what is annotated document

Document Annotation: In-depth Guide & Use Cases in 2024

Documentation is an integral part of any business. Whether it’s in healthcare, technology, or the food sector, accurate documentation is vital to day-to-day and long-term operations.

Analyzing documents is a tedious and error-prone task. If done manually, it can lead to errors which ultimately transform into inefficiencies in the business. Document annotation can help resolve this problem.

This article explores what document annotation is, what are the types, use cases, and best practices to help business leaders ensure maximum return on their data annotation investments. 

What is document annotation?

Document annotation is a type of data annotation which makes it easier to extract and learn information in documents without the need to manually read them. The process of document annotation includes identifying fields and values from a document and extracting information of value through criteria. 

For example, through document annotation, information from this hotel bill can be, analyzed, stored, and easily extracted without going through the whole archive.

How does it work?

Document annotation involves labeling values and information in documents to train an ML model, which feeds this data into an AI-enabled document processing system. This system can organize, process, and present this data as the user requires (see Figure 1).

Some data is rejected and sent to be reviewed by a human annotator, who then updates the training model for similar scenarios in the future.

Figure 1. A simplified document annotation process

Watch how Microsoft leverages document annotation to provide automated document processing solutions:

What are the types of document annotation and use cases?

This section explains the types of document annotation and some real-world use cases of those types:

Named entity annotation

This type of data annotation is done by adding labels to specified words and phrases through named entity recognition (NER) technology. NER is used when the machine learning model needs to learn the subject matter of the written text. 

• In customer service automation, customer requests can be directed to the relevant channel. Through the AI model, certain phrases can be linked directly to relevant channels.
• In human resources, named entity recognition document annotation can train ML models to identify information from resumes matching the job requirements.
• In the healthcare sector, NER document annotation can be used to train ML models to accurately analyze patient records and medical reports.

Sentiment annotation

This type of annotation refers to annotating the sentimental meaning behind the text. Sentiment annotation can help train the ML model to understand if the sentiment or emotion behind the phrase is negative, positive, or neutral.

• In digital or social medial marketing, sentiment annotation can be used to understand the meaning behind customer comments to get a better idea of the brand image.
• In human resources, sentiment annotation can be used to analyze a large number of employee satisfaction questionnaires.

To learn more about sentiment analysis, check out this quick read.

Semantic document annotation

This type of annotation involves labeling jargon and vague phrases. One common use case involves virtual assistants and chatbots to better understand customer queries with jargon. 

What are some best practices for document annotation?

Here are some best practices that can help guide a document annotation project:

Annotate everything

Doing a thorough job is important in document annotation. A machine learning model learns from negative examples, the annotated documents, and the not annotated ones as well. For example, from 10 documents, if only the first 5 are annotated, and the other 5 are not, the machine learning model will learn to ignore the data that was present in the last 5 documents.

Consistency is key

Sometimes correctness is not as important as consistency in document annotation. For example, while annotating a car registration document, there can be variations in the name, like Civic and Civic XR. It is not important to know which name is correct for labeling rather than just picking one and continuing with the labeling.

Involve experienced annotators

Some large datasets require special expertise; therefore, it is beneficial to involve experienced annotators in the process. Experienced annotators can review the annotation and provide feedback.

You can also check our lists of data annotation tools and services:

• Data annotation tools services
• Video annotation tools
• Medical annotation tools

Further reading

• Data annotation
• Video annotation
• Medical data annotation
• Computer vision in healthcare

If you have any questions about document annotation, do not hesitate to contact us:

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Top 4 computer vision challenges & solutions in 2024, intent classification in 2024: what it is & how it works, top 10 open source data labeling/annotation platforms in 2024.

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Related research

Data Labeling For Natural Language Processing (NLP) in 2024

Data Annotation in 2024: Why it matters & Top 8 Best Practices

Understanding Annotation: A Comprehensive Guide

What is annotation, the purpose of annotation, types of annotation, how to annotate effectively, annotation tools, annotation examples, annotation in different disciplines, annotation vs. abstract, annotation in digital learning, the future of annotation.

Let's take a journey into the world of annotation, a concept that often makes students cringe and researchers sigh. But, don't worry — this guide will help you understand annotation in a simple, friendly, and clear way. Whether you're a newbie or someone who just needs a refresher, this comprehensive guide will provide a clear definition of annotation and its many uses.

So, what exactly is the definition of annotation? In its simplest form, annotation refers to adding notes or comments to a text or a diagram. It's like having a personal conversation with the author, or making sense of a complex graph. It doesn't stop there, though. The process of annotation is much more than just dropping notes — it's about understanding, interpreting, and engaging with the material. Let's break it down:

• Understanding: Annotations help you to grasp the ideas and concepts presented in the text or diagram. You might underline key phrases or highlight important data points, all in the service of better understanding what you're reading or viewing.
• Interpreting: By providing your own insights or explanations, you're not merely reading or looking at the material, but actively interpreting it. This could be as simple as jotting down "This means..." or "The author is saying..." next to a paragraph.
• Engaging: When you annotate, you're not just a passive reader anymore. You're actively engaging with the material, questioning it, agreeing or disagreeing, even arguing with the author! This active engagement helps to deepen your understanding and retention of the material.

To sum it up, the definition of annotation isn't just about making notes — it's a method to read, understand, interpret, and engage with any piece of content more effectively. And guess what? There's more to annotation than you might think! Stick around as we delve deeper into the purpose, types, and tools of annotation in the following sections.

Now that we've nailed down the definition of annotation, let's talk about why it's so important. Why do teachers, professors, and researchers keep insisting on it? Well, there are several reasons:

• Improves comprehension: Annotating helps you understand the text or diagram better. It's like having a personal guide walking you through a dense forest of words or a complex maze of data. By highlighting and commenting, you can make sense of the material more easily.
• Enhances retention: We've all been there. You read a page, flip it, and — poof! — everything's gone. But with annotation, you can remember more. When you actively engage with the material, you're more likely to remember it. It's like the difference between watching a movie and participating in it.
• Facilitates analysis: Annotation is not just about understanding, but also about analyzing. By adding your own thoughts, insights, and interpretations, you can dig deeper into the material, uncovering layers of meaning that might not be immediately apparent.
• Promotes critical thinking: When you annotate, you're not just accepting information passively — you're actively questioning, evaluating, and critiquing it. This cultivates critical thinking skills, which are crucial in today's information-saturated world.

Remember, the purpose of annotation is not to make your book look like a rainbow or to fill the margins with a clutter of notes. It's about making the material work for you, helping you to understand, remember, analyze, and think critically. So next time someone mentions annotation, don't cringe. Embrace it. It's your secret weapon in the world of learning!

Now that we've got a grip on the definition of annotation and its purpose, it's time to dive into the different types of annotation. You might be thinking, "Wait a minute, there's more than one type?" Yes, indeed! And picking the right one can make a world of difference. So, let's explore:

• Descriptive Annotation: This kind of annotation is like a sneak peek of a movie. It gives an overview of the main points, themes, or arguments without revealing too much. It's like a book cover — enticing enough to draw you in, but not revealing all the secrets.
• Critical Annotation: This type goes a step further. It not only describes the content but also evaluates it. It's like a movie review, discussing the strengths and weaknesses, the relevance of the content, and the author's credibility. It helps you decide whether the material is worth your time.
• Informative Annotation: This annotation is like an all-you-can-eat buffet. It provides a summary of the material, including all the significant findings and conclusions. It's ideal when you need a detailed understanding of the content without having to read the whole thing.
• Reflective Annotation: This type of annotation is a bit more personal. It includes your thoughts, reactions, and reflections on the material. It's like a diary entry, capturing your intellectual journey as you engage with the material.

So, next time you're tasked with annotating, consider the type of annotation that best suits your needs. Remember, the goal is not to make your work harder, but to make it easier and more effective. Happy annotating!

Here you are, equipped with the definition of annotation and an overview of its types. But, how do you do it effectively? Let's break it down:

• Get clear on your purpose: Why are you annotating? Is it to understand better, remember, or critique? Your purpose will guide your annotation process.
• Take a quick preview: Before you start annotating, skim through the material. Get a feel for its structure and main ideas. This way, you'll know what to pay special attention to.
• Be selective: Resist the urge to highlight or underline everything. Limit your annotations to crucial points, unfamiliar concepts, and interesting ideas. The goal is to create signposts that can guide you back to key information when needed.
• Make it meaningful: Don’t just underline or highlight. Write brief notes that summarize, question, or react to the content. This makes your annotations a tool for active learning.
• Use symbols or codes: Develop your own system of symbols or codes to denote different types of information. For example, a question mark could indicate parts you don’t understand, while an exclamation mark could point to surprising or important insights.

Remember, effective annotation is not about how much you mark, but about how well you understand and engage with the material. Keep practicing and refining your approach, and soon you'll become an annotation pro!

