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NASA’s Perseverance Makes New Discoveries in Mars’ Jezero Crater

NASA’s Perseverance Mars rover took this selfie near rock nicknamed “Rochette,” found on Jezero Crater’s floor, on Sept. 10, 2021, the 198th Martian day, or sol, of the mission. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS Full Image Details

Perseverance took this close-up of a rock target nicknamed “Foux” using its WATSON (Wide Angle Topographic Sensor for Operations and eNgineering) camera, part of the SHERLOC instrument on the end of the rover’s robotic arm. The image was taken July 11, 2021, the 139th Martian day, or sol, of the mission.

The rover found that Jezero Crater’s floor is made up of volcanic rocks that have interacted with water.

Scientists got a surprise when NASA’s Perseverance Mars rover began examining rocks on the floor of Jezero Crater in spring of 2021: Because the crater held a lake billions of years ago, they had expected to find sedimentary rock, which would have formed when sand and mud settled in a once-watery environment. Instead, they discovered the floor was made of two types of igneous rock – one that formed deep underground from magma, the other from volcanic activity at the surface.

The findings are described in four new papers published Thursday, Aug. 25. In Science, one offers an overview of Perseverance’s exploration of the crater floor before it arrived at Jezero’s ancient river delta in April 2022; a second study in the same journal details distinctive rocks that appear to have formed from a thick body of magma. The other two papers, published in Science Advances, detail the unique ways that Perseverance’s rock-vaporizing laser and ground-penetrating radar established that igneous rocks cover the crater floor.

Rock of Ages

Igneous rocks are excellent timekeepers: Crystals within them record details about the precise moment they formed.

“One great value of the igneous rocks we collected is that they will tell us about when the lake was present in Jezero. We know it was there more recently than the igneous crater floor rocks formed,” said Ken Farley of Caltech, Perseverance’s project scientist and the lead author of the first of the new Science papers. “This will address some major questions: When was Mars’ climate conducive to lakes and rivers on the planet’s surface, and when did it change to the very cold and dry conditions we see today?”

NASA’s Perseverance Mars rover looks out at an expanse of boulders on the floor of Jezero Crater in front of a location nicknamed “Santa Cruz” on Feb. 16, 2022, the 353rd Martian day, or sol, of the mission.

However, because of how it forms, igneous rock isn’t ideal for preserving the potential signs of ancient microscopic life Perseverance is searching for. In contrast, determining the age of sedimentary rock can be challenging, particularly when it contains rock fragments that formed at different times before the rock sediment was deposited. But sedimentary rock often forms in watery environments suitable for life and is better at preserving ancient signs of life.

That’s why the sediment-rich river delta Perseverance has been exploring since April 2022 has been so tantalizing to scientists. The rover has begun drilling and collecting core samples of sedimentary rocks there so that the Mars Sample Return campaign could potentially return them to Earth to be studied by powerful lab equipment too large to bring to Mars.

Mysterious Magma-Formed Rocks

A second paper published in Science solves a longstanding mystery on Mars. Years ago, Mars orbiters spotted a rock formation filled with the mineral olivine. Measuring roughly 27,000 square miles (70,000 square kilometers) – nearly the size of South Carolina – this formation extends from the inside edge of Jezero Crater into the surrounding region.

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Scientists have offered various theories why olivine is so plentiful over such a large area of the surface, including meteorite impacts, volcanic eruptions, and sedimentary processes. Another theory is that the olivine formed deep underground from slowly cooling magma – molten rock – before being exposed over time by erosion.

Yang Liu of NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California and her co-authors have determined that last explanation is the most likely. Perseverance abraded a rock to reveal its composition; studying the exposed patch, the scientists homed in on the olivine’s large grain size, along with the rock’s chemistry and texture.

Using Perseverance’s Planetary Instrument for X-ray Lithochemistry, or PIXL , they determined the olivine grains in the area measure 1 to 3 millimeters – much larger than would be expected for olivine that formed in rapidly cooling lava at the planet’s surface.

“This large crystal size and its uniform composition in a specific rock texture require a very slow-cooling environment,” Liu said. “So, most likely, this magma in Jezero wasn’t erupting on the surface.”

Unique Science Tools

The two Science Advances papers detail the findings of science instruments that helped establish that igneous rocks cover the crater floor. The instruments include Perseverance’s SuperCam laser and a ground-penetrating radar called RIMFAX (Radar Imager for Mars’ Subsurface Experiment).

SuperCam is equipped with rock-vaporizing laser that can zap a target as small as a pencil tip from up to 20 feet (7 meters) away. It studies the resulting vapor using a visible-light spectrometer to determine a rock’s chemical composition. SuperCam zapped 1,450 points during Perseverance’s first 10 months on Mars, helping scientists arrive at their conclusion about igneous rocks on the crater floor.

