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Tables and Figures

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Note:  This page reflects the latest version of the APA Publication Manual (i.e., APA 7), which released in October 2019. The equivalent resources for the older APA 6 style  can be found at this page  as well as at this page (our old resources covered the material on this page on two separate pages).

The purpose of tables and figures in documents is to enhance your readers' understanding of the information in the document; usually, large amounts of information can be communicated more efficiently in tables or figures. Tables are any graphic that uses a row and column structure to organize information, whereas figures include any illustration or image other than a table.

General guidelines

Visual material such as tables and figures can be used quickly and efficiently to present a large amount of information to an audience, but visuals must be used to assist communication, not to use up space, or disguise marginally significant results behind a screen of complicated statistics. Ask yourself this question first: Is the table or figure necessary? For example, it is better to present simple descriptive statistics in the text, not in a table.

Relation of Tables or Figures and Text

Because tables and figures supplement the text, refer in the text to all tables and figures used and explain what the reader should look for when using the table or figure. Focus only on the important point the reader should draw from them, and leave the details for the reader to examine on their own.

Documentation

If you are using figures, tables and/or data from other sources, be sure to gather all the information you will need to properly document your sources.

Integrity and Independence

Each table and figure must be intelligible without reference to the text, so be sure to include an explanation of every abbreviation (except the standard statistical symbols and abbreviations).

Organization, Consistency, and Coherence

Number all tables sequentially as you refer to them in the text (Table 1, Table 2, etc.), likewise for figures (Figure 1, Figure 2, etc.). Abbreviations, terminology, and probability level values must be consistent across tables and figures in the same article. Likewise, formats, titles, and headings must be consistent. Do not repeat the same data in different tables.

Data in a table that would require only two or fewer columns and rows should be presented in the text. More complex data is better presented in tabular format. In order for quantitative data to be presented clearly and efficiently, it must be arranged logically, e.g. data to be compared must be presented next to one another (before/after, young/old, male/female, etc.), and statistical information (means, standard deviations, N values) must be presented in separate parts of the table. If possible, use canonical forms (such as ANOVA, regression, or correlation) to communicate your data effectively.

A generic example of a table with multiple notes formatted in APA 7 style.

Elements of Tables

Number all tables with Arabic numerals sequentially. Do not use suffix letters (e.g. Table 3a, 3b, 3c); instead, combine the related tables. If the manuscript includes an appendix with tables, identify them with capital letters and Arabic numerals (e.g. Table A1, Table B2).

Like the title of the paper itself, each table must have a clear and concise title. Titles should be written in italicized title case below the table number, with a blank line between the number and the title. When appropriate, you may use the title to explain an abbreviation parenthetically.

Comparison of Median Income of Adopted Children (AC) v. Foster Children (FC)

Keep headings clear and brief. The heading should not be much wider than the widest entry in the column. Use of standard abbreviations can aid in achieving that goal. There are several types of headings:

• Stub headings describe the lefthand column, or stub column , which usually lists major independent variables.
• Column headings describe entries below them, applying to just one column.
• Column spanners are headings that describe entries below them, applying to two or more columns which each have their own column heading. Column spanners are often stacked on top of column headings and together are called decked heads .
• Table Spanners cover the entire width of the table, allowing for more divisions or combining tables with identical column headings. They are the only type of heading that may be plural.

All columns must have headings, written in sentence case and using singular language (Item rather than Items) unless referring to a group (Men, Women). Each column’s items should be parallel (i.e., every item in a column labeled “%” should be a percentage and does not require the % symbol, since it’s already indicated in the heading). Subsections within the stub column can be shown by indenting headings rather than creating new columns:

Chemical Bonds

     Ionic

     Covalent

     Metallic

The body is the main part of the table, which includes all the reported information organized in cells (intersections of rows and columns). Entries should be center aligned unless left aligning them would make them easier to read (longer entries, usually). Word entries in the body should use sentence case. Leave cells blank if the element is not applicable or if data were not obtained; use a dash in cells and a general note if it is necessary to explain why cells are blank.   In reporting the data, consistency is key: Numerals should be expressed to a consistent number of decimal places that is determined by the precision of measurement. Never change the unit of measurement or the number of decimal places in the same column.

There are three types of notes for tables: general, specific, and probability notes. All of them must be placed below the table in that order.

General  notes explain, qualify or provide information about the table as a whole. Put explanations of abbreviations, symbols, etc. here.

Example:  Note . The racial categories used by the US Census (African-American, Asian American, Latinos/-as, Native-American, and Pacific Islander) have been collapsed into the category “non-White.” E = excludes respondents who self-identified as “White” and at least one other “non-White” race.

Specific  notes explain, qualify or provide information about a particular column, row, or individual entry. To indicate specific notes, use superscript lowercase letters (e.g.  a ,  b ,  c ), and order the superscripts from left to right, top to bottom. Each table’s first footnote must be the superscript  a .

a  n = 823.  b  One participant in this group was diagnosed with schizophrenia during the survey.

Probability  notes provide the reader with the results of the tests for statistical significance. Asterisks indicate the values for which the null hypothesis is rejected, with the probability ( p value) specified in the probability note. Such notes are required only when relevant to the data in the table. Consistently use the same number of asterisks for a given alpha level throughout your paper.

* p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001

If you need to distinguish between two-tailed and one-tailed tests in the same table, use asterisks for two-tailed p values and an alternate symbol (such as daggers) for one-tailed p values.

* p < .05, two-tailed. ** p < .01, two-tailed. † p <.05, one-tailed. †† p < .01, one-tailed.

Borders 

Tables should only include borders and lines that are needed for clarity (i.e., between elements of a decked head, above column spanners, separating total rows, etc.). Do not use vertical borders, and do not use borders around each cell. Spacing and strict alignment is typically enough to clarify relationships between elements.