So, now that we know how to annotate effectively, let's talk about some tools that can make this process even smoother. These are especially handy if you're dealing with digital content, or if you want to share your annotations with others. Here are some noteworthy ones:

• Pencil and Paper: Sometimes, the old ways are the best ways. Nothing beats the flexibility and simplicity of annotating with a good old-fashioned pencil. You can underline, highlight, make notes in the margin — the possibilities are endless!
• Highlighters: These are great for emphasizing key points in your text. Just remember not to go overboard and turn your page into a rainbow!
• Post-it Notes: If you don't want to write directly on your material, or if you need more space for your thoughts, these little sticky notes can be a lifesaver.
• PDF Annotation Tools: If you're working with digital documents, tools like Adobe Reader, Preview, and others offer built-in annotation features. These can include highlighting, underlining, and adding comments.
• Online Annotation Tools: Websites like Hypothesis and Genius let you annotate web pages and share your annotations with others. They're like social media for readers!

These tools are just the tip of the iceberg. There are many other annotation tools out there, each with its own strengths and weaknesses. So, don't be afraid to experiment and find the ones that work best for you!

Let's put the definition of annotation into real-world scenarios. Here are some examples to help you get a better sense of how annotation works.

• Novels: You're reading a gripping mystery novel and you come across a clue. You underline it and jot down your theories in the margin. That's annotation!
• Textbooks: Remember the last time you studied for an exam? You probably highlighted important information and made notes to help you remember key points. That's annotation too!
• Articles: When reading a long article online, you might use a tool to underline key sections and add your own thoughts. This not only helps you understand the content better but also lets you share your insights with others. Yep, that's annotation.
• Research Papers: If you're conducting research, annotation is your best friend. Underlining important data, writing summaries of complex sections, and noting down your ideas can make the whole process much easier.
• Social Media: Ever added a funny caption to a photo before sharing it with your friends? Guess what? That's annotation too!

As you can see, annotations can be as simple or as complex as you need them to be. They're all about adding extra information to make the original content more useful or meaningful for you. So, next time you're reading something, why not give annotation a try? Who knows, you might discover some fascinating insights!

Now that we've nailed down the definition of annotation, let's see how it's applied across different disciplines. You might be surprised to know that annotation isn't just for the world of literature or academia. Here's how different fields use annotation:

• Sciences: Scientists use annotations to note down observations during experiments. They can also annotate diagrams to explain complex processes.
• Arts: Artists often annotate their sketches with notes about colors, textures, or ideas for future works. Art historians may also use annotations to provide deeper insight into famous paintings or sculptures.
• Computer Science: In the world of coding, annotations can provide extra details about how a piece of code functions. They're like a roadmap for other programmers who might need to understand or modify the code later.
• Geography: Geographers use annotations on maps to highlight specific features or explain certain phenomena. For example, they might annotate a map to show the path of a storm or the spread of a forest fire.
• Business: Business professionals annotate reports and presentations to highlight key points. This helps everyone stay on the same page and understand the main takeaways.

As you can see, no matter the discipline, the power of annotation is universal. It's all about enhancing understanding and fostering communication! So, the next time you're working on a project, why not consider how annotation could help you?

Dealing with academic or professional texts, you've probably come across both annotations and abstracts. But do you know the difference? Many people get confused between the two, but they serve unique roles. Let's clear the air by exploring the definition of annotation versus an abstract:

Annotation: An annotation adds extra information to a text. It could be a comment, explanation, or even a question. Imagine you're reading a complex scientific paper. You might annotate it by jotting down a simpler explanation of a concept in the margins. That's annotation—helping to make the text more accessible and understandable for you.

Abstract: On the other hand, an abstract is a short summary of a document's main points. Think of it as a mini version of the text. If you've ever written a research paper, you've probably had to include an abstract at the beginning. It gives readers a snapshot of what the document covers so they can decide if they want to read the whole thing.

So, in a nutshell, an annotation is more about adding value to the text, while an abstract is about summarizing it. Both have their places and can be super helpful when dealing with complex or lengthy texts. Understanding the difference between the two is another step in mastering the art of reading and writing effectively.

Now, let's shift gears and explore how annotation plays a role in the digital learning space. With the advent of technology, education isn't limited to chalkboards and textbooks anymore. We've moved onto laptops, tablets, and even mobile phones. So, where does the definition of annotation fit in this digital world?

In digital learning, annotation takes on a slightly different form. Instead of scribbling in the margins of a book, you're adding notes to a PDF, highlighting text in an eBook, or leaving comments on a shared document.

Let's say you're studying for a history exam with a friend, and you're both using the same digital textbook. You come across a paragraph that you think is particularly important, so you highlight it and leave a note saying, "Must remember for the exam!" When your friend opens the book on their device, they can see your annotation and benefit from it. This is the power of annotation in digital learning—it promotes collaboration and makes studying a more interactive experience.

And it's not just for students, either. Teachers can use digital annotation to provide feedback on assignments, clarify points in a lecture, or share additional resources. In a world where online learning is becoming the norm, understanding and using digital annotation is a skill worth mastering.

Having explored the definition of annotation in various contexts, it's exciting to imagine where it might head in the future. As we continue to integrate technology into our lives, the role and methods of annotation are likely to evolve with it.

Imagine a world where every bit of text you interact with—be it a digital book, an online article, or even a social media post—can be annotated with your thoughts, questions, or insights. And not just that, imagine those annotations being instantly shareable with anyone around the globe. We're already seeing glimpses of this in digital learning platforms, as we previously discussed.

Moreover, the rise of artificial intelligence might add another layer to annotation. Imagine AI systems that can automatically highlight important parts of a text, suggest resources for further reading, or even generate annotations based on your personal learning style. Now that's a future worth looking forward to!

While we are not there yet, the journey towards that future is already underway. And as we make strides in this direction, the definition of annotation will continue to expand and adapt. It's a fascinating field that underscores the importance of understanding, interpreting, and communicating information in our increasingly interconnected world.

If you're looking to improve your annotation skills and learn more about organizing your creative projects, check out Ansh Mehra's workshop, ' Documentation for Creative People on Notion .' This workshop will provide you with practical tips and techniques for effective annotation, as well as help you develop a comprehensive documentation system for your creative work.

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The Simple Guide to Annotations: How to Annotate PDFs, Ebooks, Images, and Websites

What exactly is annotation all about? And how should you annotate what you read? Here are the best tools for common document types.

Annotating a physical book---marking important passages, highlighting special words, writing notes in the margins---is a good way to tarnish it forever. Fortunately, annotations aren't so destructive when reading digitally or on the web.

The right kinds of annotations in the right place can help you remember more and be more productive. On the web, annotations are also valuable when you're collaborating on documents with a team.

But how do annotations help you? And how can you start annotating what you read in a way that isn't difficult or inconvenient? Here's everything you need to know about annotations in the digital age.

What Is an Annotation?

Annotation is a fancy word for "marking a sentence, paragraph, page or anything else." There are various markup tools you can use to annotate what you are reading: underline a sentence, use a highlighter, add a comment with an arrow, flag with a symbol, draw a shape around it, tag a Post-It note on it, etc.

The concept of annotation stays the same regardless of which medium you're using, but the tools available to make those annotations may differ. More on that later in this article.

How Are Annotations Useful?

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-zJksh9KGiI

When you mark up text, you are in fact having a conversation with what you are reading. So, an annotation is important for five main reasons:

• It improves your reading comprehension.
• It helps you jot down a reaction and connect ideas.
• It enables you to filter the important details for research and recall.
• It can help you better visualize the information.
• It enhances collaboration.

Think of it this way: Reading is a passive activity. To understand and remember information , you have to keep track of what you are reading and connect it with the knowledge you already have. You also have to mark the parts which you don't understand so that you can come back to them later. In short: you have to become an active reader.

Your brain has to process information. The act of annotation is one of the most important but rudimentary skills that can help anyone, all the way from kindergarten to a PhD.

But remember one caveat: Annotations are most effective when done sparingly and with purpose. Don't underline or highlight too much.

How to Annotate an Ebook

Annotating an ebook is easy. All e-readers have built-in annotation tools. They are also supported by other note-taking features. Let's see how the process works in three popular ereaders:

Annotations in Mobile Kindle Apps

We have already shown you how to set up and use the Kindle Paperwhite . Annotating a block of text is a simple matter of dragging your finger across the text to highlight it. The Kindle apps on Android and iOS also follow the same method.

• Open the Kindle app and then tap on a book to open it (screenshot is from iOS).
• Highlight the word, sentence, or paragraph by dragging your fingers across to select it.
• Unlike the Kindle Paperwhite, you can choose a color for the highlight. You can also click the Copy icon or tap on the Notes icon to add your own thoughts to the annotated text. Remember to tap the Save button after entering your note.

All notes and highlights can be viewed on the app and also on your Amazon Kindle account page .

Annotations in iBooks

Apple's default ebook reader gives you one of the cleanest reading experiences on its devices. The method to annotate text is similar to the Kindle apps with one minor difference. You can choose a different color for the highlights and add notes. But it also allows you to underline text .

• Open a book with the iBooks app on Mac, iPhone, or iPad.
• Review all notes and highlights on an iOS device by tapping on the menu icon (three horizontal bars on the top left) and then to the Notes tab. The macOS iBooks app has a dedicated Notes button.

