces experienced by people; and

apply knowledge of work motivation theories to address issues of motivation.

Target audience.

This exercise is designed for undergraduate students in introductory courses in leadership, management, human resource management or organizational behavior – wherever theories of work motivation are covered. This approach has been used for over a decade teaching college juniors and seniors in a leadership course. While the approach has not been used to teach graduate students, there is no reason to believe it would not be an effective means for teaching those enrolled in an MBA program.

Class size.

The exercise has been used in classes ranging from 15 to 36 students. As participation by multiple students positively impacts the class, it is recommended the exercise be used for smaller classes. Time could become a factor in larger classes. Furthermore, space could prove a limiting factor in larger classes as some room is needed to set up the game.

Supplies needed.

mini basketball hoop and mini basketball (a trash can and wadded up paper can work if you do not have access to a small hoop and ball);

means for keeping time (stopwatch, wristwatch or wall clock with a second hand);

painter’s tape or note cards to annotate shot positions on the floor in the classroom;

one bag of miniature candy bars; and

slides of equity and expectancy theory to assist in de-brief ( Appendix 1 ).

This exercise as described can be completed in a single 75-min class session. If less time is available, we recommend instructors teach only one of the theories as outlined in this article (conduct only one of the two rounds of the game), covering the other theory during another class period.

a brief overview of work motivation by the instructor (via short lecture or through soliciting input from students to gauge the level of preparation) (10 min);

the first round of the game (10 min);

de-brief and application of equity theory (10 min);

the second round of the game (10 min);

de-brief and application of expectancy theory (10 min);

small group discussion on the future application of theories (15 min); and

structured de-brief of group discussions (10 min).

Student preparation before class.

It is recommended that instructors assign students readings focused on work motivation in advance of the class. A large number of organizational behavior or management textbooks contain chapters on this topic. At a minimum, the assigned reading should cover equity and expectancy theories.

Instructor preparation and classroom setup.

Instructors should set up the classroom with supplies they obtained before beginning class. A visual example of the classroom setup for Rounds 1 and 2 of the exercise can be found in Appendix 2 . The mini-basketball hoop should be located in front of the classroom where all the students can see it. Depending on the size/shape of the classroom, the shooting positions for Rounds 1 and 2 of the exercise can be placed in any location. The shooting position for Round 1 should be a moderately difficult shot, perhaps two to three steps away from the basket. Mark the position with tape or a notecard.

Round 2 requires three different shooting positions. Each position should be marked with tape or a notecard. The first position is the “easy” shot. It should be very close to the basket (1-2 steps in front of the basket). The purpose of this first position is to create the opportunity for a shot that the average person would have lots of confidence in making (high expectancy). The second position should be further away (six to eight steps away from the basket) and potentially behind a row of desks for some added difficulty. The purpose of this second position is to create a shot of medium level difficulty where students are not completely confident (lower expectancy) that they will be able to make it. The third position should be the hardest shot that you can create while still leaving a very small possibility of the shot being made (lowest expectancy). It is recommended you make the student stand outside of a doorway so that they have to shoot a strange trajectory. If your classroom space is not big enough to support making a shot position that is far away from the basket, you can instead add difficulty by requiring the student to wear a blindfold or to shoot backwards. For the positions needed for Round 2 of the exercise, instructors should test the positions and ensure the three different locations are of varying difficulty and that the third position is an extremely difficult (almost impossible) shot to make.

Running the exercise

Introduction to motivational theories (10 min).

Given the number of motivational theories that exist in the academic world, we find it helpful to acknowledge this initially with students to highlight the overall complexity of the topic. In this introduction, instructors can briefly highlight the variety of motivational theories that exist (e.g. expectancy, equity, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, self-determination theory, goal setting theory, Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory, job characteristics theory, etc.). This can be done in any number of ways – asking students to list and/or briefly describe the various theories covered in their assigned reading, etc. Teachers should tailor this introduction based on their specific situation (e.g. the content of assigned reading, length of class, etc.). After talking through the variety of theories that exist, it is important to highlight to students that these theories should be viewed more as a conceptual toolbox for them to use in different situations as opposed to viewing all of these theories as a group of non-congruent viewpoints all competing to be the truest ( Anderson, 2007 ).

After a brief review of the assigned reading(s), instructors can tell students that they are going to play a game to apply what they have learned.

Round 1 of the game (10 min)

Ask all of the students to stand up and tell them to stretch out, limber up, and get prepared for a mini-basketball competition. During this session, the instructor will provide students with an exciting and competitive experience to which they can apply the concepts of Adams’ Equity Theory.

Divide students into four even teams. Have students move around and sit with their team as a group. Explain that Team 1 will compete against Team 2 in a basketball shootout. Establish an incentive of your choice – candy often works well. Show this incentive to the students. Now call Team 1 and Team 2 up to the front of the class and instruct them that:

[…] you can take as many shots as you want at the hoop in 60 seconds, but everybody in your team needs to shoot at least once. The team that ends up with the most baskets made will win. Team 1, you will go first.

Use a stopwatch or watch with a second hand to keep time and instruct members of the opposing team to keep score.

Once Team 1 completes their turn, record their score and call Team 2 forward. Before allowing Team 2 to start their turn, move the shooting spot three paces further away from the basket (move the tape or notecard back three paces).

You will likely experience negative feedback from Team 2 after moving the basket. Common responses include, “this isn’t fair.” Pay close attention to the complaints that they use, these are often very useful to bring up during the discussion portion of the exercise. You might respond lightheartedly with “life isn’t fair” or “what, are you scared?” Allow Team 2 to complete their turn, paying close attention to their affect and comments. If done correctly, Team 2 should lose to Team 1. Congratulate Team 1 on their excellent performance and give each member of Team 1 their prize (a small candy bar works well) and have both Teams 1 and 2 return to their seats.

Now call Team 3 forward. Instruct them that will have 60 s to shoot from the same spot that Team 2 shot from. Keep time and have a member from Team 4 count the baskets. When time is up, record the score. Now call Team 4 forward. Have them shoot from the same spot Team 3 did. Start the clock. However, do not stop the team from shooting after 60 s. Let them continue to shoot for an additional 30 s – or longer – until you hear the members of Teams 1, 2 and 3 start questioning how much time Team 4 is getting to shoot. Record the number of shots made. Team 4 should beat Team 3. Congratulate team 4. Do NOT give Team 4 any candy for winning. Have Teams 3 and 4 return to their seats.

Round 1 de-brief and application of equity theory (10 min)

This is where the instructor begins to apply Adams’ equity theory to the scenario. Ask students if anyone is feeling unsatisfied or unmotivated. You should have several hands go up. If not, remind them of the negative comments you heard during the game – calling on students by name if necessary. Now start to inquire as to why people said what they did.

At this point, the instructor should put up the slide with Adams’ equity theory on it ( Appendix 1 ) and ask students to explain what happened using the equation on the slide. The class should point out several areas where “the equation does not balance.” For example, the inputs for Team 1 were less than the input for Team 2. Team 2 had a harder shot and, therefore, had to provide more inputs (work harder). Students should also point out that the outputs were not even. Team 4 beat Team 3 (just as Team 1 beat Team 2), but Team 4 did not receive the same outcome/reward. Less clear is the factor of Team 4 having more time than Team 3. Ask students how this factor impacts motivation using equity theory.

Pass out candy to all members of the class – to reduce feelings of inequity. Keep three pieces of candy for Round 2.

Round 2 of the game (10 min)

Now tell the class that you are going to ask for three volunteers. Inform the class that if they volunteer and are selected, they have a choice to make – they must choose one of three shooting/prize positions.

Shooting Position #1. Tell the students that if they choose shooting position #1, they get to shoot from the closest spot (and show them where it is). Let them know that they can take three practice shots and that for making a basket, they will receive a piece of candy.

Shooting Position #2. Tell students if they choose this option, they get to shoot from the spot of moderate difficulty and show them where it is. Let them know they get one practice shot and that their prize for making the basket is something of medium desirability – perhaps lunch paid for by the instructor at a local moderately priced restaurant of the student’s choice.

Shooting Position #3. Tell students that if they choose this option, they get to shoot from the most difficult spot and show them where it is. Tell them that they do not get any practice shots from this location. Promise an extremely desirable reward (high valence) and also something that the students may question whether you have the power to give it to them (low instrumentality). A great example is offering them the ability to get out of having to do a major course requirement such as a capstone project or thesis paper. You could also offer something like getting to park in the Dean’s parking spot for the rest of the semester. The creativity behind choosing this third reward is that you want to find the balance of a reward that is extremely high in desirability, but also something that in hindsight students should realize was probably outside of your ability to deliver on that reward (low instrumentality). By creating a reward that is somewhat unrealistic for shooting position #3, the instructor will allow for a follow-on discussion about the power of instrumentality in Vroom’s expectancy theory. If a student questions whether or not they will receive the reward by meeting the performance outcome (making the shot), then their instrumentality will be lower which may alter the position they select to shoot from.

Now that all three shooting positions have been described, pick three volunteers at random and have them come to the front of the room. Ask the first student what option she would like to choose and have her take the shot. Repeat for the second and third students (students can all shoot from the same spot if they desire). After the final volunteer chooses the shooting position and takes the shot, have students return to their seats and prepare for the de-brief.

Round 2 de-brief and application of expectancy theory (10 min).

After the volunteers have returned to their seats, the instructor can display the Vroom’s expectancy theory slide ( Appendix 1 ) to begin shaping the class conversation in terms of Vroom’s expectancy theory.

Individual behavior = the physical act of shooting the basketball;

Performance outcome = making the basketball in the hoop; and

Reward outcome = the prize received based on making the shot from the shooting position the student chose.

Next, ask the students to break down each of the three options in terms of expectancy, instrumentality and valence . The following should come out in the discussion:

Expectancy – Shooting position #1 has the highest expectancy of all three positions. Self-efficacy is increased through multiple practice shots and the close distance makes the shot seem achievable.

Instrumentality – Shooting position #1 should have a high level of instrumentality. Students know you have the candy bar and that you delivered on what you promised during round 1. Therefore, it is likely they trust and believe they will receive the reward candy bar for achieving the performance outcome of making the shot.

Valence – Shooting position #1 likely has the lowest valence of all three positions in terms of overall value. However, valence could run from low to high depending on individual preference. The candy bar may have lower valence if students do not like the particular candy bar.

Expectancy – Lower than shooting position #1 because the shot is more difficult, and the student only gets one practice shot. However, the expectancy of shooting position #2 is still greater than shooting position #3 because the shot is easier and the student still receives a practice shot which raises the student’s confidence in their ability to achieve the performance outcome of making the shot.

Instrumentality – Lower than shooting position #1, but higher than shooting position #3. There might be some trust issues related to whether the students will receive the lunch. As the student does not immediately get the reward of the free lunch by achieving the performance outcome of making the shot, the instrumentality may be low. The instrumentality should still be higher than shooting position #3 because the student should have more trust that the instructor will buy them lunch as compared to not having to write the final paper for the class.

Valence – Should be higher than position 1 since lunch is more expensive than just a candy bar. However, individual preferences again may vary depending on if the students have free time in their schedule or if they would even like to have lunch with their professor.

Expectancy – The lowest of all three positions as there is no practice shot and the difficulty of the shot is so high that students do not really believe that they will be able to make the shot.

Instrumentality – Should be the lowest of all three positions as the reward may seem so great that some students will doubt if the instructor will follow through on giving the reward, or if they even have the power to give out the reward. But this may not be rated by students as low initially.

Valence – The highest of all three positions. The reward of not having to write a final paper, or some other exclusive reward (parking in the Dean’s parking spot) should be viewed as extremely appealing to most students given the high value they place on their time in a busy college schedule.

After going through each of the shooting positions, have the non-participating students in the classroom evaluate the multiplicative factors for each shooting position and ask them if it makes sense why each student chose to shoot from where they did.

Small group discussion on the future application of theories (15 min)

After students have had a chance to run through both games as well as the de-brief for each exercise, it is now time to turn the discussion toward an application of both theories to future leadership situations. Break students back out into the teams they were on for the Adams’ equity theory portion of the class. Instruct the groups they will have 15 min to talk amongst themselves to brainstorm examples of personal experiences or potential future scenarios where they can apply Adams’ equity theory and Vroom’s expectancy theory. Examples that often come up range from peers on group projects receiving the same reward/recognition even though they contributed less, gender discrepancies in pay or promotion, poor incentive systems, etc.

Structured de-brief of group discussion (10 min)

Spend the last 10 min of this class asking each group of the teams to share an example they discussed within their small group. Ensure that you press the students to use the correct terminology when talking about their examples through the lens of either Adams’ equity theory or Vroom’s expectancy theory and ask them how they might positively impact motivation in the scenario they discussed.

Potential challenges.