Example of a table in the text of an APA 7 paper. Note the lack of vertical borders.

Tables from Other Sources

If using tables from an external source, copy the structure of the original exactly, and cite the source in accordance with  APA style .

Table Checklist

(Taken from the  Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , 7th ed., Section 7.20)

• Is the table necessary?
• Does it belong in the print and electronic versions of the article, or can it go in an online supplemental file?
• Are all comparable tables presented consistently?
• Are all tables numbered with Arabic numerals in the order they are mentioned in the text? Is the table number bold and left-aligned?
• Are all tables referred to in the text?
• Is the title brief but explanatory? Is it presented in italicized title case and left-aligned?
• Does every column have a column heading? Are column headings centered?
• Are all abbreviations; special use of italics, parentheses, and dashes; and special symbols explained?
• Are the notes organized according to the convention of general, specific, probability?
• Are table borders correctly used (top and bottom of table, beneath column headings, above table spanners)?
• Does the table use correct line spacing (double for the table number, title, and notes; single, one and a half, or double for the body)?
• Are entries in the left column left-aligned beneath the centered stub heading? Are all other column headings and cell entries centered?
• Are confidence intervals reported for all major point estimates?
• Are all probability level values correctly identified, and are asterisks attached to the appropriate table entries? Is a probability level assigned the same number of asterisks in all the tables in the same document?
• If the table or its data are from another source, is the source properly cited? Is permission necessary to reproduce the table?

Figures include all graphical displays of information that are not tables. Common types include graphs, charts, drawings, maps, plots, and photos. Just like tables, figures should supplement the text and should be both understandable on their own and referenced fully in the text. This section details elements of formatting writers must use when including a figure in an APA document, gives an example of a figure formatted in APA style, and includes a checklist for formatting figures.

Preparing Figures

In preparing figures, communication and readability must be the ultimate criteria. Avoid the temptation to use the special effects available in most advanced software packages. While three-dimensional effects, shading, and layered text may look interesting to the author, overuse, inconsistent use, and misuse may distort the data, and distract or even annoy readers. Design properly done is inconspicuous, almost invisible, because it supports communication. Design improperly, or amateurishly, done draws the reader’s attention from the data, and makes him or her question the author’s credibility. Line drawings are usually a good option for readability and simplicity; for photographs, high contrast between background and focal point is important, as well as cropping out extraneous detail to help the reader focus on the important aspects of the photo.

Parts of a Figure

All figures that are part of the main text require a number using Arabic numerals (Figure 1, Figure 2, etc.). Numbers are assigned based on the order in which figures appear in the text and are bolded and left aligned.

Under the number, write the title of the figure in italicized title case. The title should be brief, clear, and explanatory, and both the title and number should be double spaced.

The image of the figure is the body, and it is positioned underneath the number and title. The image should be legible in both size and resolution; fonts should be sans serif, consistently sized, and between 8-14 pt. Title case should be used for axis labels and other headings; descriptions within figures should be in sentence case. Shading and color should be limited for clarity; use patterns along with color and check contrast between colors with free online checkers to ensure all users (people with color vision deficiencies or readers printing in grayscale, for instance) can access the content. Gridlines and 3-D effects should be avoided unless they are necessary for clarity or essential content information.

Legends, or keys, explain symbols, styles, patterns, shading, or colors in the image. Words in the legend should be in title case; legends should go within or underneath the image rather than to the side. Not all figures will require a legend.

Notes clarify the content of the figure; like tables, notes can be general, specific, or probability. General notes explain units of measurement, symbols, and abbreviations, or provide citation information. Specific notes identify specific elements using superscripts; probability notes explain statistical significance of certain values.

A generic example of a figure formatted in APA 7 style.

Figure Checklist 

(Taken from the  Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , 7 th ed., Section 7.35)

• Is the figure necessary?
• Does the figure belong in the print and electronic versions of the article, or is it supplemental?
• Is the figure simple, clean, and free of extraneous detail?
• Is the figure title descriptive of the content of the figure? Is it written in italic title case and left aligned?
• Are all elements of the figure clearly labeled?
• Are the magnitude, scale, and direction of grid elements clearly labeled?
• Are parallel figures or equally important figures prepared according to the same scale?
• Are the figures numbered consecutively with Arabic numerals? Is the figure number bold and left aligned?
• Has the figure been formatted properly? Is the font sans serif in the image portion of the figure and between sizes 8 and 14?
• Are all abbreviations and special symbols explained?
• If the figure has a legend, does it appear within or below the image? Are the legend’s words written in title case?
• Are the figure notes in general, specific, and probability order? Are they double-spaced, left aligned, and in the same font as the paper?
• Are all figures mentioned in the text?
• Has written permission for print and electronic reuse been obtained? Is proper credit given in the figure caption?
• Have all substantive modifications to photographic images been disclosed?
• Are the figures being submitted in a file format acceptable to the publisher?
• Have the files been produced at a sufficiently high resolution to allow for accurate reproduction?

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APA 7th Edition

Purdue's OWL (Online Writing Lab) provides instruction on how to use APA 7th. Below are a few topics covered by the OWL.

• APA Style Introduction Purdue OWL resources that will help you use the American Psychological Association (APA) citation and format style.
• APA Overview and Workshop APA 7th
• General Formatting APA 7th
• In-Text Citation: Authors APA 7th
• Foot Notes and Appendices APA 7th
• Changes in the 7th Edition APA 7th
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• Last Edited: Jun 17, 2024 4:24 PM
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Scribbr APA Citation Generator

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• Introduction
• Parenthetical vs. narrative
• Multiple authors

Missing information

• Sources to include

Tools and resources

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How to create APA citations

APA Style is widely used by students, researchers, and professionals in the social and behavioral sciences. Scribbr’s free citation generator automatically generates accurate references and in-text citations.