Tip: Use the different colors to color code your annotations. For example, a pink highlight can be used to show a doubt or a query, whereas a green highlight can be for an idea you connect to.

Google Play Books

You can highlight and add notes to a book using your computer or the Play Books Google Play Books app. The method, again, is similar to the iBooks app.

How to Annotate a PDF Document

The good news is that most of the focus is on annotating PDF documents because it is the most shared format. Annotation is also a default feature set of common tools found on both Windows and macOS. Let's look at what's built in.

Annotate a PDF on Windows 10

Microsoft Edge became the first browser to allow PDF annotations natively. The Windows 10 Fall Creators Update brought in PDF annotation and with highlights and notes. The Inking feature also another key tool that allows you to annotate PDFs, websites, and even EPUBs. Though, inking works better on touch screens.

• Right-click a PDF document and select Open with > Microsoft Edge .
• To use the Inking options click the Add Notes button on the menu (to the left of the Share button). Select the Ballpoint Pen, Text Highlighter, Eraser, or the Touch Writing tool to mark up the PDF. Choose the color from the palette available under the Ballpoint pen icon.

The annotation capability is just another reason to use the Edge browser as a secondary browser on your machine.

Annotate a PDF on Mac

The Preview app on your macOS is one of the underrated tools. The markup menu in Preview is one of its more useful features. You can use it to leave information for yourself or suggest changes to a PDF document while collaborating.

• Use the selection and the markup tools annotate the PDF. You can use type, sketch, draw, use shapes, add notes, sign, and change the format for all.
• Click Done after you finish marking up the PDF.

The Preview app has all the bells and whistles. You can even create, merge, and split PDF documents with it.

How to Annotate an Image

Image annotation tools are dime a dozen on the web. So, we won't cover them in great detail here. Any good screenshot tool would allow you to annotate the image. You can go back to Apple Preview on macOS and Paint on Windows .

Here are a few other worthies you can check out:

• Canva (Web)
• IrfanView (Windows)
• Droplr (Mac)
• Screen Master (Android)
• Annotable (iOS)

And let's not forget two of the best all-in-one free tools that allow us to annotate images and documents with ease: Google Drive and Evernote .

How to Annotate a Website

Most of our reading is on the web. An annotation tool helps you add context to what you are reading. Again, Microsoft Edge and its markup toolkit enable you to write notes, doodle, and highlight on webpages too. But there's a good chance that you do most of your browsing on Google Chrome. The browser lacks native annotation abilities, but there are enough extensions to fill the gap.

Here are some of the best extensions to annotate websites.

• Diigo Web Collector
• Awesome Screenshot
• Nimbus Capture

Tip: If you are on Firefox, then take a look at Firefox Screenshots from Mozilla that has basic built-in annotation with its screen captures.

Annotations in a Nutshell: Mark Up, Retain, and Recall

It's not enough just to start annotating everything---you have to do it in the right way for best results.

Science strongly recommends that you avoid taking notes on the computer. Use longhand instead. Even then, annotation can do the initial spadework for you as you gather the information. Then hand them over to your own processing and analytical brain cells.

For instance, I use annotation tools to slow the speed of my own forgetfulness . The web may deluge us with information, but it also gives us the tools to manage it smartly.

How to Prepare an Annotated Bibliography: The Annotated Bibliography

• The Annotated Bibliography
• Fair Use of this Guide

Explanation, Process, Directions, and Examples

What is an annotated bibliography.

An annotated bibliography is a list of citations to books, articles, and documents. Each citation is followed by a brief (usually about 150 words) descriptive and evaluative paragraph, the annotation. The purpose of the annotation is to inform the reader of the relevance, accuracy, and quality of the sources cited.

Annotations vs. Abstracts

Abstracts are the purely descriptive summaries often found at the beginning of scholarly journal articles or in periodical indexes. Annotations are descriptive and critical; they may describe the author's point of view, authority, or clarity and appropriateness of expression.

The Process

Creating an annotated bibliography calls for the application of a variety of intellectual skills: concise exposition, succinct analysis, and informed library research.

First, locate and record citations to books, periodicals, and documents that may contain useful information and ideas on your topic. Briefly examine and review the actual items. Then choose those works that provide a variety of perspectives on your topic.

Cite the book, article, or document using the appropriate style.

Write a concise annotation that summarizes the central theme and scope of the book or article. Include one or more sentences that (a) evaluate the authority or background of the author, (b) comment on the intended audience, (c) compare or contrast this work with another you have cited, or (d) explain how this work illuminates your bibliography topic.

Critically Appraising the Book, Article, or Document

For guidance in critically appraising and analyzing the sources for your bibliography, see How to Critically Analyze Information Sources . For information on the author's background and views, ask at the reference desk for help finding appropriate biographical reference materials and book review sources.

Choosing the Correct Citation Style

Check with your instructor to find out which style is preferred for your class. Online citation guides for both the Modern Language Association (MLA) and the American Psychological Association (APA) styles are linked from the Library's Citation Management page .

Sample Annotated Bibliography Entries

The following example uses APA style ( Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , 7th edition, 2019) for the journal citation:

Waite, L., Goldschneider, F., & Witsberger, C. (1986). Nonfamily living and the erosion of traditional family orientations among young adults. American Sociological Review, 51 (4), 541-554. The authors, researchers at the Rand Corporation and Brown University, use data from the National Longitudinal Surveys of Young Women and Young Men to test their hypothesis that nonfamily living by young adults alters their attitudes, values, plans, and expectations, moving them away from their belief in traditional sex roles. They find their hypothesis strongly supported in young females, while the effects were fewer in studies of young males. Increasing the time away from parents before marrying increased individualism, self-sufficiency, and changes in attitudes about families. In contrast, an earlier study by Williams cited below shows no significant gender differences in sex role attitudes as a result of nonfamily living.

This example uses MLA style ( MLA Handbook , 9th edition, 2021) for the journal citation. For additional annotation guidance from MLA, see 5.132: Annotated Bibliographies .

Waite, Linda J., et al. "Nonfamily Living and the Erosion of Traditional Family Orientations Among Young Adults." American Sociological Review, vol. 51, no. 4, 1986, pp. 541-554. The authors, researchers at the Rand Corporation and Brown University, use data from the National Longitudinal Surveys of Young Women and Young Men to test their hypothesis that nonfamily living by young adults alters their attitudes, values, plans, and expectations, moving them away from their belief in traditional sex roles. They find their hypothesis strongly supported in young females, while the effects were fewer in studies of young males. Increasing the time away from parents before marrying increased individualism, self-sufficiency, and changes in attitudes about families. In contrast, an earlier study by Williams cited below shows no significant gender differences in sex role attitudes as a result of nonfamily living.

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How To Annotate A PDF (2024 Guide)

Content Manager

November 4, 2020

Want to learn how to annotate a PDF ?

PDF annotation is the easiest way to share ideas and markups on a PDF document . Additionally, it frees you from the baggage of using mountains of papers and highlighters! 

But the downside?

You’ll be dealing with more buttons than you can handle and more functions than you can imagine. 

But don’t worry.

If you’re struggling with your PDF viewer , breathe . 

We’ll break down the steps for PDF annotation on the most popular PDF viewer of all time: Adobe Acrobat. And as a bonus, we’ll also show you an easier way to annotate PDFs!  

• What Is Annotation?

How Do You Annotate In Adobe Acrobat?

The 3 drawbacks of pdf annotation, what is the best software to annotate a pdf.

What Is Annotation ?

Annotation refers to ‘adding notes’ on a physical or digital document. Some people do this for their own reference, while others want to leave important information for readers. 

The simplest ways to annotate a document is to:

• Underline or highlight text
• Comment in the margins 
• Draw around important text
• Add a physical or digital sticky note

Basically, it’s every book lover’s worst nightmare!

Imagine lending someone a pristine copy of Jane Austen and getting back dog-eared pages with highlighter ink all over them! 

What do you even say?

But while your annotation habit can destroy books ( and relationships) , it can help creative professionals step their game up. 

What exactly is annotation all about?

When you annotate PDF document , you can:

• Use a highlight tool to mark important points
• Make notes for your reference
• Leave comments for the reader
• Facilitate collaboration in the drafting process

Irrespective of your profession, annotation is the best way to create a structured, easy-to-read, and engaging document . And as a bonus, you save some paper by doing it on a PDF file ! (#savethetrees).

One way to do this is with the built-in PDF reader on your current device, like Microsoft Edge for Windows and the Preview PDF app for your iPad. Other tools also offer an interactive PDF creator . Alternatively, you can download a PDF viewer like Adobe Acrobat.

But why Adobe?

If you want to learn about PDF annotation, it’s always wise to start with Adobe Acrobat for two reasons.

• Adobe is the grandfather of the portable document or PDF format . Most of what we know about PDFs is due to Adobe. 
• Adobe’s PDF annotation tool is one of the most commonly used PDF viewers. And chances are, you already have Adobe Acrobat installed on your system!

That’s why we’ll explore how to annotate a PDF in the latest version of the Adobe Acrobat software.

Adobe Acrobat offers its users a number of annotation styles. 