Challenge : The instructor does not properly manage time for a thorough debrief of each exercise

09:30-09:40. A brief overview of work motivation theories;

09:40-09:50. The first round of the game (Adams’ equity theory);

09:50-10:00. De-brief round one exercise and apply Adams’ equity theory;

10:00-10:10. The second round of the game (Vroom’s expectancy theory);

10:10-10:20. De-brief round two exercise and apply Vroom-s expectancy theory;

10:20-10:35. Small group discussion on the future application of theories; and

10:35-10:45. Structured de-brief of group discussions.

Challenge: A student manages to make the impossible shot

Solution: In the event that a student does make the nearly impossible shot from shooting position #3 (this did happen in one instance and it turned into a viral Instagram video with over 20,000 views) then the instructor needs to be prepared to not follow through on the reward. Instead, the instructor should discuss the concept of instrumentality and how the trust between a leader and their direct reports is essential to ensuring positive motivation in the workplace. This is why it is important that the reward for shooting position #3 is somewhat unbelievable in the first place because it will allow for a great discussion on instrumentality and the belief that achieving a performance outcome will lead to a given reward. The instructor can begin by polling the students to see how many of them completely believed that the reward for shooting position #3 was realistic and attainable. Through this discussion, the instructor can highlight what happens to motivation when managers create extremely difficult goals (low expectancy) with extremely valuable rewards (high valence) to try and motivate their workers. This also provides a strong example to the students of what happens to trust when a leader fails to follow through on a promised reward and how that will impact instrumentality and thus motivation in the future.

Challenge: Students may not have real-life examples to discuss in their groups.

Solution. If group discussion is lagging, the teacher can suggest situations that students may have experienced or direct them to use the internet to find examples and to discuss those instances.

This experiential exercise has proven useful over the past 10 years in providing an introductory look at the complexity of workplace theories of motivation. In semester-end student feedback, this class has been mentioned numerous times as one of the most impactful lessons of the course. Multiple students have commented on the effectiveness of the hands-on exercise in creating a memorable point of reference that makes it easier to retain class learning concepts. In fact, the most recent end of course feedback over one-third of students cited this lesson as the most memorable of the 30-lesson course. Additionally, the in-class exercise provides a common context for students with varying experiences to engage with and allows for the introduction and application of two of the major theories of motivation. Furthermore, the fun, competitive format generates interest and excitement. Note, we have also used miniature golf instead of basketball to teach each theory – having students putt with different equipment, from different distances, and for different prizes. For a brief overview on the setup using mini-golf, please see Appendix 3 . We encourage faculty to have fun with the exercise – it is not just for the students!

Adams’ equity theory

Vroom’s expectancy theory

Setup for Round #1 – Adams’ equity theory

Setup for Round #2 – Vroom’s expectancy theory

Setup for Vroom’s expectancy theory using mini-golf

Appendix 1. Sample slides for use in de-briefing

Appendix 2. sample classroom setups for rounds 1 and 2, appendix 3. instructions for use of mini-golf instead of basketball.

If the classroom does not allow for the setup of the three different shooting positions for the basketball exercise, then it is easy to replace the basketball exercise with a mini-golf option. Below is a brief highlight of the differences in classroom setup for the golf exercise.

putter, golf ball and plastic solo cup;

painter’s tape or note cards to annotate shot positions on the floor in the classroom; and

bag of miniature candy bars.

Round 1 Exercise (Adams’ equity theory)

There are no major changes needed for this round. Simply follow the same instructions for Round 1 of the basketball exercise, except instead of basketball shots replace that with made putts into the solo cup. This will still allow for the same comparison and perceived inequities amongst the four teams that will create a rich discussion on Adams’ equity theory.

Round 2 Exercise (Vroom’s expectancy theory)

Again, there are no major changes needed for this round, other than just replacing the concept of a made basketball shot with a made putt. Below is an example of the three putting positions and how you can still create a similar scenario to the basketball exercise in terms of expectancy , instrumentality and valence for each putting position.

Putting Position #1: Create a short two-foot putt that is fairly easy to make. Allow the student to have three practice putts. This creates an option with high expectancy (an easy putt with practice shots), high instrumentality (the student believes that if they make the putt, they will receive the candy) and low valence (candy is not as valuable as lunch or getting out of writing a final paper).

Putting Position #2: Create a six-foot putt that is not straight on but instead is at a slight angle to the cup so that it is more difficult to make. Allow the student to have only one practice putt. This creates an option with a medium level of expectancy (a slightly more difficult putt), a medium level of instrumentality (the student has to trust that you will actually buy them lunch at some point in the future) and a medium level of valence (the lunch is greater than the candy bar, but most likely not as valuable as not writing the final paper).

Putting Position #3: Create the longest most difficult putt that your classroom will allow. Additionally, tell the students they will receive no practice putts and they will have to putt with the handle end of the putter. This creates an option with a very low level of expectancy (students will have a very low level of belief that they can make the putt given both the distance and the fact that they have to putt with the handle), a low level of instrumentality (again the reward should be so valuable that some students will doubt the reality of actually receiving the reward) and a very high level of valence (the reward should be extremely desirable).

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• Motivation theories explore the forces that drive people to work towards a particular outcome.
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• Here, we’re outlining five of the most common motivation theories and explaining how to put those theories into practice.

A huge part of a leader’s job is creating an environment where productivity thrives and teams are inspired to do their best work. But that uniquely human brand of motivation can be quite slippery – hard to understand, inspire, and harness.

An academic foundation on motivational theory can help, but opening that door exposes you to enough theoretical concepts and esoteric language to make your eyes glaze over.

This practical guide to motivation theories cuts through the jargon to help you get a solid grasp on the fundamentals that fuel your team’s peak performance – and how you can actually put these theories into action.

What is motivation theory?

Motivation theory explores the forces that drive people to work towards a particular outcome. Rather than accepting motivation as an elusive human idiosyncrasy, motivation theories offer a research-backed framework for understanding what, specifically , pushes people forward.

Motivation theory doesn’t describe one specific approach – rather, it’s an umbrella category that covers a slew of theories, each with a different take on the best “recipe” for motivation in the workplace.

CONTENT THEORIES VS. PROCESS THEORIES

At a high level, motivation theories can be split into two distinct categories: content theories and process theories . 

• Content theories focus on the things that people need to feel motivated. They look at the factors that encourage and maintain motivated behaviors, like basic needs, rewards, and recognition. 
• Process theories focus on individuals’ thought processes that might impact motivation, such as behavioral patterns and expectations.

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A quick Google search will reveal dozens of different approaches that promise to unlock relentless ambition on your team. 

It’s not likely that a single motivation theory will immediately ignite human-productivity hyperdrive. But the psychology happening behind the scenes gives unique insight into the components that influence human motivation. Leaders can then build on that foundation to create an environment that’s conducive to better focus and enthusiasm. 

Let’s get into five of the most common and frequently referenced theories.

1. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

One of the most well-known motivation theories, the hierarchy of needs was published by psychologist Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper “ A Theory of Human Motivation .” 

The gist is that Maslow’s hierarchy outlines five tiers of human needs, commonly represented by a pyramid. These five tiers are: 

• Physiological needs: Food, water, shelter, air, sleep, clothing, reproduction
• Safety needs: Personal security, employment, resources, health, property
• Love and belonging: Family, friendship, intimacy, a sense of connection
• Esteem: Status, recognition, self-esteem, respect
• Self-actualization: The ability to reach your full potential

As the term “hierarchy” implies, people tend to seek out their basic needs first (which make up the base of the pyramid). After that, they move to the needs in the next tier until they reach the tip of the pyramid.

In this same paper, however, Maslow clarifies that his hierarchy of needs isn’t quite as sequential as the pyramid framework might lead people to believe. One need doesn’t necessarily have to be fully met before the next one becomes pertinent. These human needs do build on each other, but they’re interdependent and not always consecutive. As Maslow himself said , “No need or drive can be treated as if it were isolated or discrete; every drive is related to the state of satisfaction or dissatisfaction of other drives.”

The iconic pyramid associated with Maslow’s theory wasn’t actually created by Maslow — and is even considered somewhat misleading, as you don’t need to “complete” each level before moving forward. The pyramid was popularized decades later by a different psychologist who built upon Maslow’s work along with other management theories.

Maslow’s theory was originally focused on humans’ fundamental needs generally, but in the intervening decades, it’s frequently been adapted and applied to workplaces. 

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in practice

The biggest lesson for leaders here is that you need to have the basics in place before anything else. Because Maslow’s tiers build on each other, a promotion won’t do much to motivate your team members if they’re concerned about the safety of their work environment. 

Do your team members feel that they have some level of job security? Are they adequately paid? Do they have safe working conditions? Those are the base requirements you need to meet first. 

The hierarchy of needs can support a more holistic approach to management, so you can confirm basic needs and then evolve a more nuanced idea of what people need to thrive. Do they have solid connections with you and their colleagues? Do they receive adequate recognition? Do they have some autonomy in their position?

2. Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory (AKA dual-factor or two-factor theory)

Frederick Herzberg, a behavioral scientist, created the motivation-hygiene theory in 1959. The theory is a result of his interviews with a group of employees, in which he asked them two simple questions: 

• Think of a time you felt good about your job. What made you feel that way?
• Think of a time you felt bad about your job. What made you feel that way? 

Through those interviews, he realized that there are two mutually exclusive factors that influence employee satisfaction or dissatisfaction – hence, this theory is often called the “two-factor” or “dual-factor” theory. He named the factors:

• Hygiene encompasses basic things like working conditions, compensation, supervision, and company policies. When these nuts and bolts are in place, employee satisfaction remains steady – it’s the absence of them that moves the needle. When they’re missing, employee satisfaction decreases. 
• Motivators are things like perks, recognition, and opportunity for advancement. These are the factors that, when present, increase employee motivation, productivity, and commitment.

Here’s the easiest way to think of this theory: Hygiene issues will cause dissatisfaction with your employees (and that dissatisfaction will hinder their motivation). Motivators improve satisfaction and motivation – but only when healthy hygiene is in place.

Herzberg’s theory in practice

Herzberg’s two-factor theory is often described as complementary to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, as both place an emphasis on ensuring an employee’s basic needs – like security, safety, and pay – are being satisfied. 

Maslow’s theory is more descriptive, and gives you a comprehensive understanding of the human needs that drive motivation. Herzberg’s theory focuses specifically on prescriptive takeaways for the workplace, giving managers a simple, two-part framework they can use to confirm the presence of hygiene factors before trying to leverage any motivators. 

3. Vroom’s expectancy theory

The premise behind Vroom’s expectancy theory , established by psychologist Victor Vroom in 1964, is pretty straightforward:  We make conscious choices about our behavior, and those choices are motivated by our expectations about what will happen. In other words, we make decisions to pursue pleasure and avoid pain. 

The nuance lies in Vroom’s finding that people value outcomes differently. To unpack that added layer of complexity, Vroom dug a little deeper to explain two psychological processes that influence motivation: 

• Instrumentality: People believe that a reward will correlate to their performance.
• Expectancy: People believe that as they increase their effort, the reward increases too.

Vroom’s theory indicates that people need to be able to anticipate the outcome of their actions and behaviors. And, if you want to boost motivation, they need to care about those outcomes. 

Vroom’s expectancy theory in practice

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Remember that everyone on your team might not be motivated by the same rewards, so your first step is to understand what each of your team members value so you can create opportunities for corresponding outcomes. From there, you can set clear expectations that connect performance to their desired rewards. (This is also what a career development plan does, by the way).

Of course, not every single expectation has a reward directly attached to it. Employees are required to fulfill the responsibilities of their jobs simply because…it’s their job.

Vroom’s theory is all about seeking pleasure and minimizing pain. So, in situations where a reward isn’t relevant, make sure employees are in the loop on what the consequences are if expectations aren’t met.

4. Reinforcement theory

The reinforcement theory is a piece of a broader concept called operant conditioning , which is often credited to psychologist, B.F. Skinner. However, Skinner’s work builds on the law of effect , established by Edward Thorndike in 1898. 

Despite its convoluted origins, this is another theory with a simple premise: Consequences shape our behaviors. We’ll repeat behaviors that are reinforced, whether that means they lead to a positive outcome (positive reinforcement) or they end or remove a negative outcome (negative reinforcement).

This theory doesn’t focus on our internal drivers – it’s all about cause and effect. If we do something and like the result, we do it again. 

Reinforcement theory in practice

Because this theory is so strongly correlated to human nature (hey, you probably weren’t eager to touch a hot stove again after it burned you once, right?), it’s one of the most intuitive to apply on your team.

When an employee does something desirable, reward that behavior – whether in the form of well-deserved recognition,  taking a dreaded task off their plate, or offering a more tangible perk like an extra day off.

5. Self-determination theory

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The self-determination theory , introduced by psychologists Richard Ryan and Edward Deci in their 1985 book , focuses on finding motivation within yourself.