This citation guide outlines the most important citation guidelines from the 7th edition APA Publication Manual (2020).

• Cite a webpage
• Cite a book
• Cite a journal article
• Cite a YouTube video

APA in-text citations

APA in-text citations include the author’s last name, publication date, and, if relevant, a locator such as a page number or timestamp. For example, (Smith, 2021, p. 170) . See it as a shorter version of the entry in the reference list .

You should include in-text citations every time you’re quoting or paraphrasing someone else’s ideas or words. In doing so, you give credit to the original author and avoid plagiarism .

Parenthetical vs. narrative citation

The in-text citation can take two forms: parenthetical and narrative. Both types are generated automatically when citing a source with Scribbr’s APA Citation Generator.

• Parenthetical citation: According to new research … (Smith, 2020) .
• Narrative citation: Smith (2020) notes that …

Multiple authors and corporate authors

The in-text citation changes slightly when a source has multiple authors or an organization as an author. Pay attention to punctuation and the use of the ampersand (&) symbol.

When the author, publication date or locator is unknown, take the steps outlined below.

APA Citation Generator

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APA references

APA references generally include information about the author , publication date , title , and source . Depending on the type of source, you may have to include extra information that helps your reader locate the source.

It is not uncommon for certain information to be unknown or missing, especially with sources found online. In these cases, the reference is slightly adjusted.

Formatting the APA reference page

On the first line of the page, write the section label “References” (in bold and centered). On the second line, start listing your references in alphabetical order .

Apply these formatting guidelines to the APA reference page:

• Double spacing (within and between references)
• Hanging indent of ½ inch
• Legible font (e.g. Times New Roman 12 or Arial 11)
• Page number in the top right header

Which sources to include

On the reference page, you only include sources that you have cited in the text (with an in-text citation ). You should not include references to personal communications that your reader can’t access (e.g. emails, phone conversations or private online material).

In addition to the APA Citation Generator, Scribbr provides many more tools and resources that help millions of students and academics every month.

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• Guides and videos : Explore hundreds of articles, bite-sized videos, time-saving templates, and handy checklists that guide you through the process of research, writing, and citation.

APA (7/e) Style Guide

• Style Features & Formatting

A Note on In-Text Citations

In-text citations, paraphrasing, direct quotations, a note on secondary sources, a note on personal communications.

• Formatting Tables & Figures
• Citing Textual Resources
• Citing Audiovisual Resources
• Citing Online Resources
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Citing AI This link opens in a new window

Additional Resources

• Style and Grammar Guidelines (APA 7/e)
• Sample Papers (APA 7/e)
• APA Style Blog
• Purdue OWL APA 7/e Style Guide
• Santa Fe College Lawrence W. Tyree Library APA 7/e Guide
• Brenau University Trustee Library APA 7/e Tutorial

Chapter 8 of the  Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Seventh Edition  is dedicated to formatting in-text citations, paraphrases, and direct quotations. What is presented here is a brief overview on some of these topics  based on the rules found in the manual. For more details and exceptions to the rules, be sure to  reference the manual .

At the minimum, in-text citations require both the author last name and the publication date. Depending on the type of resource you are citing and whether you're quoting or paraphrasing, you may have to include additional information such as page or chapter numbers. 

You can create in-text citations in one of two ways:

• In a  parenthetical citation , all citation information is found within parentheses. See example below:

Falsely balanced news coverage can distort the public's perception of expert consensus on an issue (Koehler, 2016).

• In a  narrative citation , some or all citation information is incorporated into your text. See example below:

Koehler (2016) noted the dangers of falsely balanced news coverage.

If you're citing more than one source in a parenthetical citation, put the sources in alphabetical order and separate each work with a semicolon.

​Example Citations:

NOTE: For resources that contain authors whose names can be abbreviated - usually group authors - include the full name and abbreviation the first time you cite the resource and subsequently use only the abbreviation.

NOTE: If you have two resources whose abbreviated names are the same (e.g. American Psychological Association and American Psychiatric Association are both abbreviated to APA), you need to use each author's full name every time you cite them to avoid confusion.

When you paraphrase a source, you are putting the content of that source in your own words.

Some basic rules concerning paraphrasing include:

• Page or paragraph numbers are not required, but you can include them.
• For all subsequent uses of that source, you don't need to include an in-text citation so long as you make it clear that you are still paraphrasing the same source.
• If you switch between multiple sources when paraphrasing, you need to include an in-text citation after each paraphrase to make it clear which source you're referring to.
• Basic Rules
• Short Quotations
• Block Quotations
• Changing Quotations
• Citations Within Quotations

When you quote a source, you reproduce its content word for word.

Some basic rules concerning quoting include: 

• For sources that don't have pages, provide heading or section names, paragraph numbers, times stamps, verse or line numbers, etc. as appropriate for the type of source you're using.
• Page numbers can be designated as p. for a single page or pp. for a page range.
• A quotation is considered a short quotation when it is fewer than 40 words.
• Embed the quote directly into your text and enclose it with double quotation marks (e.g. "quote"). See example:

Effective teams can be difficult to describe because "high performance along one domain does not translate to high performance along another" (Ervin et al., 2018, p.470).

• A quotation is considered a block quotation when it is 40 or more words.
• Place the quote on a new line and indent all lines of the quote 0.5 inch from the left margin.
• Do NOT put block quotes in quotation marks.
• If you want to omit part of a quote, use an ellipsis (...) to designate where the omitted section is. Remember to add a space before and after the ellipsis.
• If you want to insert words into a quote, surround the added words with square brackets []. 
• If you want to emphasize part of a quote, italicize the part you want to emphasize and add [emphasis added] after the emphasized section.
• For short quotes, use single quotation marks in place of any double quotation marks within your quoted text.
• For block quotes, use double quotation marks for any quoted material within the block.