However, the most commonly used types are:

(Click on the annotation type to explore it)

• Annotations and drawing markup toolbar
• Quick text comments
• Sticky note
• Text box or callout

Note: To access the complete commenting features in Adobe Acrobat, the file’s owner needs to enable commenting first. To do this, go to File > Save As > Reader Extended PDF > Enable Commenting and Measuring . This will save a new file on your system that’s open to comments.

A. How to use the annotations and drawing markup toolbar in Acrobat?

Before we start annotating , we need to first understand what we’re working with and familiarize ourselves with Acrobat.

But first, you need to make the annotations and drawing markup toolbar visible for use. Do this by going to Tools > and select Comment to open the Comment toolbar .

If you want to differentiate between all of Acrobat’s markup tools , right-click on the toolbar and click on Show all labels . This will display each tool’s name alongside its icon.

The Comment toolbar shows a selection of text comments and drawing icons. 

Here’s a brief look at them ( we’ll cover how to use them later on ).

1. Text annotation

Clicking the text annotation feature allows you to:

• Add sticky note
• Highlight text
• Underline text
• Strikethrough text
• Replace text
• Insert text
• Add text boxes and comments

Note: To learn how you can access a text tool without opening the Comment Toolbar (while you’re reading), jump to this section . 

On the Comment toolbar, right after ‘ Text Box ’ you’ll see the Drawing and Erase Drawing icons.  

Click on the three-dot symbol to view the complete list of drawing options, including various shapes (rectangle tool, oval tool, arrow tool , etc.) and callout boxes.

B. How to add quick text comments?

If you find the Comment toolbar view restrictive, you can always add comments directly as you read. 

Select the PDF text you want to comment on and click on one of the following options:

• Highlight text  
• Edit text (only in the Pro version of the software)

After formatting, you can click on the underlined, striked out, or highlighted text once again to either add a quick text comment or delete the formatting. 

C. How to add sticky notes? 

Adding a sticky note to your PDF is the most intuitive way of imitating a pen-and-paper document review. 

To add a sticky note , first enable your Comment toolbar ( refer to point ‘A’ to learn how to do this). 

PS: The sticky note icon is the first one in your toolbar. 

Select the icon and click on the part of the PDF page you want to add the sticky note. This’ll unfurl the comment box for you to type in. 

To resize your note, right-click on the sticky note symbol and select Open pop – up note . 

Once open, you can resize the pop-up box. 

To edit the text field , select it and click on the three-dot symbol on the toolbar to:

• Change the color of the sticky note
• Edit text formatting

D. How to add a text box or a callout?

A sticky note collapses when you’re not hovering on the icon. But if you want your comment to remain always visible to the reader, you can add a text box or a callout . 

1. Text box

Select the Text box icon in the Comment toolbar and then click on the part of the document you want to add it in. 

Once you type your comment, you can change its formatting by choosing the Text properties option on the Comment toolbar. 

To add a callout, click on the three-dot symbol on the Comment toolbar. 

Then, select Text Callout and click on the part of the document you want to add it to. 

Once you type your comment, you can change its formatting by choosing the Text properties option on the Comment toolbar. You can also resize the text callout whichever way you want.

But wait, there’s more.

Adobe also gives you the option to:

• Add attachments to comments
• Add voice recordings as comments
• Use the stamp tool to add images from other image editing software (like Adobe Photoshop) to comments
• And much more!

Now, those are some impressive features! Isn’t that great?

Exactly. 

That’s what our experience with tech (and life) has taught us. 

Even excellent software like Adobe Acrobat can slow your annotation process over time. 

Wondering how?

An annotation tool like Adobe Acrobat is a must-have at work. 

But we wouldn’t recommend using it for all your document reviews for these three reasons:

1. It’s a RAM-heavy app that will slow your system down

Working on a PDF annotator while other apps are running on your system? 

Might as well grab some popcorn because you’re in for a wait!

The Adobe suite is notoriously RAM-heavy . 

There’s no way it runs effortlessly unless it’s the only heavy software running on your system.

Even if you use a lighter alternative annotation app , loading large images and annotated files could slow your system. 

2. No live editing (except in the paid version)

Each time you read your colleague’s feedback on Acrobat, you need to make the changes on an MS Word or a Google Doc . Then, convert that file to PDF and send it back for approval. 

The only way to bypass this lengthy process?

Buy the Adobe Acrobat Pro version at $14.99/month. 

Most people don’t think that’s a fair bargain. 

And we agree with them!

3. Confusion over versions

Let’s say you’ve made your peace with the first two drawbacks and are using a PDF reader for your review process.

You’ll probably end up emailing the PDFs each time you annotate it. Over time, you’ll accumulate dozens of versions of the same content piece, giving you a pile of digital clutter . 

Don’t worry, we have an alternative annotator app just for you!

From what we can tell, content managers and reviewers need at least five different tools:

• PDF annotator
• PDF editor 
• Drafting software
• Task management tool
• Communication app 

But what if we told you that you can do all these ( and more) , on a single cloud-based platform called ClickUp?

What’s ClickUp?

ClickUp is the world’s highest-rated tool for project management, used by teams from startups to major companies all across the world.

Whether you’re a media professional or an app developer, ClickUp responds to all your needs with its impressive feature list . You can even use its powerful Chrome extension for efficient task management.

It’s also the best tool to deal with the challenges of remote working . 

Check out these articles to learn more:

• 3 Key Virtual Team Challenges (And How To Solve Them)
• What Are Virtual Teams And How To Manage Them (2021 Guide)

For now though, here’s a look at its selection of content creation and management features. 

A. Effortless annotation & Proofing

Why should you only annotate PDFs when you can review in at least five different formats? 

ClickUp supports PNG, GIF, JPEG, WEBP, and PDF file types to help you out here.

This way, once your documents are ready, you can upload them to the relevant task in the ClickUp Workspace and invite colleagues to annotate your PDF or whatever format your file is in.

Here’s how you annotate the file :

• Open the attachment within a task
• Click “Add comments” in the upper right corner of the preview window
• Click on the attachment preview to add a comment
• Add comments and assign them to anyone for a centralized discussion location

Wait, don’t I have to download the file?

Nope, you can annotate any file within ClickUp, without downloading it! 

Remember, you don’t have to be a PDF expert and deal with a complicated annotation toolbar in ClickUp. All you need to be is a fan of simple, collaborative annotation . 

B. Collaborative drafting in Docs

Writing is no longer a lonely profession because ClickUp Docs makes it super collaborative!

Not only can you access real-time collaboration and easy data storage features, but you can also:

• Embed a hyperlink and customize its appearance
• Set custom access rights to decide what your collaborators can do
• Nest pages within docs for better categorization
• Use rich text-formatting 
• Let Google index these docs to show up in search results

The last time we checked, no PDF reader can manage all of these at once!

C. Easy screen recording with Clip

Pictures speak a thousand words.

That means videos speak millions… we think?

So when things escalate, use screen recording software such as Clip to show your members how to do it instead of leaving comments!

Just click the ‘record’ button in the Comments Section of the relevant ClickUp Task. This will allow you to travel from folder to folder and across windows while recording every second of it. 

Once done, just upload the recording as a comment on the same conversation thread.

D. Crystal clear conversations with Comments Section and Chat View

Not everything can be said with a sticky note or a comment in the margins, right? 

That’s why ClickUp gives you a Comments Section and Chat View .

This lets you send files or written notes in the Comments Section of any task. You can even assign a comment to someone, and ClickUp will automatically convert the comment into an action item to ensure it doesn’t get missed.

But what if you want to share notes on a bunch of tasks at a time or just strike up a conversation?

Move over to the Chat view . This is your space to have unstructured conversations or brainstorm ideas.

E. Powerful process management with Tasks , Subtasks , and Checklists  

If content creation was simple, we’d all be Shakespeare! 

Unfortunately, it involves a lot of small but important tasks. 

Miss one and you’ve lost out. 

Don’t worry. Just use ClickUp’s tasks , subtasks , and checklists !

It’ll help you break down your content creation and review process into doable items. 

Here’s how you can do this:

• Create tasks and subtasks under specific projects and assign them to any team member 
• Develop checklists that can be added to your tasks to check off important to-dos as you progress 

F. Creative planning with Mind Maps

Your brain deals with thoughts more rapidly than any pen or keyboard could handle.

Luckily, ClickUp’s Mind Maps feature is the fastest way to capture those thoughts.

Etch out a number of complex ideas using one of ClickUp’s many templates or start fresh on a blank page. Just pick an idea and run with it. 

Annotation is as important to the review process as a bowl of popcorn is to a Netflix binge. 

It’s absolutely essential!

It’s how your virtual team can share ideas and ensure that everyone is on the same page. 

And the faster and more efficient the process is, the better content you can deliver. 

Unfortunately, a confusing and expensive PDF annotator will only slow your process down. 

You need PDF annotation software that’s both lightweight and multifunctional. 

What you need is ClickUp. 

It’s the solution to all your project management needs and serves as an all-in-one software for your content creation process. 

Get ClickUp today to annotate anything and enter content heaven, for free!