Ryan and Deci argue that motivation shouldn’t necessarily be derived from dangling carrots or waving sticks at people. That type is what they refer to as controlled motivation , in which people choose their behaviors based on external results. 

Far more powerful than that, the psychologists argued, is autonomous motivation (also known as intrinsic motivation). Under these circumstances, people feel motivated when their choices are aligned with their internal goals and beliefs. Their behaviors aren’t directed by external approval, rewards, and punishments. Instead, their behaviors are self-determined. 

Autonomous motivation doesn’t happen on its own. To get there, people need to have three psychological needs met:

• Autonomy: The feeling that they have a choice and some ownership over their behavior
• Competence: The feeling that they are knowledgeable and capable 
• Relatedness: The feeling that they are connected to others

When those three boxes are checked, people are better equipped to pull motivation from within, rather than relying on the external factors that are central to so many other motivation theories. 

Self-determination theory in practice

You might guess that meeting those three core psychological needs is crucial for this theory – and there’s no need to overcomplicate it.

Here are a few ideas:

• Autonomy: Give employees flexible schedules and the ability to decide for themselves when and where they do their best work.
• Competence: Offer additional trainings and learning opportunities to continue to refine their skills.
• Relatedness: Provide outlets – whether it’s designated Slack channels or team outings – for team members to bond and get to know each other on a more personal level.

That’s not an exhaustive list. You have room to get creative and find other ways to boost your employees’ sense of ownership, proficiency, and connection. 

Motivation doesn’t have to be a mystery

Motivation can feel fickle – like a fleeting phenomenon that magically happens when conditions are just right .

But, as your team’s leader, it’s your responsibility to conjure that “just right” environment where people can perform their best work. 

You don’t need to be a mind reader to make that happen. Motivation theory can help you identify methods among the madness and create an environment where a high-level motivation is a constant – not a fluke.

Advice, stories, and expertise about work life today.

Employee Motivation: Theories in Practice Case Study

Introduction, theoretical framework, conclusion and recommendations, works cited.

The functioning of any company critically depends on its employees, their performance, and readiness to contribute to the further evolution of the firm. For this reason, modern management primarily focuses on the creation of conditions under which workers will be able to show their best results. Accepting the importance of this approach, one can also admit the reconsideration of the approaches to leadership and motivation as two basic elements needed to create a positive working atmosphere and ensure that all individuals within a team will have the desired level of commitment to achieve the outlined goals and form the basis for the company’s further rise. The importance of these two elements is evidenced by the fact that the emergence of problems in one of these domains along with the gaps in knowledge or critical flaws might precondition the decline in motivation and performance levels along with the collapse of the company.

The offered case study revolves around a similar problem. Rohit Narang, a new worker of Apex Computers, is inspired by a perfect opportunity to continue career growth by working at the more promising character if to compare with his previous employer, Zen Computers. Rohit belongs to a team consisting of five members, including its head Aparna Metha. However, he starts to face the first problems because of the lack of motivation. Having discovered a problem and create a solution for it, he presented it to Aparna, but no feedback was received. The team was also unwilling to discuss it as the leader always offers other solutions that should be accepted by team members without discussions. As far as Rohit has experience of another type of leadership demonstrated by his previous boss, who provided an opportunity to learn by making mistakes, he starts to feel disappointed and demotivated to continue working and create innovative or creative solutions that can be used by the company.

Before analyzing this very situation and answering questions, it is critical to creating the theoretical background preceding the discussion and contributing to its improved understanding. As it has already been stated, the leadership and motivation issues play a critical role in this situation; moreover, they are interconnected, which means that the investigation of the problem is impossible without their comprehension. Thus, the modern approach to leadership states that the central role of any leader is to inspire and motivate his/her followers to ensure the achievement of the best possible results and contribute to the future development of organizations (Gordon 56). There are also various leadership styles that can be utilized depending on the situation and the existing goals. The choice of the correct way to work with employees preconditions success and the ability of a team to accomplish existing tasks effectively (Gordon 78). In such a way, in this case, one can see essential flaws in this aspect as the level of commitment decreases.

Another factor touched upon in the case is motivation. It can be determined as people’s readiness to perform some actions or engage in various activities. It is usually associated with the generation of the particular benefit or satisfaction of a certain need, as all individuals have many motifs or cases for their actions. Speaking about organizations and teams, motivation also plays a critical role in their functioning as it guarantees high effectiveness and readiness to perform multiple tasks (Pinder 45). At the same time, there is a clear understanding that there is a certain complexity peculiar to this sphere and a set of factors that impact motivation. From the case, it becomes clear that Rohit is inspired by the opportunity to engage in new, challenging, and interesting activities that can help him to grow professionally and build a career. These factors can be considered facilitators of motivation; however, the team leaders’ lack of desire to cooperate with a team decreases its levels.

The motivation of a person also depends on his/her current needs. Cogitating this issue, Maslow offers a specific hierarchy outlining factors that should be considered.

In accordance with this model, every individual has five types of demands, which are physiological, safety, belongingness and love, esteem, self-actualization needs (McLeod). Every worker remains in his/her own state of personal development, which means that there are different types of demands he/she has at the moment. However, only satisfaction of hierarchically lower needs can help to achieve the next stage and remain motivated (McLeod). Applying this concept to the proposed situation and the question of motivation of leadership in general, it is possible to state that leaders’ main task is to watch that employees’ basic demands are met while there are also opportunities to satisfy needs for prestige, self-actualization, and career growth. Only under these conditions will workers demonstrate a high level of commitment and desire to perform their functions effectively.

Finally, the case also poses the question of climate or atmosphere within a collective as Rohit’s colleagues have a certain negative impact on his motivation and desire to work. Being sure that leadership style will not alter, they prefer to avoid creative solutions adhering to the recommendations of their leader. This factor deteriorates the atmosphere and contributes to the emergence of critical problems in the future.

What, according to you, were the reasons for Rohit’s disillusionment? Answer the question using Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.

In such a way, utilizing this theoretical framework, it can be stated that there were several reasons for Rohit’s disillusionment. Accepting the fact that the primary motive for leaving the previous job was the desire to self-realize and build a more successful career, the absence of opportunities for self-realization can be considered the primary factor is limiting his motivation to work effectively. The utilization of the inappropriate leadership style by Aparna also contributes to the deterioration of the climate within a collective, which is also one of the factors that decrease Rohit’s desire to engage in new work and makes him think about the previous employer who provided workers with the chance to cooperate, discuss, and evolves by using creative approaches.

Applying the concept of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to the case, it is possible to state that Rohit has already fulfilled his basic demands, such as physiological and safety ones. The major reason for his transfer to other work was the desire to build a successful career or self-actualization and esteem demands (McLeod). The existence of opportunities to become a member of a team that creates new approaches together is an ideal motivator for Rohit. However, Aparna’s disregard of the team’s ideas and autocratic leadership style reduces motivation levels as there are no more chances to self-realize and grow professionally. For this reason, Rohit experiences some hardships and is not able to find other factors that can motivate him to work better.

What should Rohit do to resolve his situation? What can a team leader do to ensure high levels of motivation among his/her team members?

One of the possible ways to resolve the situation for Rohit is direct and open communication with his leader to share his problems and explain the negative impact of the selected leadership style on the whole collective. Trustful relations between all employees are the key to the achievement of positive results, which means that the initiation of the group discussion of the existing problems can help to make Aparna think about altering the current approach. To achieve high levels of motivation among group members, the leader should adhere to the transformational leadership style as it provides opportunities for all employees to engage in debates about topical problems and create an innovative solution that would contribute to the achievement of organizational goals (Gordon 123). A gradual increase in motivation levels should be one of Aparna’s major tasks.

Altogether, the given case proves the increased importance of motivation and leadership for the work of organizations. The absence of the opportunity to satisfy current needs might result in the reduction of employees’ desire to demonstrate high-performance levels or solve some tasks creatively. For this reason, it can be recommended to use flexible and inclusive approaches that can help to engage all workers in problem-solving activities and demonstrate to them the importance of their contribution to the further evolution of the company and it’s becoming a leader in the market. Utilization of this approach would help to achieve much better results and ensure that all members of the team will remain motivated to do their best. Additionally, leaders should correctly realize the peculiarities of their teams and monitor their states to be ready to introduce needed changes to avoid stagnation or deterioration of the climate within a collective.

Gordon, Jon. The Power of Positive Leadership: How and Why Positive Leaders Transform Teams and Organizations and Change the World . Wiley, 2017.

McLeod, Saul. “Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs,” Simply Psychology , 2018, Web.

Pinder, Craig. Work Motivation in Organizational Behavior . 2nd ed., Routledge, 2015.

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1. IvyPanda . "Employee Motivation: Theories in Practice." September 17, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/employee-motivation-theories-in-practice/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Employee Motivation: Theories in Practice." September 17, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/employee-motivation-theories-in-practice/.

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The application of Herzberg's two-factor theory of motivation to job satisfaction in clinical laboratories in Omani hospitals

Samira alrawahi.

a Learning, Informatics, Management, and Ethics Department (LIME), Medical Management Centre (MMC), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden

b Pathology Department, Sultan Qaboos University Hospital, Muscat, Oman

Stina Fransson Sellgren

c Karolinska University Hospital, Affiliated to Learning, Informatics, Management, and Ethics Department (LIME), Medical Management Centre (MMC), Stockholm, Sweden

Salem Altouby

d College of Pharmacy and Nursing, University of Nizwa, Scientific Council for Nursing & Midwifery Specialties, Arab Board of Health Specialization, Cardiff University, UK

Nasar Alwahaibi

e Department of Allied Health Sciences, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

Mats Brommels

f Department of Learning, Informatics, Management, and Ethics (LIME), Medical Management Centre (MMC), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden

Job satisfaction is an important condition for staff retention in most healthcare Organizations. As a concept, job satisfaction is linked to motivation theory. Herzberg's two factor theory of motivation is used in this study to explore what motivational elements are associated with job satisfaction among medical laboratory professionals (MLPs) in Oman.

A mixed-method approach was adopted, and focus group discussions (FGDs) were used for data collection. The FGDs were conducted in the main hospitals in Oman. Data were analyzed by directed content analysis, and frequencies of statements related to factors were calculated for a comparison with the Herzberg theory.

The following job dissatisfaction factors (hygiene) were identified: health and safety, heavy workload, salary, promotion, recognition and organizational policies. The satisfaction (motivators) were: relationships with co-workers, relationship with leaders, and professional development.

Conclusions

The job dissatisfaction reported was resulted from the absence of hygiene factors and some of the motivators in accordance with Hertzberg's theory. Hospital managers need to address these factors, defined by Hertzberg, in order to improve motivation and job satisfaction.

Psychology; Social science; Occupational psychology; Job satisfaction; Motivation; Herzberg; Medical laboratories.

1. Introduction

1.1. background.

The Sultanate of Oman has reached a level of distinction in its health sector, as the Ministry of Health (MOH) established a health system framework by enrolling large numbers of expatriate healthcare professionals and by introducing a referral system throughout its healthcare organizations. The Sultanate's healthcare system requires people management strategies that consider job satisfaction an important factor underpinning of growth, productivity, human resource development, and staff retention. Such strategies must be capable of assessing the satisfaction of any group through various indicators, such as the quality of the health service provided.

The MOH is the main health service provider in Oman (80%) and accounts for 6.3% of total government expenditures ( The Department of Health Information and Statistics, 2016 ).

The Royal Hospital, Khoula Hospital and Al Nahdha Hospital Each has specialty departments that operate as referral points for patients. Additionally, the hospitals provide tertiary and general acute care. The Royal and Khoula Hospitals enjoy maximum autonomy within the MOH, while the Al Nahdha Hospital is an autonomous hospital within the Directorate Office of the Muscat Governorate. Given the status of these hospitals, it is vital that they are staffed with individuals who are committed to their jobs; as a first step, these individuals must be satisfied with their jobs. Job satisfaction is the degree of positive affect that an employee feels towards the organization. It may be a general satisfaction with the job or with specific dimensions of the job or workplace, such as promotions, pay, and relationships with coworkers ( Blaauw et al., 2013 ).

Job satisfaction is described as being key in promoting feelings of fulfillment through promotions, recognition, salaries, and the achievement of goals ( Ausloos and Pekalski, 2007 ). George and Jones (2008) defined job satisfaction as a collection of feelings that people have towards their job. Specifically, with respect to health workers, job satisfaction is known to influence motivation, staff performance, and retention, which in turn affect the successful implementation of health system reform ( Wang et al., 2017 ). Motivation among workers requires an encouraging work environment, which does not happen by chance.