If a source you're using contains direct quotes, it is recommended that you find, read, and quote the original source of those quotes.

If you can't locate the original source, provide a reference list entry for the secondary source, and format your in-text citation as: (primary source as cited in secondary source).

• Parenthetical Example:  (McCoy et al., 2010, as cited in Chekov, 2017)
• Narrative Example:  According to McCoy et al. (2010), Starfleet captains cannot keep out of trouble (as cited in Chekov, 2017).

Personal communications can come in a variety of reference types, but they all share one key characteristic: the work itself cannot be recovered by the reader (e.g. interviews, phone calls, etc.).

Personal communications are only utilized in-text and do not have a reference list counterpart. To format a personal communication, include the author name (including first and middle initials), the words personal communication, and the exact date.

• Parenthetical Example: (G. Wilder, personal communication, December 5, 2018)
• Narrative Example: G. Wilder (personal communication, December 5, 2018)
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• Next: Formatting Tables & Figures >>
• Last Updated: Nov 13, 2023 2:43 PM
• URL: https://guides.library.nymc.edu/APA7

How to Write APA Papers in Narrative Style

How to Write a Technical Essay

Whether you are writing a story or an essay, narrative form is a way of communicating ideas by telling a story. The American Psychological Association, or APA, has a style guide for writing essays whether they are in argumentative or narrative form. The basic portions of an APA-style paper, such as the title page, abstract and bibliography, are essential parts of the essay. The narrative paper is more conversational and personal than other types of academic papers.

Format your paper with 1-inch margins on all sides, as well as a header that includes the title of your paper and the page number. Throughout your paper, double-space your document.

Include a title page that indicates important information about you and the work. In the top center of your title page, center the title of your paper. On the next line include your name. On the final line list your school. The title page should also feature a header at the top of the document.

Write a one-paragraph abstract that summarizes your essay. This is standard with every paper written in APA style. It summarizes the entirety of your paper in less than one page to give the reader a brief understanding of your argument. Even if you are not exactly positing a thesis for your narrative piece, the intent of your essay should be clear and introduced in this abstract.

Use a conversational tone throughout the body of the paper to engage the reader. This does not mean to ask rhetorical questions, provide excessive anecdotes or over-personalize the piece. Rather, it means to use idioms or slangs throughout the piece to keep it reader-friendly, instead of jargon and clunky phrasings.

Avoid excessive in-text citations that interrupt the flow of the narrative. While multiple in-text citations might be effective in other writing styles, they can make it hard for the reader to follow along in a narrative style. Pulled quotes and occasional citations are still effective, so long as they do not distract from the piece.

Include a thorough bibliography page titled "References" that credits your sources. Because in-text citations are not as common in narrative style, a very thorough bibliography is necessary to avoid plagiarism and give credit where required. Consider also adding numbered footnotes throughout to make the sources easy to reference.

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• Write Express: How to Write a Narrative Essay
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Liza Hollis has been writing for print and online publications since 2003. Her work has appeared on various digital properties, including USAToday.com. Hollis earned a degree in English Literature from the University of Florida.

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Citing Sources

• Cell Style (Biology)
• Chicago Style
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APA Quick Guide

• APA Quick Guide Print it and take it with you!

Purdue OWL - APA Formatting and Style Guide

• Purdue OWL - APA Formatting and Style Guide See Purdue OWL's APA  formatting and style guide for more examples.

APA 7th edition

A PA (American Psychological Association) style is most commonly used to cite sources within the social sciences. 

 APA Style uses the author-date system to cite references in the text. In this system, each work used in a paper has two parts: an in-text citation and a corresponding reference list . 

• How to Cite ChatGPT

APA Style 7th ed. - In-Text Citations

IN-TEXT CITATIONS 

• In-text citations appears within the body of the paper, briefly identifying the cited work at the point it is referenced.

Parenthetical and Narrative Citations 

In-text citations have two formats: parenthetical and narrative.

• Parenthetical example: Falsely balanced news coverage can distort the public's perception (Koehler, 2016).
• Narrative example: Koehler (2016) noted the dangers of falsely balanced news coverage.

     Single Works

• One author: (Luna, 2020)
• Two authors: (Salas & D'Agostino, 2020)
• Three or more authors: (Martin et al., 2020)

Multiple Works

List in alphabetical order by author last name, separating by semicolons.  

• (Adams et al., 2019; Shumway & Shulman, 2015; Westinghouse, 2017)
• (Department of Veteran Affairs, n.d., 2017a, 2017b, 2019)

Short Quotations (Fewer Than 40 Words)

• Effective teams can be difficult to describe because "high performance along one domain does not translate to high performance along another" (Ervin et al., 2018, p.470).
• Biebel et al. (2018) noted that "incorporating the voice of students can increase access and retention" (p.299).

Long Quotations (40 Words or More)

Treat as a block quotation. Do not use quotation marks. Start a block quotation on a new line and indent the whole block 0.5 inches from the left margin.  

APA 7th edition - Reference List

REFERENCE LIST

• The reference list appears at the end of the paper. It provides the information needed to identify and find each work cited in the text.

Four elements of a Reference

• author: Who is responsible for this work?
• date: When was this work published?
• title: What is this work called?
• source: Where can I retrieve this work?   

Authors for most formats

Author, A. A. (Year of publication).  Title of work: Capital letter also for subtitle . Publisher Name. DOI (if available)

• All authors' names should be inverted (i.e., last names should be provided first).
• Authors' first and middle names should be written as initials.