Questions? Comments? Visit our Help Center for support.

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How to annotate Microsoft Word documents (+ tips for accurate annotations)

December 4, 2023

Most of us would agree that Microsoft Word is kind of a legend in the world of text and editing tools. After all, it has been around since 1983 .

Writing in a Word document was, for many, one of the first encounters with computers. And yet we’re still often amazed by how many functionalities this powerful tool has to offer.

Word annotation is one such feature that allows you to turn documents into collaborative spaces for teams to come together and work on a document. Annotating a document can also help you get a better understanding of the text and identify any areas that need clarification or improvement.

If you’re wondering how to annotate on Word and are looking for some tips for creating accurate and useful annotations, you’re in the right place.

Let’s get down to business!

Supercharge your document review rounds

Get point-and-click feedback on your documents with Filestage.

Seven simple steps for annotating a Word document

There are several ways in which you can annotate your Word documents depending on your specific needs. If you’re looking to simply add comments to your document, then using the comment feature is the easiest way to do it.

Here are the steps on how to annotate a Word document using comments:

• Open the document you want to annotate
• Begin reviewing the document
• Highlight the sentence or phrase you want to annotate
• Navigate to the “Review” tab
• Click on the “New Comment” button
• Type your comment in the comment bubble
• Click on the “Send” button

Your comment will then appear in the document, as a small bubble with your name and the date and time of the comment. You can move the comment by dragging it, and you can resize it by clicking and dragging the edges.

There are also some alternative ways to annotate Word documents. Here are the top three:

• Highlight text: This is a simple way to mark up text that you want to draw attention to. You can highlight text in different colors to make it stand out.
• Add text boxes: You can add text boxes to your document to add notes or comments. Text boxes can be resized and moved around, just like comments.
• Use the pen tool: The pen tool allows you to draw on your document. You can use the pen tool to add arrows, circles, or other shapes to your document.

If you need to add more complex screen annotations like text boxes or drawings, then you’ll be better off using more specialized annotation tools .

Why should you annotate Word documents?

Annotation in Word is a useful tool that will help you accelerate your teamwork and improve the overall quality of the documents. It allows everyone on the team to provide feedback on a document and track changes.

Here are the top five benefits of annotating in Word:

• Improved collaboration
• Clarity and feedback
• Document revision
• Document history and accountability
• Review and approval process

1. Improved collaboration

Annotating in Word allows your whole team to work on the same document simultaneously, making it easier to share ideas, provide feedback, and work together on a project. This real-time collaboration can improve the quality and efficiency of your entire document creation process.

2. Clarity and feedback

Annotations allow all your reviewers to highlight errors, suggest changes, or add comments, which helps authors identify areas that require revision and improvement. In other words, you can say goodbye to misinterpreted feedback, and all the stress that comes with it!

3. Document revision

Annotating Word documents is one of the most important steps in the document revision process. Thanks to your annotations, authors of the document can easily make changes based on your feedback, and keep the document aligned with the requirements of the project.

4. Document history and accountability

When there’s a lot of people working on a project, you can easily lose track of accountability without a proper annotation tool. Annotated documents create a historical record of all the changes and decisions, helping you promote accountability within the team.

This way you’ll always know which stakeholder requested what change and when, and whether this change was timely addressed. 

5. Review and approval process

Annotating documents can streamline the review and approval process within your organization. Stakeholders can add annotations to indicate whether they approve or disapprove the current state of the document. 

This helps you track progress and make sure documents meet all necessary standards.

Tips for annotating a Word document

Adding comments in Word doesn’t just mean highlighting text and pouring your thoughts in the comments section. Annotations should be concise and to the point to make sure they’re relevant, and you should follow certain rules to keep them respectful.

Here are some tips for annotating a Word document:

• Be specific in your comments: It’s not enough to simply say “I don’t understand this,” when reviewing documents. Instead, try to explain what you don’t understand and why. Making concrete reasons for edits will make it easier for the person editing the document to understand and implement your feedback.
• Be constructive in your comments: Instead of just criticizing and pointing out what doesn’t work in the document, try offering concrete suggestions for improvement. These suggestions will make it easier to implement your feedback and help the person editing the document learn something along the way.
• Be polite in your comments: Whoever worked hard on writing the documents deserves decent and respectful feedback. So try your best to provide a constructive review, but make sure to keep it polite.

Frequently asked questions on how to annotate on Word

1. how do i insert an annotation symbol in word.

Here are the seven simple steps to insert an annotation symbol in Word:

• Place your cursor at the spot where you want to insert the symbol
• Go to Insert > Symbol
• In the Symbol dialog box, select the Special characters tab
• In the “Subset” list, select Symbols
• Scroll down and find the symbol you want to insert
• Double-click the symbol to insert it into your document
• Select Close to close the Symbol dialog box

2. Can you annotate a PDF in Microsoft Word?

No, you can’t annotate a PDF in Microsoft Word. Word is a word processing tool designed to create and edit text documents without the ability to annotate PDF documents.

But, there are a number of other tools that you can use to annotate PDF documents, including Filestage, Adobe Acrobat Reader, and Foxit Reader.

To help you out, we’ve put together a roundup of the best PDF markup software .

3. Can you annotate in Microsoft?

Yes, you can annotate in Microsoft. There are a few different ways to do this, depending on which Microsoft product you’re using.

Here are some ways to annotate in different Microsoft products:

• Microsoft Word: You can use the comment feature in Word to add annotations to a document. To do this, highlight the text you want to annotate and then click the “Comment” button in the Review tab. You can also add annotations by using the pen or highlighter tools in the Draw tab.
• Microsoft PowerPoint: You can use the annotation tools in Microsoft PowerPoint to add comments to a presentation. To do this, click the “Annotate” button in the Review tab. You can then use the pen, highlighter, or text box tools to add annotations to your presentation.
• Microsoft Excel: You can use the comment feature in Microsoft Excel to add annotations to a spreadsheet. To do this, select the cell you want to annotate and then click the “Comment” button in the Review tab.
• Microsoft Teams: You can use the annotation feature in Microsoft Teams to add annotations to a shared document or whiteboard. To do this, click the “Annotate” button in the meeting controls.

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Annotating Texts

What is annotation.

Annotation can be:

• A systematic summary of the text that you create within the document
• A key tool for close reading that helps you uncover patterns, notice important words, and identify main points
• An active learning strategy that improves comprehension and retention of information

Why annotate?

• Isolate and organize important material
• Identify key concepts
• Monitor your learning as you read
• Make exam prep effective and streamlined
• Can be more efficient than creating a separate set of reading notes

How do you annotate?

Summarize key points in your own words .

• Use headers and words in bold to guide you
• Look for main ideas, arguments, and points of evidence
• Notice how the text organizes itself. Chronological order? Idea trees? Etc.

Circle key concepts and phrases

• What words would it be helpful to look-up at the end?
• What terms show up in lecture? When are different words used for similar concepts? Why?

Write brief comments and questions in the margins

• Be as specific or broad as you would like—use these questions to activate your thinking about the content
• See our handout on reading comprehension tips for some examples

Use abbreviations and symbols

• Try ? when you have a question or something you need to explore further
• Try ! When something is interesting, a connection, or otherwise worthy of note
• Try * For anything that you might use as an example or evidence when you use this information.
• Ask yourself what other system of symbols would make sense to you.

Highlight/underline

• Highlight or underline, but mindfully. Check out our resource on strategic highlighting for tips on when and how to highlight.

Use comment and highlight features built into pdfs, online/digital textbooks, or other apps and browser add-ons

• Are you using a pdf? Explore its highlight, edit, and comment functions to support your annotations
• Some browsers have add-ons or extensions that allow you to annotate web pages or web-based documents
• Does your digital or online textbook come with an annotation feature?
• Can your digital text be imported into a note-taking tool like OneNote, EverNote, or Google Keep? If so, you might be able to annotate texts in those apps

What are the most important takeaways?

• Annotation is about increasing your engagement with a text
• Increased engagement, where you think about and process the material then expand on your learning, is how you achieve mastery in a subject
• As you annotate a text, ask yourself: how would I explain this to a friend?
• Put things in your own words and draw connections to what you know and wonder

The table below demonstrates this process using a geography textbook excerpt (Press 2004):

A common concern about annotating texts: It takes time!

Yes, it can, but that time isn’t lost—it’s invested.

Spending the time to annotate on the front end does two important things:

• It saves you time later when you’re studying. Your annotated notes will help speed up exam prep, because you can review critical concepts quickly and efficiently.
• It increases the likelihood that you will retain the information after the course is completed. This is especially important when you are supplying the building blocks of your mind and future career.

One last tip: Try separating the reading and annotating processes! Quickly read through a section of the text first, then go back and annotate.

Works consulted:

Nist, S., & Holschuh, J. (2000). Active learning: strategies for college success. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 202-218.

Simpson, M., & Nist, S. (1990). Textbook annotation: An effective and efficient study strategy for college students. Journal of Reading, 34: 122-129.

Press, F. (2004). Understanding earth (4th ed). New York: W.H. Freeman. 208-210.