A productive environment can be generated by addressing the factors that influence employee job satisfaction and then designing interventions that can be implemented by managers to include and enhance those factors ( Munyewende et al., 2014 ). Unfortunately, in the health sector, there is poor job satisfaction caused by low income, poor working conditions, and limited opportunities for career development within healthcare organizations ( Hotchkiss et al., 2015 ). A recent study reported that 75.3% of health care workers were dissatisfied with their working environment, salary, promotion and benefits, whereas the relationships with leaders and co-workers were satisfaction factors ( Verma et al., 2019 ). In an earlier study pay, promotion, training and development, relations with supervisors, poor working conditions and organizational policies were the main factors for job dissatisfaction among health workers in eastern Ethiopia ( Geleto et al., 2015 ). Lack of professional development and training opportunities reported by 90% of medical laboratory professionals as the most important factor affecting their job satisfaction ( Marinucci et al., 2013 ). On the other hand, the relationships with leaders and peers contributed most to satisfaction, whereas the salary was a dissatisfaction factor ( Lu et al., 2016 ).

Given this scenario, the purpose of this study was to determine the factors that promote job satisfaction for MLPs and to consider MLPs' work motivation in terms of Herzberg's two-factor theory of motivation. This study is the first of its kind among this group of health professionals in Oman and contributes to developing an understanding of the factors involved in encouraging satisfaction and dissatisfaction in the medical laboratories of the three hospitals concerned. By paying due attention to differences in context, the findings may be generalized to other similar facilities.

1.2. Herzberg's two-factor theory of motivation

Most theories discuss job satisfaction within the context of motivation ( Kian et al., 2014 ). The Herzberg theory has been used as a method to explore job satisfaction among employees ( Lundberg et al., 2009 ) According to Herzberg's theory of motivation applied to the workplace, there are two types of motivating factors: 1) satisfiers (motivators), which are the main drivers of job satisfaction and include achievements, recognition, responsibility, and work advancement, and 2) dissatisfiers (hygiene factors), which are the main causes of job dissatisfaction ( Herzberg, 1966 ) and include factors such as working conditions, salaries, relationships with colleagues, administrative policies, and supervision. Herzberg used this model to explain that an individual at work can be satisfied and dissatisfied at the same time as these two sets of factors work in separate sequences. For example, hygiene factors (dissatisfiers) cannot increase or decrease satisfaction; they can affect only the degree of dissatisfaction. Satisfiers (motivational elements) need to be harmonized with hygiene factors to achieve job satisfaction at work. Managers in healthcare organizations should understand this relationship.

In Maslow's theory of motivation, the lower needs on the proposed pyramid must be met before the higher needs; this idea can be considered parallel to that of motivational and hygiene factors because hygiene factors must be present to allow motivational factors to emerge and thereby prevent job dissatisfaction ( Maslow, 1954 , Maslow, 1954 ). Hence, the motivators in Herzberg's theory are similar to the intrinsic factors (higher needs) in Maslow's theory. The extrinsic factors in Maslow's theory resemble the hygiene factors (dissatisfiers) in Herzberg's two-factor theory.

In 1975, Rogers summarized Herzberg's two-factor theory as follows: “In other words, adequate salary, good working conditions, respected supervisors and likeable co-workers will not produce a satisfied worker; they will only produce a worker who is not dissatisfied. However, their levels must be acceptable in order for the motivation factors to become operative. In other words, like medical hygiene practices, they cannot cure an illness, but they can aid in preventing it” ( Rogers, 1975 ).

1.3. Application of Herzberg's theory in different contexts

Herzberg's two-factor theory has been widely applied in studies on staff satisfaction, but mostly in other industries and for other occupational groups than health professionals. For example, Ruthankoon and Ogunlana tested Herzberg's two factor theory and concluded that different hygiene and motivation factors are applicable in different occupations in the Thai construction industry ( Ruthankoon and Olu Ogunlana, 2003 ). In the Pakistani context, these factors reported to be a strong moderator for job satisfaction among staff in insurance companies ( Rahman et al., 2017 ). Other examples include the hospitality industry ( Hsiao et al., 2016 ) and mobile data services (( Lee et al., 2009 ). We have not found comparable studies in health care, and all types of studies on job satisfaction in clinical laboratories are scarce.

In order to explore the views of medical laboratory professionals on their workplace and what factors had a positive or negative effect on their job satisfaction a series of focus group discussions (FGD) were performed. The advantage of a focus group compared to individual interviews is that the discussion among participants will help to clarify opinions, provoke more in-depth reasoning, and to disclose whether opinions are shared by many. Whilst a focus group discussion is a qualitative research approach, it also enables a semi-quantitative analysis of statements made. This study employs such a mixed-methods approach.

The FGDs were conducted from February to June 2017 at each of the three main MOH hospitals: the Royal, Al Nahdha and Khoula Hospitals.

2.1. Setting and participants

Medical laboratory professionals working in hematology, biochemistry, pathology, and microbiology laboratories including senior and junior staff from the three main hospitals participated in the FGDs: nine groups from the Royal Hospital, five groups from Khoula Hospital, and four groups from Al Nahdha Hospital. Each group had between six and eight participants ( Krueger and Casey, 2015 ).

To obtain this sample, the author sent a letter describing the purpose of the study to the supervisors of each laboratory and asking MLP volunteers. Anonymity (through the use of code names) and confidentiality were strictly observed in recognition of the need for good research ethics and the requirements of Omani and Swedish legislation, as well as to preserve personal integrity. A total of 101 medical laboratory professionals participated in the FGDs. The demography of the participants is exhibited in Appendix I, showing that the participants were representative of all laboratory staff in the three hospitals.

2.2. Focus group discussion (FGD) procedures

The FGDs were moderated by the first author with the support of an observer. The Focus Group discussions gave respondents freedom to express their feelings in order to obtain data representing the purpose of the study. The discussion was facilitated by the first author, following an interview guide, derived from Hertzberg's two factor theory. The FGD sessions lasted between 60 to 90 min. At the end of each discussion, the findings were summarized and shared with the participants (member checking), for validating the results and increasing the credibility of the study ( Birt et al., 2016 ).

2.3. Data analysis

The FGDs were recorded and stored on a USB stick accessible only by the first author. The recorded material was transcribed by the observer and checked against observational and summary notes made by the moderator immediately after each FGD. The transcriptions and additions from the notes were scrutinized by directed content analysis, guided by the Hertzberg two-factor theory. Meaning units expressing opinions of motivating and hygiene factors were identified and condensed into categories and further into themes. Eventually, “cut and paste technique” used manually with a poster and coloured pens ( Krueger, 1996 ). This process was done by the moderator and observer independently. Results were compared and consensus reached after discussions. For each theme, the opinions of FGD participants, were condensed into “statements” and their frequencies were calculated, following the example of Herzberg (1968) . This made it possible to compare the profile of motivating and hygiene factors of medical laboratory professionals with the original theory of Hertzberg.

2.4. Ethics approval and consent to participate

Personal integrity was guaranteed. Participation was voluntary, and informed consent was obtained from all the participants after fully disclosing the purpose of the study. Data storage and handling complied with the requirements of Swedish legislation on research ethics and personal data. The study was approved by the Research and Ethical Review and Approval Committee of MOH in Oman NO: (MH/DGP/R&S/PROPOSAL, 2016).

The FGDs recorded the participant's opinions of the individual needs and other factors that affected their job satisfaction at work; these opinions were condensed into categories and from those eight major themes emerged. (See Table 1 ). The themes are presented together with illustrative citations from the FGDs.

Table 1

Categories and themes related to job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction among medical laboratory professionals at Royal, Khoula, and Al Nahdha Hospitals.

3.1. Laboratory health and safety

From participants’ perspective, the major dissatisfier in each of the three hospitals was a lack of health and safety in the laboratories. Poor ventilation and exposure to toxic chemicals were cited reasons in some departments, as well as the receipt of clinical samples without biohazard labels. The lack of biohazard labels was considered to be due to carelessness of some nurses, posing a risk to the laboratory workers.

“Some specimens are sent to the laboratory without a biohazard label, and only after processing will we know it is infectious, such as HIV” (FGD2, RH).

“We are having ventilation problems in the laboratory while processing specimens” (FGD3, NH).

“It is really not safe working in an infectious environment. I was exposed to a viral infection while processing a sample that had no biohazard sticker, and I was treated for three weeks” (FGD2, KH).

3.2. Professional status (recognition and appreciation)

The MLPs believed that there was no appreciation or recognition of their good performance even though they worked in a risky environment. They received no compensation for their commitment in the face of such risk, and felt that because they worked behind the scenes, clinicians were unaware of the time they spent processing samples or the hazards involved in their work.

“The clinicians shout at us if they need the results; in this hospital, the nurses are more recognized than we are” (FGD1, KH).

“We work behind the scenes, we are not appreciated, and we don't want to be called ‘laboratory technicians’. This name should be changed” (FGD2, RH).

“I feel undervalued in this hospital, and I dislike working in the laboratory” (FGD2, NH).

3.3. Heavy workload

FGDs participants identified workload as another dissatisfier, especially when colleagues took unplanned leave, which lead to the accumulation of samples for processing and for others to handle. In addition, the participants mentioned that the night shift workers were overloaded, irrespective of whether personnel were on leave, because samples referred from other hospitals during the day.

“The unplanned leave for staff causes shortages and heavy workload” (FGD2, RH).

“We are overloaded with a continuous flow of samples during the night shift” (FGD5, KH).

3.4. Professional development and training

Professional development emerged as a satisfaction factor for participants from all three hospitals. Indeed, some hospitals had monthly lectures to discuss interesting cases in their departments, and there were also opportunities to attend courses. The Al Nahdha Hospital MLPs expressed satisfaction with their professional development, as they were given the chance to attend training sessions.

“We have good chances for higher education in this hospital” (FGD1, KH).

“I have attended several conferences since I started the job” (FGD2, NH).

3.5. Salary and promotion

The Royal hospital MLPs also reported dissatisfaction with their salaries, believing that they deserved higher salaries and bonuses since they had to work more night shifts than MLPs in other hospitals in the country.

The MLPs in all three main hospitals (the Royal, Al Nahdha, and Khoula Hospitals) also noted that they were unhappy with the new Medical and Allied Health Personnel Executive Bylaw, introduced in 2014 for paramedical staff, which defined the rules for the employment, promotion, retention development and termination of medical and allied health personnel. At Al Nahdha Hospital, the new promotion system is by no means clear, there has been no explanation of the system by anyone, and promotions for some technologists have been delayed for a long time. At Khoula Hospital, the MLPs felt that the new Bylaw did not motivate them to work any harder, as the system does not discriminate between a hard worker and others.

At the Royal Hospital, the participants expressed dissatisfaction concerning an overall unfairness of the system, as it does not recognize workers’ formal qualifications; indeed, some of the participants had higher qualifications than others but received exactly the same salary as their less-qualified counterparts.

“The new Medical and Allied Health Personnel Executive Bylaw is unfair. I have 26 years of experience. However, I am getting less pay compared to new members of staff” (FGD6, RH).

“We do not have any risk allowance in our work” (FGD3, NH).

“I wish there was some motivation at work in this hospital. Unfortunately, after the new medical bylaw, there is NO difference between a hard worker and others” (FGD5, KH).

3.6. Organization Policies (job descriptions and appraisals)

In the Royal, Al Nahdha, and Khoula Hospitals, the formal job descriptions of MLPs were found to be a dissatisfier. MLPs complained that it was a generic description that was suitable only for junior staff and did not capture what senior staff members do. Other participants from other departments mentioned that, in fact, they did not have job descriptions at all and worked solely based on the instructions of their supervisors. Appraisals emerged as the second sub-factor mentioned in all three focus groups. All the MLPs were dissatisfied with the appraisal process because MLPs are not shown their annual evaluations, and they do not know what is reported about them central administration. MLPs can learn about their annual scores only when they apply for higher education.

“We only have an internal job description from the head of the department, and it is general for all” (FGD1, KH).

“I don't have a job description; I have to work only according to my supervisor's orders” (FGD5, RH).

“We do not see the annual evaluations; the head of the department and the supervisor are allowed to revise them and then send them to the administration” (FGD2, NH).

3.7. Relationships with leaders

In all three hospitals, the relationships between supervisors and MLPs were good.

“There is a good relationship between us and our head of the department, and this makes me happy in this laboratory” (FGD3, RH).

3.8. Relationships with coworkers

The MLPs expressed satisfaction with the relationships between co-workers in the laboratories.

“Everybody is cooperative in the laboratory; we help each other” (FGD1, KH).

The themes derived correspond in most instances with the factors of the Hertzberg theory. Laboratory health and safety in this study corresponds to Herzberg's factors” working condition”. Professional status (recognition and appreciation) is an expression of “recognition” as a job satisfier. The heavy workload in this study represent the “responsibility” in Herzberg's study as a hygiene factor. The “possibility of growth” in Herzberg's study is presented by professional development in this paper. Salary is a hygiene factor. “Advancement” corresponds to promotion. Organization Policies are an expression of “Company policies and administration” and defines the organizational context. Relationships with leaders are equal to “relationships with supervisors” in Herzberg's theory. Also “relationships with peers” in the theory correspond to relationships with co-workers in this study.