One author     

Bickle, M. C. (2011).  Fashion marketing: Theory, principles, & practice.  Fairchild Books.

Two to twenty authors

• Give the last name and first/middle initials for all authors of a particular work up to and including 20 authors

Aguiar, L. M., Tomic, P., & Trumper, R. (2019).  Apparel: Concepts and practical applications.  Fairchild Books.

More than twenty authors

• If there are 21 or more authors, use an ellipsis (but no ampersand) after the 19th author, and then add the final author’s name.

Aguiar, L. M., Tomic, P., Author, A., Author, B., Author, C., Author, D., Author, E., Author, F., Author, G., Author, H., Author, I., Author, J., Author, K., Author, L., Author, M., Author, N., Author, O., Author, P., Author, Q., ... Trumper, R. (2019).  Apparel: Concepts and practical applications.  Fairchild Books.

Frey, C. B. (2019). The technology trap: Capital, labor, and power in the age of automation . Princeton University Press.

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year). Title of article.  Title of Periodical ,  volume number (issue number), pages. https://doi.org/xx.xxx/yyyy

Zhang, H., & Merikangas, K. (2000). A frailty model of segregation analysis: Understanding the familial transmission of alcoholism.  Biometrics ,  56 (3), 815–823. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0006-341x.2000.00815.x

Website vs Webpage When mentioning a website, without mention of a specific page, no reference list entry or in-text citation is needed. Give the name of the website in text and include the URL in parentheses. For example:

We created our survey using Qualtrics (https://www.qualtrics.com).

Article on a Website

Lastname, F. M. (Year, Month Date). Title of article.  Title of Publication . URL

Vogelsong, S. (2020, November 16). On Virginia’s far Atlantic flank, a cherished store of salt marshes is being lost. Virginia Mercury .  https://www.virginiamercury.com/2020/11/16/on-virginias-far-atlantic-flank-a-cherished-store-of-salt-marshes-is-being-lost/

YouTube Video / Streaming Video

Last Name, F. M. [Username]. (Year, Month Date).  Title of video  [Video]. Streaming Service. URL

Lustig, R. H. [UCTV]. (2009, July 30). Sugar: The bitter truth [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/dBnniua6-oM

Lastname, F. M. (Year, Month Date). Title of post.  Publisher . URL

Ross, M. (2020, April 29). Top 10 toddler and kid approved snacks. Blueberries Nutrition and LIfestyle .  https://blueberriesnutritionandlifestyle.com/top-10-toddler-and-kid-approved-snacks/

Host, A. A. (Host). (Year, Month Date). Title of episode (No. if provided) [Audio podcast episode]. In Name of podcast. Publisher. URL

Lutz, A. (Host). (2021, April 26). Weight inclusive wellness with Brit Guerin (No. 27) [Audio podcast episode]. In Sunnyside up nutrition .  https://sunnysideupnutrition.com/episode/ep-27-weight-inclusive-wellness-with-brit-guerin/

APA Resources @ the Library

Online Citation Tools

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APA Style Guide (7th Edition)

• APA Resources
• Formatting Your Essay
• Building an Article Reference Entry
• Building Specialized Reference Entries
• In-text Citations

Quotations: The basics

Short quotations: less than 40 words, long quotations: 40+ words, identifying the part: quotations without page numbers, citing class materials.

• The Annotated Bibliography in APA

Books for APA questions

We have print books that you can access at all of our campuses and eBooks that you can access anywhere!

This print copy of APA's  official publication  lays out every aspect of APA style formatting.  We have copies at every campus!

We also have eBooks, like this  online guide  that can be accessed anywhere through our library! 

¡Incluso hay una guía APA en español disponible en línea!

A quotation is when you use another person’s word-for-word  narrative in your own writing. Citation rules for quotations are similar to the rules for paraphrased or summarized content from another source, but there are some extra things you need to do to give proper credit to the original author; how you treat the quote depends on whether you are including 40 or more  words from the resource.

With a direct quote, proper citation includes the Author and Date , and MUST include a Page or Part designation that will help your reader locate the information within the original source. The standard parenthetical format is (Author, Date, Page/Part) though portions of the citation can still be placed in the narrative rather than the parentheses.

Page numbers are preceded by "p." for a single page and “pp.” for a span of multiple pages as shown in examples below; see the Identifying the Part section below for citing resources without page numbers and for citing non-text items that you are duplicating directly from another resource.

SHORT QUOTATIONS (less than 40 words)

Short quotations are placed into the standard sentence structure of your narrative and set apart from your words by quotation marks. In-text citations for direct quotations require the Author, Date (year) of publication, and Page number for the reference. If you introduce the Author’s name in the narrative, place the Date immediately after the Author. The Page number/s go immediately before the closing punctuation of the sentence.

• According to Smythe (2021), "students often found librarian assistance and library tutorials helpful when learning about citation styles" (p. 48).
• Smythe (2021) discovered that "students often found librarian assistance and library tutorials helpful when learning about citation styles " (pp. 48-49); what does this mean for course instructors?

If you do not include the Author’s name in the narrative, place the Author, Date (year), and the Page number/s in parentheses after the quotation itself.

• She stated, "Students often found librarian assistance and library tutorials helpful" (Smythe, 2021, para. 3).
• She said that "Students often found librarian assistance and library tutorials helpful" (Smythe, 2021, p. 48), but she did not offer an explanation as to why.