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Reading and Study Strategies

What is annotating and why do it, annotation explained, steps to annotating a source, annotating strategies.

• Using a Dictionary
• Study Skills

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Software for Annotating

ProQuest Flow (sign up with your EWU email)

FoxIt PDF Reader

Adobe Reader Pro  - available on all campus computers

Track Changes in Microsoft Word

What is Annotating?

Annotating is any action that deliberately interacts with a text to enhance the reader's understanding of, recall of, and reaction to the text. Sometimes called "close reading," annotating usually involves highlighting or underlining key pieces of text and making notes in the margins of the text. This page will introduce you to several effective strategies for annotating a text that will help you get the most out of your reading.

Why Annotate?

By annotating a text, you will ensure that you understand what is happening in a text after you've read it. As you annotate, you should note the author's main points, shifts in the message or perspective of the text, key areas of focus, and your own thoughts as you read. However, annotating isn't just for people who feel challenged when reading academic texts. Even if you regularly understand and remember what you read, annotating will help you summarize a text, highlight important pieces of information, and ultimately prepare yourself for discussion and writing prompts that your instructor may give you. Annotating means you are doing the hard work while you read, allowing you to reference your previous work and have a clear jumping-off point for future work.

1. Survey : This is your first time through the reading

You can annotate by hand or by using document software. You can also annotate on post-its if you have a text you do not want to mark up. As you annotate, use these strategies to make the most of your efforts:

• Include a key or legend on your paper that indicates what each marking is for, and use a different marking for each type of information. Example: Underline for key points, highlight for vocabulary, and circle for transition points.
• If you use highlighters, consider using different colors for different types of reactions to the text. Example: Yellow for definitions, orange for questions, and blue for disagreement/confusion.
• Dedicate different tasks to each margin: Use one margin to make an outline of the text (thesis statement, description, definition #1, counter argument, etc.) and summarize main ideas, and use the other margin to note your thoughts, questions, and reactions to the text.

Lastly, as you annotate, make sure you are including descriptions of the text as well as your own reactions to the text. This will allow you to skim your notations at a later date to locate key information and quotations, and to recall your thought processes more easily and quickly.

• Next: Using a Dictionary >>
• Last Updated: Apr 25, 2024 2:50 PM
• URL: https://research.ewu.edu/writers_c_read_study_strategies

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What is an Annotation?

• Why Do an Annotated Bibliography?
• What Should be Included in the Annotation?
• What Format Should I Use for the Citations?
• Evaluating Sources
• Summative Annotations
• Evaluative Annotations
• Examples from the Web
• Additional Resources
• University of Washington Libraries
• Library Guides
• Annotated Bibliographies

Annotated Bibliographies: What is an Annotation?

An annotation summarizes the essential ideas contained in a document, reporting the author's thesis and main points as well as how they relate to your own ideas or thesis. There are two types of annotations: summative and evaluative (see examples under the 'Types of Annotations' tab on this guide). Annotations are typically brief (one paragraph) but may be longer depending on the requirements of your assignment.

If you are creating an annotated bibliography for a class assignment, check with your instructor to determine the citation format, length and the type of annotations you will be writing.    

Remember, your annotation should show that you have done more than simply describe what is in the source!

• << Previous: Home
• Next: Why Do an Annotated Bibliography? >>
• Last Updated: Oct 3, 2023 12:04 PM
• URL: https://guides.lib.uw.edu/bothell/annotatedbibliographies

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Annotating documents

What is an annotation.

Annotations are comments, notes, explanations, or other types of external remarks that can be attached to a Web document or to a selected part of a document. As they are external, it is possible to annotate any Web document independently, without needing to edit the document itself. From a technical point of view, annotations are usually seen as metadata, as they give additional information about an existing piece of data. Amaya uses a special RDF annotation schema for describing annotations.

An annotation has many properties including:

• Physical location: is the annotation stored in the local file system or in an annotation server
• Scope: is the annotation associated to a whole document or just to a fragment.
• Annotation type: 'Annotation', 'Comment', 'Query', ...

Local and remote annotations

Amaya can store annotation data in a local file system ( local annotations ) or it can store annotations remotely, on annotations servers accessed through the Web ( remote annotations ).

You do not need a server to create local annotations. Local annotations are stored under your AmayaHome directory, in a special directory called annotations , and they can be seen only by their owner (according to the system access right setup).

This directory contains three kinds of files:

• annot.index: Associates URLs with the files containing the metadata of the annotations.
• index + random suffix: Stores the metadata of the annotations related to a given URL. The metadata is specified in RDF.
• annot + random suffix.html: Contains the body of an annotation, stored as XHTML.

At any time, you can convert a local annotation to a shared one by choosing Post to server from the Tools/Annotations submenu. Once this is completed, the local annotation is deleted because it has been moved to an annotation server.

Remote annotations

You can store remote annotations in annotation servers so that the annotations can be downloaded by anyone having the correct access rights, such as is the case of other HTML documents.

Remote annotations are referred to as shared or public annotations, because they can be seen by other people. If you wish to install your own annotation server, please refer to Annotation-Server-HOWTO .

Creating an annotation

Before creating an annotation, it is recommended to set some parameters in the Preferences (see section Configuring annotations ).

Amaya supports two kinds of annotations: annotations that apply to a whole document and annotations that apply to a specific position or a selection in a document.

• To annotate an entire document, choose Annotate document from the Tools/Annotations menu.
• To annotate a position, put the insertion point at that position in the document and choose Annotate selection from the Tools/Annotations menu.
• To annotate a selection, make a selection in the document and choose Annotate selection from the Tools/Annotations menu.

After these operations, an annotation document  is displayed, with some inital metadata and an empty body.

The metadata consists of the title of the annotation , the author's name , the title of the annotated document, the annotation type , the creation date , and the last modification date .

Some of the metadata fields have special properties:

• The Source document field is a link that points back to the annotated text. If the user double-clicks it, as when following any other link with Amaya, the annotated document will be displayed with the annotated text highlighted.
• The Annotation types field lets you classify the annotation and change its type. Double-click on the text Annotation type to see the list of types available.
• The Last modified field is updated automatically each time that an annotation is saved.

Below the header area is the annotation body area. It shows the current content and can be edited like any other HTML document.

Some commands that can be applied to a document in the Amaya document window also can be applied to an annotation document in the Annotation window. For example, the body of an annotation can be printed by choosing Print from the File menu, or reloaded by choosing Reload document from the File menu.

Saving an annotation

Saving an annotation is the same as saving any other document with Amaya: choose Save from the File menu (or use its equivalent shortcut or button) or press the Save button.

Local annotations are saved to the annotations directory and remote annotations are saved to the annotation post server, if the user has write access.

To convert a local annotation into a shared one, choose Post to server from the Tools/Annotations menu to save the annotation to the Post server as defined in the Configuration for Annotations dialog . If this operation is successful, the local annotation will be removed and future Save operations will go directly to that annotation server.

Deleting an annotation

The Delete command on the Tools/Annotations submenu enables you to delete the current annotation. You can invoke this command from an annotation window.

You can also delete an annotation from the annotated document. Select the icon of the annotation and call the same command from the Tools menu in the annotated document window.

Loading and presenting annotations

The Tools/Annotations/Load command tells Amaya to load the annotations that are associated with the URL of the current document. Amaya will query the annotation servers, using the settings from Preferences/Annotations , and ask for any relevant annotation.

Annotations may also be loaded automatically whenever a new page is viewed by selecting the Autoload remote annotations check box in Preferences/Annotations .

Querying an annotation server returns all the annotations that are associated with a document.

Annotations in the Links window

The link view of the annotated document shows all the annotations.

As with the document window, annotations are identified by a pencil icon. A single-click on the icon selects the annotated text in the document window and a double-click opens the annotation.

Replying to annotations / discussion thread

Annotations can be seen as comments to web pages. The Tools/Annotations/Reply to annotation command enhances the collaborative workspace by allowing users to reply to annotations or to other replies.

The Reply to annotation command of the Tools/Annotations submenu lets you create a reply to an existing annotation or to a reply. You can invoke this command from an open annotation or a reply window.

As a result a new annotation document opens. The fields in a reply annotation can be edited just like in any other annotation as explained under Creating an annotation .

When the reply is ready, you can post it to a server with the Tools/Annotations/Post to server command or you can save it locally using the File/Save command. To delete a reply, you can use the Tools/Annotations/Delete command.

Replies can also be annotated like any other document, as explained in Creating an annotation .

All replies related to an annotation are shown at the bottom of this annotation, in a thread section. Each item in the thread gives the date of the reply, the author, and the title of the reply.

The content of any of these replies can be retrieved by double clicking the replies in the thread. The selected reply is highlighted and presented in a reply tab. When another selection is made the same reply tab is used.

Known issues: incomplete thread

There is no way to control which replies should be posted. In an ideal world, it should not be possible to save a reply to a reply if the previous reply was not saved in the same server. Likewise, if you delete a reply, you should delete all replies to this annotation. Not doing that leads to having fragments of threads that cannot be correctly attached in the thread.