In addition, SuperCam used near-infrared light – it’s the first instrument on Mars with that capability – to find that water altered minerals in the crater floor rocks. However, the alterations weren’t pervasive throughout the crater floor, according to the combination of laser and infrared observations.

“SuperCam’s data suggests that either these rock layers were isolated from Jezero’s lake water or that the lake existed for a limited duration,” said Roger Wiens, SuperCam’s principal investigator at Purdue University and Los Alamos National Laboratory.

RIMFAX marks another first: Mars orbiters carry ground-penetrating radars, but no spacecraft on the surface of Mars have before Perseverance. Being on the surface, RIMFAX can provide unparalleled detail, and surveyed the crater floor as deep as 50 feet (15 meters).

Its high-resolution “radargrams” show rock layers unexpectedly inclined up to 15 degrees underground. Understanding how these rock layers are ordered can help scientists build a timeline of Jezero Crater’s formation.

“As the first such instrument to operate on the surface of Mars, RIMFAX has demonstrated the potential value of a ground-penetrating radar as a tool for subsurface exploration,” said Svein-Erik Hamran, RIMFAX’s principal investigator at the University of Oslo in Norway.

The science team is excited by what they’ve found so far, but they’re even more excited about the science that lies ahead.

More About the Mission

A key objective for Perseverance’s mission on Mars is astrobiology , including the search for signs of ancient microbial life. The rover will characterize the planet’s geology and past climate, pave the way for human exploration of the Red Planet, and be the first mission to collect and cache Martian rock and regolith (broken rock and dust).

Subsequent NASA missions, in cooperation with ESA (European Space Agency), would send spacecraft to Mars to collect these sealed samples from the surface and return them to Earth for in-depth analysis.

The Mars 2020 Perseverance mission is part of NASA’s Moon to Mars exploration approach, which includes Artemis missions to the Moon that will help prepare for human exploration of the Red Planet.

JPL, which is managed for NASA by Caltech in Pasadena, California, built and manages operations of the Perseverance rover.

For more about Perseverance:

mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/

News Media Contact

Andrew Good

Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif.

818-393-2433

[email protected]

Mars News & Features

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There’s good news from NASA’s Cloudspotting on Mars project! That’s the project that invites you to help identify exotic clouds high in the Martian atmosphere. Congratulations to the Cloudspotting on Mars team and all the volunteers who have helped spot Martian clouds!

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The rover has arrived at an area that may show evidence liquid water flowed on this part of Mars for much longer than previously thought. NASA’s Curiosity rover has begun exploring a new region of Mars, one that could reveal…

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Launch for Boeing Starliner's first crewed ride into space has been scrubbed

Joe Hernandez

Photographers capture the Boeing Starliner capsule atop an Atlas V rocket as it is rolled out to the launch pad at Space Launch Complex 41, Saturday, May 4, 2024, in Cape Canaveral, Fla. Terry Renna/AP hide caption

Photographers capture the Boeing Starliner capsule atop an Atlas V rocket as it is rolled out to the launch pad at Space Launch Complex 41, Saturday, May 4, 2024, in Cape Canaveral, Fla.

After a series of troubled test flights and ongoing problems with its commercial aviation wing, Boeing will have to wait a little longer before it can fly people for the first time on its Starliner capsule.

Monday's launch from Cape Canaveral, Fla., was called off ahead of its planned 10:34 p.m. EST launch because of a faulty oxygen relief valve, according to NASA. The next launch attempt will take place no earlier than Friday, according to a statement from United Launch Alliance, the company behind the Atlas V rocket that will carry the capsule into space.

The latest test flight comes roughly a decade after NASA awarded Boeing a more than $4 billion contract as part of the agency's effort to pay private companies to help ferry astronauts to and from the International Space Station, following the retirement of the space shuttle in 2011.

SpaceX, which was also awarded a contract through the same NASA initiative, has flown nine missions for NASA and another four private, crewed spaceflights.

Boeing's Starliner program has been plagued with delays and design problems for several years.

The Starliner failed to reach the I.S.S. during its first mission in 2019 after its onboard clock, which was set incorrectly , caused a computer to fire the capsule's engines too early. The spacecraft successfully docked with the I.S.S. during its second test flight in 2022, despite the failure of some thrusters during the launch.

Experts: Boeing's safety culture is broken and defective airplanes are being put out

Boeing then scrapped the planned launch of the Starliner's first crewed flight last year, after company officials realized that adhesive tape used on the craft to wrap hundreds of yards of wiring was flammable, and lines connecting the capsule to its three parachutes appeared to be weaker than expected. The launch was delayed indefinitely.

Ahead of Monday's planned launch attempt, the aerospace giant and NASA both had expressed confidence that Starliner was ready for its first crewed voyage into orbit.