Long quotations are set apart from the narrative into what is called a block quote . A block quote is a double-spaced section of text that begins a new on a new line, is indented ½” from your narrative text at the left margin, and is cited by a parenthetical reference AFTER the closing punctuation mark; you do not use quotation marks for a block quote, nor do you add an extra blank line before or after the block quote. Here is an example of a block quote from Purdue’s OWL website (n.d., “Formatting example for block quotations in APA 7 style”):

Direct quotation or duplication of information from a source that does not contain original pages should not reference a Page number; the purpose of the Page number is to help your reader find the quote within the larger resource, so the source of the Page/Part identifier should be universal to the Referenced format or access method for that resource.

Instead, you may need to use another logical, universal identifying element: a heading, section number or name, paragraph number, a chapter number or name, a table number or name, etc. Religious texts can also incorporate special location identifiers like verse numbers; similarly, you can use verses or act/scene/line designations for literary works that are often reprinted such as plays or poetry.

In short: pick a substitute for Page numbers that makes sense for your source and that is universally the same for anyone else who may access that resource.

Parts of electronic resources

Many of the electronic resources that you will access through the library databases DO have Page numbers; you should use Page numbers when they are available! When you access the full text of a journal article online, the PDF format has the same Page numbers as the print version of the journal!

When there are absolutely no reasonable page numbers available in a resource from which you directly duplicate information, how do you cite:   

• Use the name of the item, e.g. (Figure 3) or (Slide 7) or (Table 2).
• In the case of the image of the block quote used above, the title of the graphic on the original page was used as the Part identifier after the Date in the citation; the Author appears in the narrative.
• Use the section, heading, or chapter name, line or paragraph number, etc.
• (Smythe, 2021, para.14).
• (Jonas, lines 18-20)
• (International Organization of Smythe Families, 2021, About Us section)
• Use a time stamp from the original resource recording that corresponds with the beginning of your quote.
• He asks us "Is it possible to have institutions in our country, universities, where people from all backgrounds can come and learn, and learn to work together and learn to become leaders and to support each other in that experience?” (Hrabowski, 2013, 4:45).

Class materials?!

Yes! You can use quotations from a lecture video that your professor provided or from a course discussion board, not to mention the course textbook, handouts, and your class notes! These are often excellent resources to use to tie your work into the assignment objectives, as the material was explicitly designed to directly support those objectives.

So how do you cite class materials?!

Your References are supposed to help others to find and access your sources. Readers who aren’t in your classes won’t have access to the course material that you have access to, and those who are within your class will need only minimal information to find which lecture or discussion you are citing. In these circumstances, best practice is to format the citation after one used for the category of Personal Communication.

Personal Communications, works that cannot be recovered by general readers, include unpublished interviews, emails, texts, some social media posts, live speeches, letters, etc.). Since readers cannot retrieve the information they contain, they are cited in-text but are NOT added to the References list.   Personal communications are to be used sparingly and only when necessary; for example, if you quote your textbook, you should cite the book in your References list and if a lecture referred to an outside resource, it’s better to find and use that resource than to cite the lecture. 

A personal communication citation should minimally include Author, "personal communication", and Date (Author, personal communication, Month day, year) ; elements of the citation can be used in the narrative rather than parenthetically, as with other citations. You may also include the format of the communication in the citation (Author, personal communication [ENG 101 lecture], Month day, year) .

American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association: The official guide to APA style  (7th edition). 

Hrabowski, f. (2013, february). four pillars of college success in science. ted. https://www.ted.com/talks/freeman_hrabowski_4_pillars_of_college_success_in_science., purdue owl. (n.d.).  in-text citations: the basics . purdue writing lab. https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_style_guide/in_text_citations_the_basics.html..

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• Free Tools for Students
• APA Citation Generator

Free APA Citation Generator

Generate citations in APA format quickly and automatically, with MyBib!

🤔 What is an APA Citation Generator?

An APA citation generator is a software tool that will automatically format academic citations in the American Psychological Association (APA) style.

It will usually request vital details about a source -- like the authors, title, and publish date -- and will output these details with the correct punctuation and layout required by the official APA style guide.

Formatted citations created by a generator can be copied into the bibliography of an academic paper as a way to give credit to the sources referenced in the main body of the paper.

👩‍🎓 Who uses an APA Citation Generator?

College-level and post-graduate students are most likely to use an APA citation generator, because APA style is the most favored style at these learning levels. Before college, in middle and high school, MLA style is more likely to be used. In other parts of the world styles such as Harvard (UK and Australia) and DIN 1505 (Europe) are used more often.

🙌 Why should I use a Citation Generator?

Like almost every other citation style, APA style can be cryptic and hard to understand when formatting citations. Citations can take an unreasonable amount of time to format manually, and it is easy to accidentally include errors. By using a citation generator to do this work you will:

• Save a considerable amount of time
• Ensure that your citations are consistent and formatted correctly
• Be rewarded with a higher grade

In academia, bibliographies are graded on their accuracy against the official APA rulebook, so it is important for students to ensure their citations are formatted correctly. Special attention should also be given to ensure the entire document (including main body) is structured according to the APA guidelines. Our complete APA format guide has everything you need know to make sure you get it right (including examples and diagrams).

⚙️ How do I use MyBib's APA Citation Generator?

Our APA generator was built with a focus on simplicity and speed. To generate a formatted reference list or bibliography just follow these steps:

• Start by searching for the source you want to cite in the search box at the top of the page.
• MyBib will automatically locate all the required information. If any is missing you can add it yourself.
• Your citation will be generated correctly with the information provided and added to your bibliography.
• Repeat for each citation, then download the formatted list and append it to the end of your paper.

MyBib supports the following for APA style:

Daniel is a qualified librarian, former teacher, and citation expert. He has been contributing to MyBib since 2018.

Title Page Setup

A title page is required for all APA Style papers. There are both student and professional versions of the title page. Students should use the student version of the title page unless their instructor or institution has requested they use the professional version. APA provides a student title page guide (PDF, 199KB) to assist students in creating their title pages.