For example, let R1 be the reply to annotation A1 and R2 a reply to R1. If you post R1, and let R2 be stored locally, then when you browse A1 and only download its local annotations, you will only see R2.

At this point, Amaya does not know that R1 exists, so it assumes that R2 has lost its parent. We identify these "orphan" threads by putting a question mark symbol ? in front of them. If later one, Amaya finds new thread items, for example, if you download R1, Amaya will then sort the thread view, inserting the threads as appropriately. In our example, R2 will become a child of R1, as expected.

Configuring annotation icons

User-definable icons by annotation type (aka "dynamic icons").

The icon used to mark the location of an annotation within an annotated document may be changed by the user. The icon that denotes an annotation is chosen as a property of the annotation type. By including an RDF property of each annotation type you wish to use, you select the icon associated with annotations of that type.

The sample configuration associates the following icons:

The property name for adding annotation icons is http://www.w3.org/2001/10/typeIcon#usesIcon . For instance, to specify an icon named file:///home/question-icon.jpg for annotations that have type http://www.w3.org/2000/10/annotationType#Question you would enter the following RDF/XML into a file that Amaya reads at startup is:

The simplest way to get such RDF loaded into Amaya at startup is to include the file in the config/annot.schemas file in the Amaya program directory. In order to preserve this file so that it will not be overwritten when you install a new version of Amaya, you should copy the config/annot.schemas file into your personal AmayaHome directory.

You may list as many RDF files as you want in annot.schemas . See the comments in the file included in the Amaya kit for more details.

A sample file named typeIcon.rdf declares unique icons for each annotation type declared in the http://www.w3.org/2000/10/annotationType# namespace. To experiment with user-defined icons, it may be easiest to copy this typeIcon.rdf into another directory and modify it. Copy annot.schemas to your AmayaHome directory and change the line near the end to point to your revised icon definition file.

Amaya supports JPEG, PNG, and GIF bitmap graphics formats for icon images. The icon URI may only be a file: URI; that is, the icon must appear in a local or mounted directory to Amaya. Two special forms of non-file: URIs are supported. If the file path name starts with $THOTDIR or $APP_HOME then the corresponding Amaya installation directory or personal Amaya home directory is substituted into the pathname.

Known issues with annotations and modified documents

When you use annotations with live documents (documents whose contents can be modified), you may encounter two kinds of problems: orphan annotations and misleading annotations . To explain these problems, we must first describe how Amaya attaches annotations to documents.

Amaya uses XPointer to indicate where an annotation should be attached to a document. XPointers are based in the structure of the document. To build an XPointer for a selection, for example, Amaya starts from the first point of the selection and walk backwards through the document's structure, until it finds the root of the document. If an element has an id attribute, Amaya stops building the XPointer and considers the element with the id attribute value to be the beginning of that XPointer.

For example, if you look at the HTML source for this document, you'll notice that this section is enclosed within a div element that has an id attribute with the value "Issues" Here's an extract of the source code:

This XPointer points to the second paragraph: xpointer(id("Issues")/p[2])

The above XPointer points to the second p element, from the element parent having an id attribute with value "Issues".

Note that the use of the id attribute enables the document author to move the entire reference by the XPointer to another location within the document, without needing to update the XPointer. The XPointer does not depend on the elements that precede it.

Orphan annotations

An annotation becomes an "orphan" when it can no longer be attached to a document, that is, when the XPointer does not resolve to any element in the structure. This happens when a document's structure is modified. Amaya displays a warning if it detects any orphan annotations while downloading a set of annotations from an annotation server. All orphan annotations are visible from the Links view and are associated with an icon that shows a question mark superimposed on the annotation pencil .

Misleading annotations

An annotation becomes "misleading" when it points to a wrong piece of information. This problem is common when you annotate a portion of text that may change. In the first release, Amaya does not warn the user if an annotation is misleading. A future release may notify users of the potential for an annotation to be misleading.

What can you do to avoid this?

As the author of a document, try to use the ID attribute in strategic places, for example, inside <DIV> and p elements. For example:

An XPointer that points to this paragraph is: xpointer(id("Amaya"))

Thus, the Xpointer will point to the same paragraph, regardless of its position in the document's structure.

Amaya enables you to automatically associate with or remove an ID attribute to/from a set of elements by choosing Add/Remove IDs from the Links menu.

How to Write an Annotated Bibliography - APA Style (7th Edition)

What is an annotation, how is an annotation different from an abstract, what is an annotated bibliography, types of annotated bibliographies, descriptive or informative, analytical or critical, to get started.

An annotation is more than just a brief summary of an article, book, website, or other type of publication. An annotation should give enough information to make a reader decide whether to read the complete work. In other words, if the reader were exploring the same topic as you, is this material useful and if so, why?

While an abstract also summarizes an article, book, website, or other type of publication, it is purely descriptive. Although annotations can be descriptive, they also include distinctive features about an item. Annotations can be evaluative and critical as we will see when we look at the two major types of annotations.

An annotated bibliography is an organized list of sources (like a reference list). It differs from a straightforward bibliography in that each reference is followed by a paragraph length annotation, usually 100–200 words in length.

Depending on the assignment, an annotated bibliography might have different purposes:

• Provide a literature review on a particular subject
• Help to formulate a thesis on a subject
• Demonstrate the research you have performed on a particular subject
• Provide examples of major sources of information available on a topic
• Describe items that other researchers may find of interest on a topic

There are two major types of annotated bibliographies:

A descriptive or informative annotated bibliography describes or summarizes a source as does an abstract; it describes why the source is useful for researching a particular topic or question and its distinctive features. In addition, it describes the author's main arguments and conclusions without evaluating what the author says or concludes.

For example:

McKinnon, A. (2019). Lessons learned in year one of business.  Journal of Legal Nurse Consulting ,  30 (4), 26–28. This article describes some of the difficulties many nurses experience when transitioning from nursing to a legal nurse consulting business. Pointing out issues of work-life balance, as well as the differences of working for someone else versus working for yourself, the author offers their personal experience as a learning tool. The process of becoming an entrepreneur is not often discussed in relation to nursing, and rarely delves into only the first year of starting a new business. Time management, maintaining an existing job, decision-making, and knowing yourself in order to market yourself are discussed with some detail. The author goes on to describe how important both the nursing professional community will be to a new business, and the importance of mentorship as both the mentee and mentor in individual success that can be found through professional connections. The article’s focus on practical advice for nurses seeking to start their own business does not detract from the advice about universal struggles of entrepreneurship makes this an article of interest to a wide-ranging audience.

An analytical or critical annotation not only summarizes the material, it analyzes what is being said. It examines the strengths and weaknesses of what is presented as well as describing the applicability of the author's conclusions to the research being conducted.

Analytical or critical annotations will most likely be required when writing for a college-level course.

McKinnon, A. (2019). Lessons learned in year one of business.  Journal of Legal Nurse Consulting ,  30 (4), 26–28. This article describes some of the difficulty many nurses experience when transitioning from nursing to a nurse consulting business. While the article focuses on issues of work-life balance, the differences of working for someone else versus working for yourself, marketing, and other business issues the author’s offer of only their personal experience is brief with few or no alternative solutions provided. There is no mention throughout the article of making use of other research about starting a new business and being successful. While relying on the anecdotal advice for their list of issues, the author does reference other business resources such as the Small Business Administration to help with business planning and professional organizations that can help with mentorships. The article is a good resource for those wanting to start their own legal nurse consulting business, a good first advice article even. However, entrepreneurs should also use more business research studies focused on starting a new business, with strategies against known or expected pitfalls and issues new businesses face, and for help on topics the author did not touch in this abbreviated list of lessons learned.

Now you are ready to begin writing your own annotated bibliography.

• Choose your sources - Before writing your annotated bibliography, you must choose your sources. This involves doing research much like for any other project. Locate records to materials that may apply to your topic.
• Review the items - Then review the actual items and choose those that provide a wide variety of perspectives on your topic. Article abstracts are helpful in this process.
• The purpose of the work
• A summary of its content
• Information about the author(s)
• For what type of audience the work is written
• Its relevance to the topic
• Any special or unique features about the material
• Research methodology
• The strengths, weaknesses or biases in the material

Annotated bibliographies may be arranged alphabetically or chronologically, check with your instructor to see what he or she prefers.

Please see the  APA Examples page  for more information on citing in APA style.

• Last Updated: Aug 8, 2023 11:27 AM
• URL: https://libguides.umgc.edu/annotated-bibliography-apa

How To Annotate Text And Documents

Note-taking and knowing how to annotate is critical to understanding the meaning behind what is written. Whether you are studying or seeking to understand something better, then annotating the text is the best way to aid your learning. But what does “annotate” actually mean? How can annotation help someone study more effectively? By learning about this study practice, you can better improve the time that you spend learning.

What Is Text Annotation?

Text annotation is a form of note-taking that goes back as long as written media itself. It is a process by which somebody who is reading attempts to draw greater meaning from what they read and condense it down into a shorthand format. Also called marginalia, these notes are useful for several purposes.

Annotation was popular, particularly for Medieval era scholars . Copying annotations alongside the original text was a common practice. These marginal notes were considered important for understanding text by these scholars. Their inclusion was as, if not more important than, the original text itself.