As in Hertzberg's theory, the categories identified in the content analysis were could be categorized as hygiene factors motivators; with considerable overlaps, as categories contributed to both satisfaction and dissatisfaction to varying degrees. This is shown in Figure 1 , where the frequencies of all statements derived from the FGDs are displayed, and compared to Hertzberg's original distribution of factors across the motivator and hygiene factor continuum ( Herzberg, 1968 ). The frequencies, specified as percentages, are to be found in ( Table 2 ).

Comparison of hygiene factors and motivators between Herzberg and the MLPs ( Herzberg, 1968 ).

Table 2

The percentage of each factor appearing in the satisfying and dissatisfying sequences from FGDs.

As explained by Herzberg's two-factor theory, the results demonstrated that the MLPs were not well motivated by their work environment (see Figure 1 ).

4. Discussion

The absence of health and safety in all laboratories was the most frequently mentioned source of job dissatisfaction among medical laboratory professionals (dissatisfied 16 per cent, and satisfied.

2 per cent). This is in agreement with Herzberg's theory. The dissatisfaction among the research population echoes the results found in a previous study with health workers demonstrating that the health and safety hazards that the workers encountered in their work had negative impacts on them 438 ( Altmaier and Hansen, 2012 ). Exposure to multiple hazards is known to affect the health of groups of workers, as noted by Danna and Griffin (1999) , who found, for example, that allergies and respirator system diseases were 40–50% higher among workers who worked in a poorly ventilated environment.

Maslow's theory of motivation suggests that safety is a lower-order need that must be met before higher-order needs can be satisfied. Likewise, in Herzberg's two-factor theory, hygiene factors (dissatisfiers) must be met in order to prevent dissatisfaction, in this case, within a healthcare institution ( Dieleman et al., 2003 ).

A heavy workload quite understandingly leads to job dissatisfaction (dissatisfied 15 per cent, and satisfied 7 per cent). Consequently, it is a hygiene factor, not a motivator as predicted in the Herzberg theory. That this theme is a dissatisfier for health workers was also found in a recent study from Africa ( Temesgen et al., 2018 ).

Salary and promotion seem to play a significant role in demotivating the medical laboratory professionals in the three hospitals (dissatisfied 14 per cent, and satisfied 5 per cent, 8 per cent respectively). They expressed that the new Medical and Allied Health Personnel Bylaw recently introduced was unjust since it does not differentiate between old and new employee as to rewards, and promotion is no longer automatically received, but requires that a new position is established.

Herzberg's two-factor theory suggests that salary is a motivator, but that after some time, it tends to become a dissatisfier (hygiene factor) for employees. In our study, salary is defined as a dissatisfaction factor, while promotion (advancement) is appreciated by participants in our groups of medical laboratory professionals.

Herzberg highlighted the importance of promotion opportunities as a motivating factor among employees ( Herzberg et al., 1959 ). The way workers are rewarded effects productivity and, therefore, the quality of care that must be monitored in health organizations ( WHO, 2006 ).

Consequently, the creation of new positions is important to encourage and retain workers ( Timmreck, 2001 ). This result is consistent with the findings of another study regarding the dissatisfaction of healthcare professionals due to low salaries and poor working conditions ( Wang et al., 2017 ). The finding is similar to those of a previous study conducted in Oman among healthcare professionals in a regional hospital ( Al Maqbali, 2015 ) and of other studies carried out with healthcare workers in Africa ( Deriba et al., 2017 ) and in Pakistan ( Tasneem et al., 2018 ).

The findings regarding the participants’ feelings are consistent with those reported in a previous study performed at the University Hospital in Oman ( Alrawahi et al., 2018 ). As noted by Kosteas (2010) , promotions are the main mechanism for achieving worker retention and satisfaction.

In this study, recognition and organizational policies were mostly a hygiene factor with more dissatisfied than satisfied (12 per cent vs 3 per cent and 6 per cent respectively). How recognition is perceived by the medical laboratory professionals seem to contradict Herzberg's theory, being a hygiene rather than a motivator factor. Organizational policies, on the other hand were in line with the theory.

All of these findings are consistent with those of an earlier study of clinical laboratories ( Doig and Beck, 2019 ). According to Herzberg's two-factor theory, recognition is an important motivator for employees ( Bassett-Jones and Lloyd, 2005 ), but in this study, its importance was reflected in the lack of recognition being a cause of dissatisfaction, There is clear potential for exploitation in such situations. Indeed, the participants with job descriptions complained that they did much more in their laboratories than what the job description outlined and was thus expected of them.

This means that participants have no idea whether they are considered to be performing adequately or well. In addition to complaining about the secrecy of the process, some MLPs also claimed that the head of the department being the evaluator is not appropriate since he or she has no direct contact with them and hence is not in a position to make an objective judgment. This shortcoming was reported in another study with nurses in South Africa ( Pillay, 2009 ).The WHO reported in 2006 that to improve the competence and quality of healthcare workers, their supervision should be enhanced by the provision of clear job descriptions and feedback on performance for junior staff. Any improvement in this respect would serve to motivate MLPs. consequently, the administration should incorporate rather than prevent motivational factors in laboratories.

Relations with co-workers, relation with leaders and professional development are three factors seen as important motivating factors, high on the positive end of the continuum (satisfied 26 per cent, 21 per cent, and 22 per cent respectively. As reported in the study by McAuliffe et al. (2013) , if supervisors are supportive and work cooperatively with subordinates to solve work problems, workers' job satisfaction and motivation can be improved. Hence, Herzberg's proposal that harmonious relationships with work colleagues can prevent dissatisfaction is confirmed ( Byrne, 2006 ). However, in other studies conducted elsewhere, MLPs have been found to be dissatisfied with training and development opportunities. Such findings have been reported in Kuwait ( Al-Enezi et al., 2009 ) and China ( Wang et al., 2017 ).

5. Methodological considerations

This was a qualitative study, utilizing focus group discussions, to throw light on Omani medical laboratory professionals' views of factors related to their job satisfaction, interpreted through the lens of Hertzberg's two-factor theory. As such, the findings cannot be generalized to the whole population of MLPs, although the number of participants was large, and the participants were well representative of the laboratory staff of the three hospitals involved. This made the semi-quantitative analysis, which was used to compare how well the findings corresponded with Hertzberg's theory, possible and defendable. The use of three hospitals as a basis for participant recruitment adds to the trustworthiness of the results. The fact that there were large consistencies in opinions between the groups from the different hospitals reduces the risk that the patterns observed were distorted by the use of the interview method.

However, the choice of FGDs as the primary data collection approach and the quantitative comparison of the distribution of hygiene factors and satisfiers with the original findings of Hertzberg, need to be scrutinized. Hertzberg's study, used as the reference in this analysis, applied the “critical incident technique” (CIT), originally designed by Flanagan, 1954, and collected its data by individual interviews ( Herzberg, 1968 ).

When applying the original CIT approach an interviewee is asked to reflect on a situation (i.e. which led to job dissatisfaction) and to describe how that was related to the outcome. However, later the technique has been developed to engage groups (usually of experts) that identify such critical incidents and formulate those as “statements” ( Gordon, 2014 ). Focus group interviews of MLPs were thus chosen as the main data collection method in order to capitalize on the strengths of that method. The main advantage is that the discussion initiated will increase the probability that different perspectives and opinions are expressed. A focus group of peers will also increase the possibility that more important issues are separated from less important ones, and whether there is agreement or disagreement, thus resembling the process of an expert group involved in a CIT exercise or a consensus producing nominal group ( Tausch and Menold, 2016 ). On the other hand, the disadvantages of using FGDs must also be raised, such as participants being more or less vocal, and that sensitive topics might be less easy to comment when in a group, and that group pressure might silence participants. We have to acknowledge that those risks might have materialized during the FGD sessions, potentially distorting the results. However, we reasoned that the advantages would outweigh the disadvantages, and enable us to perform both the content analysis of the material and the quantitative comparison with Hertzberg's original profile of factors.

6. Conclusions

Several important conclusions can be drawn based on the review of the literature related to job satisfaction in general and in healthcare specifically and the empirical study with MLPs from the three main hospitals in Oman. In particular, this study suggests that the main source of dissatisfaction is a lack of laboratory health and safety; heavy workloads; the promotion system, which is perceived as unfair and unworkable; poor salaries; certain organizational policies (namely, the appraisal system and inappropriate job descriptions); and the lack of recognition for the professional status of the MLPs by other colleagues outside of the laboratories, who have no appreciation of the work that MLPs perform.

To address these dissatisfiers, these hospitals must be acknowledged as referral hospital that receive more samples than other hospitals, and, consequently, to safe-guard a greater laboratory workforce to ensure that MLPs are not overloaded. Additionally, the issue of wider-scale awareness within the hospitals of the value of MLPs should be considered.

Additionally, as the MLPs were dissatisfied with the opportunities for promotion resulting from the newly introduced Medical and Allied Health Personnel Executive Bylaw, policy-makers should consider to re-evaluate that legislation.

A decline in the recognition of MLPs’ efforts brought less productivity and commitment, whereas an increase in the recognition of their work and professionalism will promote satisfaction.

MLPs' unhappiness with their overall conditions, and especially with the level of health and safety in the laboratories, function as dissatisfiers, yet improvements in their relationship with leaders (through the recognition of their worth) will increase their satisfaction. The dissatisfaction experienced by the research population is a result of the absence of factors that cause satisfaction, and consequently, it is the responsibility of hospital administrations to develop good systems to improve MLPs’ job satisfaction. Effective cooperation between the laboratory managers and hospital administrations will enable the achievement of job satisfaction among MLPs.

Therefore, it is essential that hospital management pays attention to hygiene factors of importance to this group of healthcare professionals to avoid job dissatisfaction and simultaneously provide motivators within the working environment to achieve job satisfaction.

This study is one of the few analyzing factors of importance for the job satisfaction of medical laboratory professionals. It was performed in three hospitals in Oman, and the results cannot necessarily be generalized to other contexts. It did, though, highlight which factors of a widely used theory on staff motivation that promote or reduce job satisfaction in this specific group of health professionals. Applying those insights, carefully tailored to the organizational context in question, might lead to improved working conditions in medical laboratories beyond our study setting also.

Most, but not all, of the factors of Herzberg's Motivation Theory were identified in our study. Depending on different contexts, the motivation figure of employees will vary from one setting to another. Since what is recognized as a motivator in one culture may be a de-motivator in another culture ( Al-Akeel and Jahangir, 2020 ). Comparative studies could shed light on how Herzberg's theory is best applied in different organizational contexts.

Declarations

Author contribution statement.

S. A. Al Rawahi: Conceived and designed the experiments; Performed the experiments; Analyzed and interpreted the data; Contributed reagents, materials, analysis tools or data; Wrote the paper.

S. Fransson Sellgren, M. Brommels: Analyzed and interpreted the data; Wrote the paper.

N. Al Wahaibi, S. Al Touby: Analyzed and interpreted the data.

Funding statement

This work was supported by the Ministry Of Higher Education, Research and Innovation Sultanate of Oman, his Majesty Sultan Qaboos Grant.

Competing interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Additional information

No additional information is available for this paper.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank the participants of medical laboratory professionals and the leaders in the Royal, Al Nahdha, and Khoula hospitals for their cooperation in order to carry out this study.

Appendix I. 

Table 3.

Sociodemographic variables of the medical laboratory professionals at Royal Hospital

Table 4

Sociodemographic variables of the medical laboratory professionals at Al Nahdha Hospital

Table 5

Sociodemographic variables of the medical laboratory professionals at Khoula Hospital

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What is Locke’s Goal Setting Theory of Motivation?

For many, there is the ‘you’ who you would like to be, and then (more consistently) the ‘you’ that you are.

These two versions of yourself are not always aligned. If they were, we would all be superheroes.

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Research in psychology is here to orientate ourselves in a complex world, and even help us live our lives in more fulfilling and productive ways.

Locke’s goal-setting theory of motivation, which has been tested and supported by hundreds of studies involving thousands of participants, consistently delivers positive changes in the lives of individuals worldwide (Locke and Latham, 2019).

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Goal-Setting vs. Expectancy Theory

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A Take-Home Message

Does this quote sound familiar? It is vital to modern goal-setting theory, even though it is over 2,500 years old.

When it is obvious that the goals cannot be reached, don’t adjust the goals, adjust the action steps.

Confucius 551-479 B.C.

If you are new to this quote, it may be time to write it down and memorize it.