Student title page

The student title page includes the paper title, author names (the byline), author affiliation, course number and name for which the paper is being submitted, instructor name, assignment due date, and page number, as shown in this example.

Title page setup is covered in the seventh edition APA Style manuals in the Publication Manual Section 2.3 and the Concise Guide Section 1.6

Related handouts

• Student Title Page Guide (PDF, 263KB)
• Student Paper Setup Guide (PDF, 3MB)

Student papers do not include a running head unless requested by the instructor or institution.

Follow the guidelines described next to format each element of the student title page.

Professional title page

The professional title page includes the paper title, author names (the byline), author affiliation(s), author note, running head, and page number, as shown in the following example.

Follow the guidelines described next to format each element of the professional title page.

Writing Tips & Tools

• APA Resources
• Formatting Tables & Figures
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• In-Text Citations
• Paraphrases & Quotations
• Reference List
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• Step 1: Prewrite
• Step 2: Outlining/Planning
• Step 3: First Draft
• Step 4: Revision
• Step 5: Editing/Proofreading
• Active vs. Passive Voice
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• Subject-Verb Agreement
• Academic Writing Genres & Common Assignments
• Defining & Avoiding Plagiarism
• Introduction vs. Abstract
• Knowing When to Cite
• Paraphrasing & Quoting Sources
• Utilizing Turnitin
• Primary vs. Secondary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Sources
• Adding & Formatting Page Numbers
• Basic Tips for Microsoft Word
• Creating a Table of Contents & List of Tables/Figures
• Page & Section Breaks
• The Styles Pane
• Using Track Changes & Comments
• Abstracts (Saybrook Handbook)
• Appendices (Saybrook Handbook)
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Academic writing is characterized by its emphasis on facts and observations, its presence within a specified body of knowledge, and its reference to sources (prior learning) by which the reader can evaluate the trustworthiness of the academic book or article.

To access a recording of the Faculty Panel on Academic Learning and Writing presented in 2021,  enroll in the Center for Writing and Academic Success' Canvas shell . Once you have enrolled in the course, you may then access the page “ Faculty Panel on Academic Writing ."

Within the field of writing, there are four main genres: descriptive, persuasive, expository, and narrative. When generating a piece of academic writing, the author may utilize skills from any of the four genres,​ and within each of these categories, specific types of academic assignments may be presented. This page provides an overview of each genre of writing as well as presents the types of academic papers that utilize that genre of writing.

​Regardless of the type of paper, all papers should follow the style and format as presented in the APA Manual (2020).​

Persuasive Writing

• Common Assignments
• Additional Resources

Also commonly referred to as argumentative writing, persuasive writing occurs when the author takes a stand on a principle or controversial issue and attempts to persuade the reader to adopt a similar mindset. When using persuasive writing, the author will appeal to reason, emotion, or character (ethics) to build their argument. 

​Within the academic context, the most common persuasive technique for authors to use is to appeal to reason and logic. Persuasive writing that appeals to logic involves incorporating critical thinking and often the use of outside sources for evidence.

Research-Based Papers

A research-based paper requires that the writer conducts research using methods such as library searches prior to authoring the work. Within the paper, the author must identify and cite the literature to support their original idea, position, or argument. Research-based papers usually center around an argument or idea, known as the thesis, that is developed throughout the body of the paper. The thesis of the paper is supported by the evidence drawn from the research. In order to present an effective position or argument, the author must utilize clear writing, organization, and logic. Do not confuse this type of paper with a literature review, described in a later section. 

• Webpage:  Genre and the Research Paper  (Purdue OWL, n.d.)​
• Webpage:  How to Write a Research Paper  (Scribbr, n.d.)

Critical Review ​

Usually focused on writing authored by someone else, this describes and assesses a theoretical concept, article, or research report critically and analytically. In a critical review, the author either agrees or disagrees with the original work that is being critiqued. In either circumstance, the author is persuading the reader toward a particular opinion about the work that is being examined. Examples include evaluations of research articles, book reviews, and critiques of published literature reviews and dissertations.

• Example:  Book Review: Remodeling GT once again  (Nathaniel, 2014)
• Video:  Rhetori​c: Essentials of Argument  (OWL Purdue, n​.d.)​​​​

Please refer to the links below for details on the organization of persuasive writing pieces:

• Webpage:  Argumentative Essays  (Purdue OWL, n.d.)
• Webpage:  How to Write an Argumentative Essay  (Caulfield, 2021)
• PDF:  Argumentative Paper Format  (Odegaa​rd Writing & Research Center, ​​​n.d.)
• Webpage:  Tips on How to Write an Argumentative Essay  (Fleming, 2020)
• Webpage:  How to Write a Persuasive Essay  (Lombardi, 2018)
• Webpage:  Preparing an Argument Essay: Exploring Both Sides of an Issue  (Nordquist, 2019)

Expository Writing

Expository papers present information objectively and are used to inform, compare and contrast, or show cause and effect. Information presented in expository writing should be clear and concise.

This is the most common type of writing at the graduate level within many of the fields offered at Saybrook. Since the purpose of expository writing is to inform the reader, it is used heavily within academic contexts.

Literature Review

This is a comprehensive report on the existing literature available regarding a topic or question. A literature review describes, summarizes, evaluates, and synthesizes scholarly articles, books, research reports, dissertations, conference proceedings,​ and other sources of information relevant to a specific question or topic. The writer critically analyzes the method, results, discussion, and/or conclusions from multiple research articles. A good literature review goes beyond simply reporting and summarizing related literature: it evaluates, organizes, and synthesizes what others have researched and written on the topic. Evaluating begins with identifying and reporting crucial elements in individual studies. It is equally important to organize the individual studies into categories or themes found in the literature, noting how strong or lacking the evidence appears. The final quality of synthesis allows the literature review author to repackage what is known and add their insights to the collective knowledge. Thus, a good literature review will not only report on studies and collective knowledge, but also compare different perspectives, identify inconsistencies and offer possible explanations, and comment on how knowledge has evolved over time.