"We are to a state now where we are ready to perform the test flight," Mark Nappi, Boeing vice president and program manager of the Commercial Crew Program, said during a Friday press conference. "I've never felt readier on any mission that I've ever participated in."

In this photo provided by NASA, the Boeing Starliner spacecraft is lifted for mounting on a United Launch Alliance Atlas V rocket at Cape Canaveral Space Force Station in Florida on Tuesday, April 16, 2024. Kim Shiflett/AP hide caption

Two veteran NASA astronauts — Barry "Butch" Wilmore and Sunita "Suni" Williams — are supposed to fly aboard the Starliner and spend about a week at the I.S.S. before returning to Earth.

"We feel very safe and very comfortable when this spacecraft flies," Williams said earlier this month. "This is where we're supposed to be."

Wilmore told reporters earlier this month that his and Williams' backgrounds as Navy pilots propelled them onto the Starliner mission.

"I know I don't think either one of us ever dreamed that we'd be associated with the first flight of a brand new spacecraft," Wilmore said. "But we wouldn't be here if it wasn't for that."

Laura Forczyk, executive director of the space consulting firm Astralytical, said the "stakes are higher" for this test flight because it's the first time Starliner will travel with people on board.

Forczyk said the two-year gap between the Starliner's last successful test flight and this week's planned launch "both gives me confidence, because it means that NASA and Boeing are taking this very seriously, but it also makes me nervous because it has been two years since this vehicle has been operational."

After 6 months in space and a fiery return over the U.S., NASA's Crew-7 is back home

Meanwhile, Boeing has been facing intense scrutiny this year on the commercial aviation side of its business after a rear door plug blew out of an Alaska Airlines flight shortly after takeoff in January.

Whistleblowers have since come forward to detail alleged quality control lapses at the storied company, and the Federal Aviation Administration said it was opening an audit into Boeing's production. The Justice Department also announced it would open a criminal investigation into the Alaska Airlines incident.

NPR's Geoff Brumfiel contributed reporting.

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What Happens When NASA Loses Eyes on Earth? We’re About to Find Out.

Three long-running satellites will soon be switched off, forcing scientists to figure out how to adjust their views of our changing planet.

Marine stratocumulus clouds over the southeastern Pacific Ocean, captured by NASA’s Terra satellite in 2002. Credit... NASA/GSFC/LaRC/JPL, MISR Team

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By Raymond Zhong

• Published May 3, 2024 Updated May 6, 2024

Sometime in the next few years — no one knows exactly when — three NASA satellites, each one as heavy as an elephant, will go dark.

Already they are drifting, losing height bit by bit. They have been gazing down at the planet for over two decades, far longer than anyone expected, helping us forecast the weather, manage wildfires, monitor oil spills and more. But age is catching up to them, and soon they will send their last transmissions and begin their slow, final fall to Earth.

It’s a moment scientists are dreading.

When the three orbiters — Terra, Aqua and Aura — are powered down, much of the data they’ve been collecting will end with them, and newer satellites won’t pick up all of the slack. Researchers will either have to rely on alternate sources that might not meet their exact needs or seek workarounds to allow their records to continue.

With some of the data these satellites gather, the situation is even worse: No other instruments will keep collecting it. In a few short years, the fine features they reveal about our world will become much fuzzier.

“Losing this irreplaceable data is simply tragic,” said Susan Solomon, an atmospheric chemist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. “Just when the planet most needs for us to focus on understanding how we are affected by it, and how we are affecting it, we seem to be disastrously asleep at the wheel.”

The main area we’re losing eyes on is the stratosphere, the all-important home of the ozone layer.

Across the stratosphere’s cold, thin air, ozone molecules are constantly being formed and destroyed, tossed and swept, as they interact with other gases. Some of these gases have natural origins; others are there because of us.

An instrument on Aura, the microwave limb sounder, gives us our best line of sight into this seething chemical drama, said Ross J. Salawitch, an atmospheric scientist at the University of Maryland. Once Aura is gone, our vision will dim considerably, he said.

Recently, data from the microwave limb sounder has been proving its worth in unexpected ways, Dr. Salawitch said. It showed how much damage was done to ozone by the devastating wildfires in Australia in late 2019 and early 2020, and by the undersea volcanic eruption near Tonga in 2022. It helped show how much ozone-depleting pollution was getting lofted into the stratosphere over East Asia by the region’s summer monsoon .

If it weren’t going offline so soon, the sounder might also help unravel a big mystery, Dr. Salawitch said. “The thickness of the ozone layer over populated regions in the Northern Hemisphere has hardly changed over the last decade,” he said. “It should be recovering. And it’s not.”