Most goals are possible to achieve, but people are unsuccessful at goal-setting when they omit to consider the most essential ingredients to any given goal.

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• Cecil Alec Mace conducted the first study on goal-setting in 1935;
• People who write their goals are more likely to achieve their goal than those who don’t by 50%;
• Motivation experts agree that goals should be written down, and carried with oneself, if possible;
• 92% of New Year resolutions fail by the 15th of January;
• Carefully outlined goals, which can be measured and set within specific timeframes, are more effective;
• Explaining your goals to someone you are close to, or making the commitment public, substantially increases your chances of reaching your goal;
• By contrast, goals that are kept to oneself are more likely to be mixed up with the 1,500 thoughts that the average person experiences by the minute;
• Often, achieving a goal means sacrificing something or putting aside certain habits, or beliefs about yourself–it may even result in an emotional or physical toll;
• Harvard research documents that 83% of the population of the United States do not have goals.
• Goal-setting typically yields a success rate of 90%;
• Goals have an energizing function. The higher the goal, the greater the effort invested (Locke & Latham, 2002).

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To provide context, here are a few definitions of goal-setting defined by experts in the field:

Broadly defined, goal-setting is the process of establishing clear and usable targets, or objectives, for learning.

(Moeller, Theiler, & Wu, 2012)

Goal-setting theory is summarized regarding the effectiveness of specific, difficult goals; the relationship of goals to affect; the mediators of goal effects; the relation of goals to self-efficacy; the moderators of goal effects; and the generality of goal effects across people, tasks, countries, time spans, experimental designs, goal sources (i.e., self-set, set jointly with others, or assigned), and dependent variables.

(Locke & Latham, 2006)

Edwin Locke’s goal-setting theory argues that for goal-setting to be successful with desired outcomes, they must contain the following specific points (Lunenberg & Samaras, 2011):

• Clarity: goals need to be specific;
• Challenging: goals must be difficult yet attainable;
• Goals must be accepted;
• Feedback must be provided on goal attainment;
• Goals are more effective when they are used to evaluate the performance;
• Deadlines improve the effectiveness of goals;
• A learning goal orientation leads to higher performance than a performance goal orientation;
• Group goal-setting is as important as individual goal-setting.

The following video offers a concise explanation that summarizes the actions and steps to achieve specific goals. It’s less than 3 minutes and informative.

This video clarifies—with the help of Chef Alfredo and Boss Romero—what implementing goals with employees looks like, practically speaking. The role of precision is key for employees to fulfill any task.

To make the memorization of these points easier, the acronym SMART may help you recall what the most important attributes of effective goal-setting are:

• Measurable;
• Assignable;
• Time-based.

How do these work out in practice? In short, the answer relates to specificity, which we will address next.

Put aside the irresistible need to make your goal as vague and romantic as possible and stick with the raw stuff. What action items do you need to do, to achieve this goal?

The anagram “SMART” is here to assist you in this process.

Getting SMART

The first point of the anagram says that goals should be ‘specific.’ All you need to do is make sure you are clear about what your goal is concretely going to deal with.

For example, instead of saying, “ I must become more social ” (if say, you are a lonesome cat lady who receives visits once a month), first define what you mean by being social, what your expectations are of social life and the ways in which you feel a greater social presence in your life would enhance it.

Then, sketch out a plan to put into action immediately, tackling instances of daily life you can work on (in the workplace, in already existing relationships, during daily encounters) and the extra incentives you can take to get out of your way to meet new people and enjoy new experiences and activities.

Write down what you are aiming to achieve and what you can do that may positively impact your socializing efforts (e.g. becoming more hospitable, relaxed, caring, kind, compassionate, empathetic).

Alternatively, specificity can also refer to setting specific dates, times, locations at which you will commit to spending time dedicating yourself to your goal.

Next, we need to consider what measurable goals mean.

‘Measurable’ is that you should be able to measure in one way or another whether you have completed your goal or not, or still in the process of doing so.

How your goal should be measured is up to you. Still, you should have a clear idea and expectation as to how your goal, once completed, would look like.

If your goal was to become more social, that could mean to build strong friendships with two new people and to commit to attending one social event every week for an entire year.

Keeping track through ‘measurement’ helps to give you a sense of where you currently find yourself in relation to your goal and where you are heading next.

Goals ought to be ‘acceptable’ to you. That means that you must not only identify with them but also, feel like they are in line with your value system and that they won’t lead you to transgress your sense of integrity in any way.

If the goal is to be more social, the ‘acceptability’ part comes into play at the level of what you feel an adequate friendship would look like.

Whether its sharing fun activities, emotional and intimate conversations, cooking or playing sports together, it’s important to be self-aware, to know what you are after and how your beliefs and feelings are entangled with the goal you are about to set for yourself.

Your goal must be realistic. In other words, you have to work with what you have while pushing yourself slightly beyond in order to change your current reality.

Going back to the instance of the lonesome cat lady (nothing wrong about that), a realistic goal would be to make efforts to develop at least two new friendships over the next six months, and not, say, to become a popular member of the community, as achieving this may take considerably more time.

We have just briefly mentioned the time framework, but nonetheless, it’s totally worth re-emphasizing as much as necessary. The timeframe is all about setting a fixed deadline by which you should have completed your goal.

Regardless of what you have decided to do, make sure you interconnect your goal with your calendar, and that you make the necessary adjustments in your daily life so that working on your goal happens smoothly and gradually.

Over time, the SMART theory has proved effective for increasing performance (Latham & Pinder, 2005; Lee & Earley, 1992; Miner, 1984) in a range of settings.

Here are five case studies exploring various ways of goal-setting and its effects.

5 Interesting Case Studies on Goal-Setting Theory

Performance, if set as a goal, does not lead to the same results without the specific goals of gaining knowledge and skillsets.

In our first study, Dweck et al. (1986, 1988, 1988) found that in the classroom, two recurrent personality traits could be observed. Students mainly divided into two categories: those primarily focused on gaining knowledge and skills, and those primarily concerned with their grade and performance in the class.

It was found that the first cohort performed better on taught subjects than the second.

Goal-setting, however, is not only about the decided object of focus. There are, in fact, many determinants that shape the goal-setting and goal completion process.

A second study conducted by Atkinson (1958) highlights how the difficulty of the given task also acts as a factor that hinders or improves performance. The highest level of effort took place when the task was moderately challenging, and the lowest level when the task was either too easy or too hard.

Furthermore, the social dimension which accompanies goal-setting should be considered too, whenever possible.

For example, a major study carried out at Dominican University, listing 267 participants recruited from the business sector (Matthews, 2015) showed that:

• Informants who sent weekly reports to someone they were close to accomplished more than those who had not written their goals down. Those who had written goals outlined with specific ways they intended to meet those goals were as successful as those who just informed their goal intentions to a friend;
• Informants who informed their friends of their goal were able to achieve much more than those who only wrote down action commitments and those who did not at all;
• Overall, those who wrote down their goals accomplished much more than those who had not.

In short, this study provided empirical evidence to support the claim that accountability, commitment, and writing down goals have a major influence on an individual’s commitment towards reaching self-imposed goals.

Goal-setting enables people to stay focused and find meaning in what matters in their lives.

In fact, Boa et al. (2018) claim that goals also provide many people a sense of purpose, as well as a drive to live as actively as possible until their death; this proves especially true in the context of illness.

The researchers conducted a comparative case study of 10 healthcare professionals in a hospice, to practice patient-centered goal-setting.

The results indicated that instead of centering the approach around patients, participants tended to articulate them in relation to what they perceived to be important (problem-solving, alleviating symptoms).

This study by Boa et al. (2018) stressed the importance of making the goals suitable for the priorities of the individual, so as to maximize their effectivity and enhance people’s quality of life.

Another study carried out by Carr (2018) sought to gauge the effects of an already existing goal-setting strategy in an elementary school serving many students from a disadvantaged socio-economic background.

The conclusions pointed out that goal-setting, when implemented consistently, had a positive effect on student self-efficacy , motivation , and reading proficiency.

This, Car argues, happened when the goals being set were specific, measurable, achievable, reasonable, timely and challenging at the same time.

Essentially, the SMART anagram prevails in many situations, backgrounds, and perspectives.

In Defense of Learning Goals

For many, the notion of performance as an accomplishment intertwines with goal-setting.

Just valuing or wanting the “end-product,” and omitting what it takes to get there, is a common mistake made by many.

That’s why research expresses how goals about learning (rather than performance) have higher success rates of goals being met.

The emphasis on learning has a trickle-down effect that actually benefits performance after all. The five studies listed below highlight the difference between performance and knowledge-based goals:

• Winters and Latham (1996) found that setting a learning goal rather than a performance goal for tasks (for individuals with insufficient knowledge) was most effective;
• Similarly, Drach-Zahavy and Erez (2002) made the case that people with a set learning goal for themselves (mentioned in their work as a “strategy goal”) perform better than those who had set a performance-related goal on a task that involved predicting stock-market fluctuations;
• Seijts, Latham, and Tasa (2004) made the point that informants who were assigned a challenging learning goal reached more market share on an interactive, computer-based simulation of the US cellular telephone industry than participants who were assigned a high-performance goal instead;
• Kozlowski and Bell’s study (2006) concluded that  assigning a learning goal improved the self-regulatory affective and cognitive mechanisms, in contrast with a goal emphasizing high-performance;
• Last but not least, Cianci, Klein, and Seijts (2010) reported that people who had a learning goal were less prone to tension. They also performed better even after negative feedback, compared to those only assigned a performance goal.

To implement learning-driven goals, it is important to understand how they differ from performance goals.

A performance goal might be something like, “ I want to become fluent in XY language, ” whereas a learning goal would be:

“ by next December, I want to learn how to speak conversational XY language. So, I will be taking several classes on a weekly basis, download the Duolingo app and work at least an hour every day on memorizing a few words in my chosen language. I will also try to get in touch and meet people who speak this language to improve my exposure to it. ”

See the difference?

Self-efficacy is a concept coined and developed by Albert Bandura. It is a cornerstone concept in the field of positive psychology.

Lightsey (1999) writes that:

“ it is difficult to do justice to the immense importance of this research for our theories, our practice, and indeed for human welfare. “

This emphasizes how the construct has had a potent effect on several areas ranging from phobias and depression to vocation choice and managerial organization.

Akhtar (2008) defines self-efficacy as:

“ the belief we have in our own abilities, specifically our ability to meet the challenges ahead of us and complete a task successfully. ”

The idea that “what we think” affects “what we do” is not new. The field of positive psychology has explored the impact of our beliefs and worldviews on our health and how we live our lives.

As Mahatma Gandhi famously said:

“ a man is but a product of his thoughts. What he thinks, he becomes. ”

It is important to distinguish a person’s capability with how they perceive their own capability.

Often, there is also a discrepancy between the person’s desire and the capacity, which leads us to self-efficacy. Self-efficacity is a form of self-confidence which embraces an ‘I can handle this’ attitude. It has an empowering effect on the actions of the person in question.

Motivation, on the other hand, refers to a person’s willingness to fulfill a given task, or goal.

Locke’s goal-setting theory aims to encompass both, by formulating goals which not only are in line with a person’s capabilities but also provides the necessary resources so that the person is motivated by the goal while stimulating his or her sense of self-efficacy.

While it is not exactly possible to instill a sense of self-efficacy in a person who disbelieves their capacity to perform well and push themselves beyond what they think they can achieve, setting goals within a positive framework can make a substantial difference.

We have seen, step by step, the way in which they should be structured. But not the general framework in which they should ground themselves for maximized effectiveness.

Depending on how they are framed, goals can have specific effects on a given person’s learning process and performance. They can be framed negatively, by emphasizing how a person should prevent losses and failure at all cost.

A negative goal-setting approach could look like this:

• My goal for next year is to stop myself from gaining any weight at all.
• All employees should aim to not lose more than fifty out of the company’s two hundred and fifty current customers.
• Students whose grades fall below the average will be penalized and given extra homework for the second semester.

This approach tends to be ineffective and degrading. Research shows that punitive strategies often result in anxiety, a lower persistence, and performance, especially in comparison with goals that are set with a positive outlook (Roney, Higgins, & Shah, 1995).

Frese et al. (1991) have developed the concept of “error management,” which intends to reframe errors during the process as opportunities for the individual to learn from.

Framing mistakes and negative feedback with statements such as “ Errors are a natural part of the learning process! ” and “ The more errors you make, the more you learn! ” (Heslin, Carson and VandeWalle, 2008) are beneficial.

In short, discouraging fear-based environments encourages people to try again, rather than give up on their goals. This ‘forgiving’ aspect also enables individuals to expect, and not apprehend, failure as part of the growth process.

Goal-setting is not a straight-forward path to success, and it is important to feel like one can “fail” and still aim for their goal, maybe with added specificity.