• PDF Example:  Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM) Use in Advanced Cancer: A Systematic Review  (Truant et al., 2013)

​Pr​é​cis 

A précis is a recapitulation of the original work at 25%–33% of the original size. It contains no interpretation or critique elements and should not include the voice of the précis writer. It should be a substitute for the original work, like an executive summary. The purpose is to report the core essence of the work that is clear and concise. When used to summarize a research article, the précis should include the topic or main thesis, the purpose of the research, what was studied, what methods were applied, the findings or results, and a conclusion or discussion. 

• Webpage:  How to Write a Rhetorical Précis Your Professor Will Never Forget  (Hanski, 2017​)
• Webpage:​ ​​​ Précis Writing  (Hit Bulls Eye, n.d.)

Original Empirical​​​ Research Report

Original empirical research reports provide an original qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-method research project in which the student-designed the study, conducted the fieldwork and data collection, analyzed the data, and created the report. Examples within graduate coursework include the pilot study report, a thesis, and a dissertation. Published original research articles are also empirical research reports. Examples are:

• Webpage:  Short-term Meditation Training Improves Attention and Self-Regulation​​  (Tang et al., 2007)
• DOI link:  Patients' views of CAM as spiritual practice  (Ulrich et al., 2011​) ​​(also available in the Saybrook Library )

Below are links describing more about expository writing.

• Webpage:  Expository Essays  (Purdue OWL, n.d.)
• Webpage:  How to Write an Expository Essay  (​Caulfield, 2020)
• Webpage:  What is Expository Writing?  (Nordquist, 2019)
• Webpage: ​​ How to Write an Expository Essay  (Scribendi, ​n.d.)

Persuasive vs. Expository Writing

Persuasive and expository writing may share similar traits. For example, research plays a critical role in both genres​. However, the purpose is different. Table 1 provides a description of traits of each genre of writing.

Traits of Persuasive & Expository Writing

Descriptive Writng

Descrip​tive writing uses vivid language to describe a person, place, or event so that the reader can picture the topic clearly in their mind. 

​Some qualitative research methods call for data collection through such rich descriptions (e.g., phenomenological protocols, narrative re-storying). Although it is unlikely for a student at Saybrook to receive an essay prompt requiring a descriptive approach, the skill is useful for describing personal observations. Note that within academic writing, descriptive writing should remain neutral and use clear and concise wording. 

For more information on descriptive writing, consult the hyperlinks provided below.

• Webpage: ​ Purd​ue OWL: Descriptive Essays  (Purdue OWL, n.d.)
• Webpage:  How to Write a Descriptive Essay  (​Caulfield, 2021)
• Webpage:  5 Examples of How to Write a Good Descriptive​ Paragraph  (Nordquist​, 2020)
• Webpage:  Description in Rhetoric and C​omposition  (Nordquist​, 2019)​
• Webpage: ​ Writin​g a Descriptive Essay  (Fleming, 2020)​
• Webpage:  Structure of a Descriptive Essay  (Fleming, 2019)​​

Narrative Writing

Narrative writing tells the reader about a particular event(s) that took place. Common works of narrative writing include personal essays (such as those found in a blog post), practicum logs, and case reports.

This form of essay writing is less common in graduate-level writing within the fields offered at Saybrook University. However, a student may still encounter essay prompts that suggest a narrative approach. For example, a professor may ask you to analyze a theory or concept in light of a personal experience.

Reflection Paper

A reflection paper relies on the writer's anecdotal experiences and personal reflections to convey an idea, an experience, or a concept. Although not dependent on externally derived evidence, such as scholarly literature, reflection papers still require clarity, logical organization, and basic rhetorical skills for effective execution. 

For more information on narrative writing, consult the hyperlinks provided below.

• Webpage:  Narrative Writing  (Purdue OWL, n.d.)
• Webpage:  How to Write a Narrative Essay  (​​Caulfield, ​2020)
• Webpage:  Narrative Essay Examples and Key Elements  (Your Dictionary, n.d.)
• Webpage:  How to Write a Narrative Essay or Speech  (Nordquist, 2020)
• Webpage:​  Compose ​a Narrative Essay or Personal statement  (Nordquist, 2019)

Descriptive vs. Narrative Writing

Descriptive and narrative writing may be easily confused because both allow the writer to express themselves using more creative and personal methods. While both use similar writing skills, there are some distinct differences. Table 2 provides a description of traits of each genre of writing. 

Traits of Descriptive & Narrative Writing

Other Common Writing Assignments

This section provides resources for other common assignments provided within courses at Saybrook University.

• Synthesis Paper
• Annotated Bibliographies

Note:  This page has been developed based on a document created by Luann Fortune, PhD & Kara Vander Linden, EdD (2014) for Saybrook's Mind-Body Medicine program. With permission, the content presented here has been updated to be compliant with the 7th edition of the APA Manual. This page has been reorganized and re-worded so that it's contents be applicable to all programs at Saybrook. Some additional information has also been provided. The original document can be viewed here:

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Purdue Owl: APA Formatting & Style Guide

Developed by Purdue's Online Writing Lab. Contains resources on in-text citation and the references page, as well as APA sample papers, slide presentations, and the APA classroom poster.

Author/Editor (By:)

Contributor, corporate author, related organizations, citation type.