Jack Kaye, the associate director of research at NASA’s Earth Science Division, acknowledged researchers’ concerns about the end of the sounder. But he argued that other sources, including instruments on newer satellites, on the International Space Station and back here on Earth, would still provide “a pretty good window into what the atmosphere is doing.”

Financial realities force NASA to make “tough decisions,” Dr. Kaye said. “Would it be great to have everything last forever? Yeah,” he said. But part of NASA’s mission is also to offer scientists new tools, ones that help them look at our world in new ways, he said. “It’s not the same, but, you know, if not everything can be the same, you do the best that you can,” he said.

To scientists who study our changing planet, the difference between the same data and almost the same data can be vast. They might think they understand how something is evolving. But only by monitoring it continuously, in an unchanging way, over a long stretch of time, can they be confident about what’s going on.

Even a short break in the records can create problems. Say an ice shelf collapses in Greenland. Unless you were measuring sea-level rise before, during and after, you’ll never be sure a sudden change was caused by the collapse, said William B. Gail, a former president of the American Meteorological Society. “You might surmise it, but you don’t have a quantitative record,” he said.

Last year, NASA canvassed scientists for thoughts on how the end of Terra, Aqua and Aura would affect their work. More than 180 of them answered the call.

In their letters, which The New York Times obtained through a Freedom of Information Act request, the researchers voiced worries about a wide range of data from the satellites. Information about the particles in wildfire smoke, desert dust and volcanic plumes. Measurements of the thickness of clouds. Fine-scale maps of the world’s forests, grasslands, wetlands and crops.

Even if there are alternate sources for this information, the scientists wrote, they might be less frequent, or lower resolution, or limited to certain times of day, all factors that shape how useful the data is.

Liz Moyer takes an up-close approach to studying Earth’s atmosphere: by flying instruments through it, on jets that travel much higher than most planes can go. “I got into it because it’s exciting and it’s hard to get there,” Dr. Moyer, who teaches at the University of Chicago, said. “It’s hard to build instruments that work there, hard to make measurements, hard to get aircraft that go there.”

It will be even harder once Aura is gone, she said.

Planes can sample the atmosphere’s chemistry directly, but to understand the big picture, scientists still need to combine aircraft measurements with satellite readings, Dr. Moyer said. “Without the satellites, we’re out there taking snapshots with no context,” she said.

Much of Dr. Moyer’s research focuses on the thin, icy clouds that form nine to 12 miles above the ground, in one of the atmosphere’s most mysterious layers. These clouds are helping to warm the planet, and scientists are still trying to figure out how human-induced climate change is influencing them.

“It seems like we’re going to just stop observing that part of the atmosphere, and exactly at a time when it’s changing,” Dr. Moyer said.

The end of Terra and Aqua will affect the way we monitor another important driver of our climate: how much solar radiation the planet receives, absorbs and bounces back to space. The balance between these amounts — or, really, the imbalance — determines how much Earth warms or cools. And to understand it, scientists rely on the instruments of NASA’s Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System, or CERES.

Right now, four satellites are flying with CERES instruments: Terra, Aqua, plus two newer ones that are also nearing their end. Yet only one replacement is in the works. Its life expectancy? Five years.

“Within the next 10 years, we’re going to go from four missions down to one, and the one remaining will be past its prime,” said Norman G. Loeb, the NASA scientist who leads CERES. “To me, that’s really sobering.”

These days, with the rise of the private space industry and the proliferation of satellites around Earth, NASA and other agencies are exploring a different approach to keeping eyes on our planet. The future may lie with smaller, lighter instruments, ones that could be put into orbit more cheaply and nimbly than Terra, Aqua and Aura were back in their day.

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration is developing such a fleet for monitoring weather and climate. Dr. Loeb and others at NASA are working on a lightweight instrument for continuing their measurements of Earth’s energy balance.

But for such technologies to be useful, Dr. Loeb said, they have to start flying before today’s orbiters go dark.

“You need a good, long period of overlap to understand the differences, work out the kinks,” he said. “If not, then it’s going to be really difficult to have trust in these measurements, if we haven’t had a chance to prove them against the current measurements.”

In a way, it’s a credit to NASA that Terra, Aqua and Aura have lasted as long as they have, scientists said. “Through a mix of excellent engineering and a tremendous amount of luck, we’ve had these for 20 years now,” said Waleed Abdalati, a former NASA chief scientist now at the University of Colorado Boulder.

“We kind of got hooked on these satellites. We’re victims of our own success,” Dr. Abdalati said. “Eventually,” he added, “luck runs out.”

Because of an editing error, a picture caption with an earlier version of this article misstated where the Aura spacecraft launched from. It was Vandenberg Air Force Base in California, not the Kennedy Space Center in Florida.

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Raymond Zhong reports on climate and environmental issues for The Times. More about Raymond Zhong

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