As such, if framed positively, the previously mentioned goals look more like this:

• This year, I will try to adopt a diet that will enable me to lose weight. My goal is to reach 80kg, and given that I currently weigh 85kg, my goal is to lose 5kg in total. The first diet I try might not be the right one, and I may have to try several before I find one that works, that is, one that enables me to lose weight and with a specific regime that I can stick to at the same time. I will monitor my progress as the months pass and sign up for a gym membership.
• The company strongly values its relationship with its customers. We currently have 250 and our goal for the upcoming year is to keep this number constant. Your role, therefore, will be to ensure that customers are satisfied with our services by diversifying what we offer and the way in which we relate to them. The only way to achieve this is with different approaches and strategies that we can monitor and assess the outcomes of.
• Students whose respective grade have increased by two points will be rewarded with less homework in the second semester. If the grade does not increase two points, the individual efforts of each will be taken into consideration in the final decision of who should be rewarded in the classroom.

Such an approach provides clear guidelines and expectations of a given goal and also trigger positive emotions.  Workplaces, schools, and environments with positive goal-setting get to experience the energy, creativity, and motivation of inspiring spaces.

People like a challenge, especially when it seems difficult but possible.

“Our goals can only be reached through a vehicle of a plan, in which we must fervently believe, and upon which we must vigorously act. There is no other route to success.”

Pablo Picasso

As human beings, we may be ambitious and progressive in setting our goals and knowing what we want but lack direction on how to get there.

It seems Picasso had a solution to this dilemma decades ago. Accumulating research supports the notion that goal-setting paves the way for achievement (Latham & Locke, 2006).

What makes goal-setting successful, though?

• Commitment : Goal performance is strongest when one is committed (Locke & Latham, 1990). The commitment level is, in turn, dependent on our desirability of the goal and our perceived ability to achieve it.
• Clarity : When the goal is clear, precise, unambiguous, and measurable, we know exactly what we want to achieve, increasing our motivation and performance (Avery et al., 1976).
• Challenge : If we know a goal is challenging yet believe it is within our abilities to accomplish it, we are more likely to be motivated to complete a relevant task (Zimmerman et al., 1992).
• Complexity : When tasks for a goal are overly complex, it hinders our morale, productivity, and motivation (Miner, 2005). Keeping the complexity of tasks manageable can increase our chances of success.
• Feedback : Immediate and detailed feedback is important in keeping us on track with our progress towards our goals (Erez, 1977).

So, ensuring that goals are grounded on these principles can pave the way for success. In fact, Latham and Locke (1979) found that effective goal setting can be a more powerful motivator than monetary rewards alone.

So far, we have seen what goals do, but we have omitted to mention what happens to people when they do not set goals in their lives.

Indecision, lack of focus, boredom, and not having something specific to strive for, can lead to a feeling that one is living a dulled, less meaningful version of their life. Symptoms of depression, among other mental health struggles, often appear in these perceived unchanging spaces.

This is because specifically-written goals can provide individuals with a sense of existential structure, purpose, and meaning.

As Locke argues, goals are “immediate regulators of behavior” (Latham, Ganegoda, & Locke, 2011), and they provide the self with a vision for the future and a clear direction to strive towards a specific objective.

More so, goal-directed action coupled with reasoning skills is a fundamental element of what makes us human. Even the “non-human” world thrives with goal-setting parallels.

This is not to say that plants write down their goals in pencil. But let’s have Locke explain how:

“The lowest level of goal-directed action is physiologically controlled (plants). The next level, present in the lower animals, entails conscious self-regulation through sensory-perceptual mechanisms including pleasure and pain. Human beings possess a higher form of consciousness – the capacity to reason. They have the power to conceptualize goals and set long-range purposes”

(Locke, 1969).

The human ability to reflect is a curse and a blessing.

It liberates us from the constraint of the absolute determinism of things but it also means that we are responsible for the choices we make and whether they will contribute to our welfare.

For instance, individuals who start exercising and feeling the numerous health benefits often end up seeing value in making additional lifestyle changes, such as a healthier routine and diet.

Thus, if a goal is perceived by the individual as something that can contribute to their sense of wellbeing or that of the group they are a part of, then it can also serve as a source of inspiration and esteem.

This often leads to a ricochet effect on other behaviors linked to performance and efficacy.

Can Goal-Setting Help Decision-Making?

Goal-setting and decision making are the two voluntary acts that can radically transform a person’s life.

You perhaps have heard the adage, “you cannot save someone who doesn’t want to be saved.”

When it comes to helping others, it is not possible to do so unless they want the help, and also feel enough motivation to take the appropriate steps forward—regardless of how tiring this may prove.

Setting goals empower decision making, and the opposite is true as well. It enables people to filter through what is significant, worth pursuing and what is not.

Vroom outlines three main factors which structure how humans decide to go about their lives and the steps needed to achieve a given result: expectancy, instrumentality, and valence.

He argues that ‘motivational force’ can be calculated by means of multiplying expectancy with instrumentality and valence.

The actual formula looks like this:

Motivational force = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence

Put in a literary way, Vroom’s point is that motivation emerges from a person’s belief that an invested effort will enable them to achieve a certain desired performance, and that the way this performance is played out, will lead to the fulfillment of a specific goal.

In turn, the extent to which the individual perceived this final goal as desirable (valence) will also shape the degree of motivation for the individual to pursue a given goal.

In other words, confidence, assessment of what is required, and the value perceived on the specific outcome equal the energy an individual may feel towards a specific goal.

Expectancy theory adds an interesting dimension to Locke’s goal-setting theory. Locke provides insight into which goals are implemented in effective ways. Vroom, on the other hand, sheds light on how self-esteem, individual perception and the value system of individuals come into play.

The theories coined by Locke and Vroom do intersect in how they emphasize the importance of setting goals that are tailored to subjective needs and capacities.

To spark the necessary ‘motivational force’ for any given challenge, there must be momentum. With this momentum come success, especially when failure is encouraged as part of the learning process.

One of the great aspects of goal-setting is that it is applicable in most domains of life.

For more detail regarding the different studies mentioned, you can find the original sources in the bibliography. It is possible to find information related to goal-setting on practically every subject.

For example, if you have specific goals to becoming a published writer, there are plenty of step-by-step guides offered on the internet.

There is also a wealth of literature documenting the benefits of goal-setting in the context of workplaces, especially since the theory began as an attempt to enhance employee motivation in the workplace .

For your convenience, we compiled a list of recently published journal articles relating to goal-setting, applied to a range of contexts.

If you don’t have access to academic material and would like to consult on any of the following articles, don’t hesitate to drop us a message.

Goal-setting in the Professional World:

• Exercise Self-Efficacy as a Mediator between Goal-Setting and Physical Activity: Developing the Workplace as a Setting for Promoting Physical Activity by Iwasaki et al. (2017)
• Achievement Goal Orientation and its Implications for Workplace Goal-Setting Programs, Supervisory/Subordinate Relationships and Training by Rysavy (Dissertation, 2015)
• Experiential Exercises on Goal-Setting, Leadership/Followership, and Workplace Readiness (Ritter, 2015)

Goal-setting with Students/Adolescents:

• What is the effect of peer-monitored Fitnessgram testing and personal goal-setting on performance scores with Hispanic middle school students? (Coleman, 2017)
• Effect of Student SMART Goal-Setting in a Low-Performing Middle School (Thomas, 2015)
• Does Participation in Organized Sports Influence School Performance, Mental Health, and/or Long-Term Goal-Setting in Adolescents? (Samarasinghe, Khan, Mccabe, Lee, 2017)

Goal-setting in Healthcare/ with Patients:

• Goal-setting in neurorehabilitation: development of a patient-centered tool with theoretical underpinnings (Aleksandrowicz, 2016)
• Rehabilitation goal-setting: theory, practice, and evidence (Siegert & Levack, 2015)
• Evaluating the Structure of the Patient Assessment of Chronic Illness Care (PACIC) Survey from the Patient’s Perspective (Fan et al., 2015)

Goals, goals, goals.

Staying informed with how to improve oneself and others is important; however, too much absorption with the topic may overlook the very value of existence.

It’s not enough to be busy, so are the ants. The question is, what are we busy about?

Henry David Thoreau

Thoreau’s excellent words invite us to reflect on the broader picture. Do our goals push us to pursue really matters? If so, then continue. If not, perhaps it is time to pause.

Even though goal-setting can indeed strengthen a person’s sense of purpose, self-confidence, and autonomy, the habit of setting goals can lead us astray from our core values.

The current trend, unfortunately, is following this “busy route” where burnout is ingrained with modern corporate culture (Petersen, 2019). It is especially affecting the millennial generation.

As Petersen’s (ibid) article shows, it can be hard enough to perform the most basic tasks, such as answering emails, doing household chores, registering to vote, calling people on their birthdays, etc.

Burnout, Petersen argues, is part of the over-involvement of baby-boomer parents in their children’s lives, as well as the shifting of modern labor relations and social media technologies.

In many ways, this has blurred the line that used to exist between professional and private life, that is largely nonexistent now.

Many people feel pressure to always brand or market who they are or what they do so that they can feel connected and compete for social status, even when not in the professional world. For many, this shows as the internalization of a feeling that one should be working ‘all the time.’

This pushes people to compare their lives or ‘impact’ with others and make goals out of social comparison and insecurity, rather than goals centered from a genuine desire to change something.

A culture of self-care has arisen, as a possible response to burnout and overwhelming times.

Self-care, however, is not a complete solution given that:

“ the problem with holistic, all-consuming burnout is that there’s no solution to it. You can’t optimize it to make it end faster. You can’t see it coming like a cold and start taking the burnout-prevention version of Airborne. The best way to treat it is to first acknowledge it for what it is — not a passing ailment, but a chronic disease — and to understand its roots and its parameters. ”

Peterson also recalls the words of the social psychologist Devon Price, who, writing on the topic of homelessness, argued that:

“Laziness, at least in the way most of us generally conceive of it, simply does not exist. If a person’s behavior does not make sense to you, it is because you are missing a part of their context. It’s that simple.”

Hence, this comes as a cautionary message against excessive goal-setting and the madness of constant self-development and improvement.

Modern society encourages us to feel that we are never “good enough.” How do we balance the self-compassion that we are enough, with the desire to be better and set goals?

Perhaps one answer is to avoid goals that do not align with your core values, as well as goals that do more harm than good.

On the same note, Ordonez, Schweitzer, Galinsky, and Bazerman (2009) warn about what happens when ‘goals go wild:’ when goals are too narrow, too challenging, too numerous and enacted within an unrealistic timeframe, they can lead to disastrous consequences.

These consequences range from unethical behavior to psychological pitfalls linked with experiencing failure. For example, if a company boss aims to increase profits by over-working and underpaying staff, this is not a sustainable or ethical goal for anyone involved.

The authors, basing on management studies, also reveal how goal-setting may come at the expense of learning. Again, how do we avoid feeding a competitive culture, and instead, promote cultures of growth and intrinsic motivation?

To avoid this, Steve Kerr from General Electric advises managers to refrain from setting goals that are likely to increase their employees’ stress levels or contain punishing failure; instead, Kerr wants to equip staff with the necessary tools to meet the challenging goals.

This approach, Ordonez et al. argue, will encourage managers to consider whether the goal-setting culture benefits the company’s outputs and the wellbeing of their employees.

Locke & Latham (2002) also warned about the potential pitfalls of combining goals with financial rewards in the workplace; this usually brings employers to set rather easy goals as opposed to more challenging ones instead.

Before rushing to set personal or business goals, it is important to consider your motivation.

17 Tools To Increase Motivation and Goal Achievement

These 17 Motivation & Goal Achievement Exercises [PDF] contain all you need to help others set meaningful goals, increase self-drive, and experience greater accomplishment and life satisfaction.

Created by Experts. 100% Science-based.

2 PowerPoints about Goal-Setting Theory (PPTs)

Hopefully, your mind is now buzzing about the ways you could share the value of this content with others. Perhaps this article could inspire your workplace, your classroom, or simply, your lazy and somewhat unmotivated friend.

Reading long articles on the internet is not accessible to everyone since not everyone has the time or interest to invest the effort.

Our role at PositivePsychology.com is to translate and synthesize academic ideas and research into easily accessible writing. Our readers play an essential role in terms of communicating these resources and ideas to the broader public.

Powerpoints can be particularly impactful tools, that can transmit crucial information concisely.

They are therefore the most effective way of getting the message across to a wider audience.

For inspiration, you may want to have a look at these powerpoints that address the topic of goal-setting theory in a range of contexts.

If you are to directly download and make use of any of these, make sure you contact their authors so that they can grant you permission for using their content.

• By Aatmiki Singh
• By John Varghese

We hope to have provided you with an in-depth view of Locke’s goal-setting theory.

Hopefully, after having read this article, you will never go about setting goals in the same way.

Chances are you will be 90% more likely to succeed at them if you put into practice the different points that we have gone through such as specific goals with attainable action items.

Make it about the process of learning, not the end performance.

And remember, stay “SMART.”

What do you think about the balance of goal-setting and also, “being enough?” It is a fine balance. If you have any comments, please add to our comments section below.

We’d love to keep this conversation around goal-setting open to your ideas.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Goal Achievement Exercises for free .

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• Avery, C. C., Chase, M. A., Johanson, U. R., & Phillips, L. W. (1976). The Bell System Practices: Linking reward and job design. Personnel Journal, 55(8), 415-420 .
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• Boa, S., Duncan, E., Haraldsdottir, E., & Wyke, S. (2018). Patient-centered goal setting in a hospice: a comparative case study of how health practitioners understand and use goal setting in practice. International journal of palliative nursing, 24 (3), 115-122.
• Carr, M. (2018). Goal Setting Theory in Action  (Doctoral dissertation, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia). Retrieved from https://libraries.mercer.edu/ursa/handle/10898/5130
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14.3 Need-Based Theories of Motivation

Learning objectives.

• Explain how employees are motivated according to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
• Explain how ERG theory addresses the limitations of Maslow’s hierarchy.
• Describe the difference between factors contributing to employee motivation and how these differ from factors contributing to dissatisfaction.
• Describe the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation, and how these needs affect work behavior.

The earliest answer to motivation involved understanding individual needs. Specifically, early researchers thought that employees try hard and demonstrate goal-driven behavior to satisfy needs. For example, an employee who is always walking around the office talking to people may have a need for companionship and his behavior may be a way of satisfying this need. There are four major theories in the need-based category: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, ERG theory, Herzberg’s dual factor theory, and McClelland’s acquired needs theory.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow is among the most prominent psychologists of the 20th century and the hierarchy of needs, accompanied by the pyramid representing how human needs are ranked, is an image familiar to most business students and managers. Maslow’s theory is based on a simple premise: Human beings have needs that are hierarchically ranked (Maslow, 1943; Maslow, 1954). There are some needs that are basic to all human beings, and in their absence, nothing else matters. As we satisfy these basic needs, we start looking to satisfy higher-order needs. Once a lower-level need is satisfied, it no longer serves as a motivator.

The most basic of Maslow’s needs are physiological needs . Physiological needs refer to the need for air, food, and water. Imagine being very hungry. At that point, all your behavior may be directed at finding food. Once you eat, though, the search for food ceases and the promise of food no longer serves as a motivator. Once physiological needs are satisfied, people tend to become concerned about safety . Are they safe from danger, pain, or an uncertain future? One level up, social needs refer to the need to bond with other human beings, to be loved, and to form lasting attachments. In fact, having no attachments can negatively affect health and well-being (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). The satisfaction of social needs makes esteem needs more salient. Esteem needs refer to the desire to be respected by one’s peers, feeling important, and being appreciated. Finally, at the highest level of the hierarchy, the need for self-actualization refers to “becoming all you are capable of becoming.” This need manifests itself by acquiring new skills, taking on new challenges, and behaving in a way that will lead to the satisfaction of one’s life goals.

Figure 14.5 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Source : Adapted from Maslow, A. H. (1954). Motivation and personality . New York: Harper.

Maslow’s hierarchy is a systematic way of thinking about the different needs employees may have at any given point and explains different reactions they may have to similar treatment. An employee who is trying to satisfy her esteem needs may feel gratified when her supervisor praises her. However, another employee who is trying to satisfy his social needs may resent being praised by upper management in front of peers if the praise sets him apart from the rest of the group.

So, how can organizations satisfy their employees’ various needs? By leveraging the various facets of the planning-organizing-leading-controlling (P-O-L-C) functions. In the long run, physiological needs may be satisfied by the person’s paycheck, but it is important to remember that pay may satisfy other needs such as safety and esteem as well. Providing generous benefits, including health insurance and company-sponsored retirement plans, as well as offering a measure of job security, will help satisfy safety needs. Social needs may be satisfied by having a friendly environment, providing a workplace conducive to collaboration and communication with others. Company picnics and other social get-togethers may also be helpful if the majority of employees are motivated primarily by social needs (but may cause resentment if they are not and if they have to sacrifice a Sunday afternoon for a company picnic). Providing promotion opportunities at work, recognizing a person’s accomplishments verbally or through more formal reward systems, job titles that communicate to the employee that one has achieved high status within the organization are among the ways of satisfying esteem needs. Finally, self-actualization needs may be satisfied by providing development and growth opportunities on or off the job, as well as by assigning interesting and challenging work. By making the effort to satisfy the different needs each employee may have at a given time, organizations may ensure a more highly motivated workforce.

ERG theory of Clayton Alderfer is a modification of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (Alderfer, 1969). Instead of the five needs that are hierarchically organized, Alderfer proposed that basic human needs may be grouped under three categories, namely, Existence , Relatedness , and Growth (see the following figure). Existence need corresponds to Maslow’s physiological and safety needs, relatedness corresponds to social needs, and growth need refers to Maslow’s esteem and self actualization.

Figure 14.7 ERG Theory

Source : Based on Alderfer, C. P. (1969). An empirical test of a new theory of human needs. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 4 , 142–175.

ERG theory’s main contribution to the literature is its relaxation of Maslow’s assumptions. For example, ERG theory does not rank needs in any particular order and explicitly recognizes that more than one need may operate at a given time. Moreover, the theory has a “frustration-regression” hypothesis, suggesting that individuals who are frustrated in their attempts to satisfy one need may regress to another one. For example, someone who is frustrated by the lack of growth opportunities in his job and slow progress toward career goals may regress to relatedness needs and start spending more time socializing with one’s coworkers. The implication of this theory is that we need to recognize the multiple needs that may be driving an individual at a given point to understand his behavior and to motivate him.

Two-Factor Theory

Frederick Herzberg approached the question of motivation in a different way. By asking individuals what satisfies them on the job and what dissatisfies them, Herzberg came to the conclusion that aspects of the work environment that satisfy employees are very different from aspects that dissatisfy them (Herzberg, et. al., 1959; Herzberg, 1965). Herzberg labeled factors causing dissatisfaction of workers as “hygiene” factors because these factors were part of the context in which the job was performed, as opposed to the job itself. Hygiene factors included company policies, supervision, working conditions, salary, safety, and security on the job. To illustrate, imagine that you are working in an unpleasant work environment. Your office is too hot in the summer and too cold in the winter. You are being harassed and mistreated. You would certainly be miserable in such a work environment. However, if these problems were solved (your office temperature is just right and you are not harassed at all), would you be motivated? Most likely, you would take the situation for granted. In fact, many factors in our work environment are things that we miss when they are absent, but take for granted if they are present.

In contrast, motivators are factors that are intrinsic to the job, such as achievement, recognition, interesting work, increased responsibilities, advancement, and growth opportunities. According to Herzberg’s research, motivators are the conditions that truly encourage employees to try harder.

Figure 14.8 Two-Factor Theory of Motivation

Source : Based on Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. (1959). The motivation to work . New York: Wiley; Herzberg, F. (1965). The motivation to work among Finnish supervisors. Personnel Psychology , 18 , 393–402.

Herzberg’s research, which is summarized in the figure above, has received its share of criticism (Cummings & Elsalmi, 1968; House & Wigdor, 1967). One criticism relates to the classification of the factors as hygiene or motivator. For example, pay is viewed as a hygiene factor. However, pay is not necessarily a contextual factor and may have symbolic value by showing employees that they are being recognized for their contributions as well as communicating to them that they are advancing within the company. Similarly, quality of supervision or relationships employees form with their supervisors may determine whether they are assigned interesting work, whether they are recognized for their potential, and whether they take on more responsibilities. Despite its limitations, the two-factor theory can be a valuable aid to managers because it points out that improving the environment in which the job is performed goes only so far in motivating employees.

Figure 14.9

Plaques and other recognition awards may motivate employees if these awards fit with the company culture and if they reflect a sincere appreciation of employee accomplishments.

phjakroon – Pixabay – CC0 public domain.

Acquired Needs Theory

Among the need-based approaches to motivation, Douglas McClelland’s acquired needs theory is the one that has received the greatest amount of support. According to this theory, individuals acquire three types of needs as a result of their life experiences. These needs are need for achievement, need for affiliation, and need for power. All individuals possess a combination of these needs.

Those who have high need for achievement have a strong need to be successful. A worker who derives great satisfaction from meeting deadlines, coming up with brilliant ideas, and planning his or her next career move may be high in need for achievement. Individuals high on need for achievement are well suited to positions such as sales where there are explicit goals, feedback is immediately available, and their effort often leads to success (Harrell & Stahl, 1981; Trevis & Certo, 2005; Turban & Keon, 1993). Because of their success in lower-level jobs, those in high need for achievement are often promoted to higher-level positions (McClelland & Boyatzis, 1982). However, a high need for achievement has important disadvantages in management. Management involves getting work done by motivating others. When a salesperson is promoted to be a sales manager, the job description changes from actively selling to recruiting, motivating, and training salespeople. Those who are high in need for achievement may view managerial activities such as coaching, communicating, and meeting with subordinates as a waste of time. Moreover, they enjoy doing things themselves and may find it difficult to delegate authority. They may become overbearing or micromanaging bosses, expecting everyone to be as dedicated to work as they are, and expecting subordinates to do things exactly the way they are used to doing (McClelland & Burnham, 1976).

Individuals who have a high need for affiliation want to be liked and accepted by others. When given a choice, they prefer to interact with others and be with friends (Wong & Csikszentmihalyi, 1991). Their emphasis on harmonious interpersonal relationships may be an advantage in jobs and occupations requiring frequent interpersonal interaction, such as social worker or teacher. In managerial positions, a high need for affiliation may again serve as a disadvantage because these individuals tend to be overly concerned about how they are perceived by others. Thus, they may find it difficult to perform some aspects of a manager’s job such as giving employees critical feedback or disciplining poor performers.

Finally, those with high need for power want to influence others and control their environment. Need for power may be destructive of one’s relationships if it takes the form of seeking and using power for one’s own good and prestige. However, when it manifests itself in more altruistic forms, such as changing the way things are done so that the work environment is more positive or negotiating more resources for one’s department, it tends to lead to positive outcomes. In fact, need for power is viewed as important for effectiveness in managerial and leadership positions (Mcclelland & Burnham, 1976; Spangler & House, 1991; Spreier, 2006).

McClelland’s theory of acquired needs has important implications for motivating employees. While someone who has high need for achievement may respond to goals, those with high need for affiliation may be motivated to gain the approval of their peers and supervisors, whereas those who have high need for power may value gaining influence over the supervisor or acquiring a position that has decision-making authority. And, when it comes to succeeding in managerial positions, individuals who are aware of the drawbacks of their need orientation can take steps to overcome these drawbacks.

Key Takeaway

Need-based theories describe motivated behavior as individual efforts to meet needs. According to this perspective, the manager’s job is to identify what people need and then to make sure that the work environment becomes a means of satisfying these needs. Maslow’s hierarchy categorizes human needs into physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization needs. ERG theory is a modification of Maslow’s hierarchy, where the five needs are collapsed into three categories (existence, relatedness, and growth). The two-factor theory differentiates between factors that make people dissatisfied on the job (hygiene factors) and factors that truly motivate employees. Finally, acquired-needs theory argues that individuals possess stable and dominant motives to achieve, acquire power, or affiliate with others. Each of these theories explains characteristics of a work environment that motivate employees.

• Many managers assume that if an employee is not performing well, the reason must be lack of motivation. What is the problem with this assumption?
• Review Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Do you agree with the particular ranking of employee needs?
• Review the hygiene and motivators in the two-factor theory. Are there any hygiene factors that you would consider to be motivators and vice versa?
• A friend of yours is competitive, requires frequent and immediate feedback, and enjoys accomplishing things. She has recently been promoted to a managerial position and seeks your advice. What would you tell her?
• Which motivation theory have you found to be most useful in explaining why people behave in a certain way? Why?

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Principles of Management Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

What Do the Case Studies Tell Us About Motivation?

• First Online: 09 March 2016

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• Maggie Hartnett 2  

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This chapter discusses and synthesises the key findings across the two cases reported in chapter three both in terms of the motivation of learners and the ways in which certain social and contextual influences supported or hindered the expression of different types of motivation. The concepts of autonomy, competence and relatedness, from self-determination theory, are used as lenses to show how the identified social and contextual influences either supported or undermined learners’ psychological needs and, consequently, their motivation. Important commonalities as well as differences, between the two cases, are explored and discussed. Attention is also drawn to how these findings extend and build on the existing body of research on motivation in online education.

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Hartnett, M. (2016). What Do the Case Studies Tell Us About Motivation?. In: Motivation in Online Education. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-0700-2_4

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