Once the printing press came to be, annotation fell off as something included with copies of the text. The printing press, in its original construction, wasn’t able to print text outside of the margins. Annotations, being on the margin, wouldn’t copy over because of this mechanical shortcoming. Individuals annotating texts for themselves persisted, but annotations did not make it into books after the printing press rolled out.

Nowadays, annotation is making a resurgence. Whether it’s a business proposa l contract , presentation or something else, most text now is handled via software. So, there are more tools available to present annotations and comments with the original text. These annotations save alongside the original text with no extra work for the author or the reader.

How To Annotate

The main way text annotation is used today is for education. Active readers annotate while reading to get a better understanding of the things they read. Rather than just lazily glossing over the text, text annotation is a reading strategy that gives students a better chance of remembering what they are reading.

General Annotation Tips

There are a lot of tips out there to annotate a text. Lots of people come up with their own systems for doing annotations. After all, annotations should help the original reader first.

What Should Annotation Accomplish?

Before going over some of the general annotation tips out there, the question to answer is: what should your annotations do for you? Creating text annotations is a lot of effort, so putting forth that effort should have a worthwhile result.

Regardless of what format the text you are annotating is in, these are the general goals most readers want to hit with their annotations:

• Identify important ideas and information inside the text
• Condense the main ideas of the text in a digestible way
• Outline the flow of ideas through the text and how everything connects to support the main points
• Show the original thoughts of the reader and how they may or may not change throughout the document

Given the circumstances students find themselves in right now , annotations can be a great way to study alone or in groups. Annotations should make the point of the text clear while also adding insight for the reader of the annotations later.

Annotation Methods

Many students have their methods for annotating. Still, many of these techniques share some similarities. Here are some of the overall practices you could do when annotating a text:

• Highlighting/underlining: Important text stands out from the rest of the paragraphs using a highlighter or colored pen.
• Paraphrase/summary: Comments in the margin sum up sections as the reader finishes them.
• Annotation Key: Text annotation symbols tell the reader where to find answers or the next step in a logical chain.
• Descriptive outlines: An outline of what each paragraph contains and how they flow together.
• Reader comments/responses: As the reader reads the text, they write down their thoughts or comments on the side to keep the mind engaged.

Regardless of which technique you use to make your annotations, the main goal here is to stay consistent. If you change up your style or method all the time, you will make it harder to review your notes later on.

It is also worthwhile to keep the assignment directions or other resources handy while reading. This way, if you have to reference anything in a different source, it will be on hand and avoid interrupting your flow.

How to Annotate an Article

For most people, annotating an article is going to be a technical process. Most news articles written right now are straightforward and to the point, leaving little room for confusion. However, students in an academic setting won’t have the same luck with journals and other similar pieces for their coursework.

Whether the article is digital or physical, the main goal of annotating an article is understanding it better. One of the best practices you can take to understand the piece is to write down questions as they come to you during your reading.

The purpose of these questions is twofold. The first benefit is that you will be forming thoughts and searching for answers while reading. This practice puts your mind into an answer-seeking state, encouraging you to find those answers.

The second benefit of writing on these questions is they serve as a good review for your understanding later. Once you’ve read through the article and had time to review it, you can revisit these questions and see if you can answer them. If you can answer these questions after reading the article, then you’ve now proven to yourself that you learned something.

Something else you could consider is writing or making note of the new words that you discover while reading. Scholastic articles will feature all sorts of technical terms that you may not be familiar with. Write these words down on a separate sheet of paper and revisit them when you’re done reading.

Once you finish reading, grab a dictionary or go online and start finding definitions for these words. Write down those definitions next to the words you didn’t know before and use this as a study aid for later. By doing this, you build up your understanding of these technical terms and how they are used.

How to Annotate a Book

Annotating a book is similar to doing the same thing for an article. However, one of the main things you’ll need to consider before annotating is what you can or can’t write in the book. If you feel comfortable writing in your own book, then go for it. But, you really shouldn’t be writing in a library’s or someone else’s book.

If you own the book, then follow whatever method works best for your usual annotations. Because books cover a lot more information than one article, you might need to condense the notes that you write while reading. Otherwise, you could end up with a large number of notes instead of an appreciable study aid.

If the book doesn’t belong to you, you’ll need to find some other way to annotate it. Sticky notes or other non-permanent additions to the book can be a good place to write things down. That way, when you’re done with the book, you can take out all your sticky notes from the book without haven’t caused any damage.

If you’d rather keep everything organized, then a small notebook can be another great place to store annotations. This is especially true if you prefer doing outlines over questions and highlights. By making note of page numbers within your outline, you can reference information whenever you have access to the book again.

Finally, clear protector sheets make for a unique way to write notes without writing on the page. You can place the sheets onto the page and make notes with a wet-erase marker. When you’re all set, you can return the book and start turning your annotations on the clear sheets into an outline or other study guide.

How to Annotate a Poem

Often, poetry represents something deeper than what’s presented on the surface. A poem is more than words on a page but is instead a message that’s trying to be conveyed. Because of the meter and schemes common in many poems, it can be hard to understand them with just one read.

Once you’ve read through the poem, go through the piece and see if there are any words you don’t understand. Write down the definitions for those words so that way you know what vocabulary you’re dealing with. Identifying figurative language and the rhyming scheme can be helpful here too.

With figurative language, see if you can find any literary devices such as similes or metaphors. Repetition is a common device in many poems, too. If you can identify these literary devices and why the poet is using them, you’ll be in a much better position to understand the overall meaning.

Finally, take note of anything else that stands out to you. Find what draws your attention when you’re reading the piece and take note of that. It could be helpful to write a question or two with that note to see if you can understand why it caught your attention and perhaps why the poet would include it.

If you’re still having trouble after doing these steps, that’s your cue to reread the poem and keep annotating. Eventually, something will click, and the message behind the poem will become clear.

How to Annotate a PDF

To annotate PDF text, text annotation software is a big help. Plenty of software has built-in text annotation tools that allow you to annotate a PDF with ease. However, these tools will change depending on which computer platform you’re using.

PC Annotation

If you need to know how to annotate a PDF on Windows, the most common way to do it is using Adobe Acrobat. This software has in-built annotation tools and allows you to save those annotations with that PDF to be later.

They aren’t the only option, however. There are plenty of other software choices out there, and some web browsers also support annotating PDFs. One of the nice things about the Windows platform is that there are plenty of tools out there. Each of them caters to individual tastes. Find a tool that works for you and go from there.

Mac Annotation

The Preview app is how to annotate on a PDF on a Mac without getting any extra software. The software comes installed with all Mac OS computers, so take advantage of it if you got it.

Up in the top command bar is the Tools menu. Within that menu, you will find the annotate options that you can use to markup a PDF. Part of these tools includes sending annotations off to collaborators to make group projects easier.

Google Drive Annotation

It is not immediately obvious how to annotate a PDF in Google Drive. PDFs are not one of the file types that Google Drive can open in its platform. Instead, users can highlight sections and create comments for those sections.

To make these comments, a user will first need permission to make comments on the document. Then, they can drag and select a section of the PDF to associate the comment with. With a couple of keystrokes, the comment is entered. Now, that comment can be viewed later by anybody who has access to the document.

“Annotate” Definition

Text annotation is a note-taking process that pairs those notes alongside the original text. By referencing the original document and engaging it, readers can improve their odds of understanding the text.

Annotations are also great for collaborations. If you are looking for a way to work together with others on documents, then check out what our tools have to offer. See if you can improve your document workflow today!

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APA 7th Edition Guide

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Creating an Annotated Bibliography

• What is an Annotated Bibliography

Writing an Annotation

Formatting an annotated bibliography.

• Resources and Tools
• Creating an Annotated Bibliography Video

Components of an Annotated Bibliography

An annotated bibliography is an APA reference list that includes a brief summary and analysis -- the annotation --  under the reference entry.  

An annotated bibliography includes:

• APA Title page
• Pages are numbered beginning with title page
• References centered and bolded at top of page
• Entries listed in alphabetical order
• Annotations begin under its associated reference
• Annotations are indented 0.5 inches from the left margin
• The entire document is double spaced; no extra space between entries

Example of an annotated bibliography entry:

An  an n otated bibliography is composed of the full APA reference for a source followed by notes and commentary about that so urce. T he word  “annotate” means “critical or explanatory notes” and the word “bibliography” means “a list of sources”.  Annotation s are meant to be critical in addition to being descriptive.

Annotations are generally between five to seven sentences in length and appear directly under the APA reference.  The entire annotation is indented 0.5 inch from the left margin and lines up with the hanging indent of the APA reference.

Use the question prompts below as a guide when writing annotations:

• 2 to 4 sentences to  summarize   the main idea(s) of the source.

     - What are the main arguments?

     - What is the point of this book/article?

     - What topics are covered?

• 1 or 2 sentences to  assess   and  evaluate   the source.

     - How does it compare with other sources in your bibliography?

     - Is this information reliable? current?

     - Is the author credible? have the background to write on this topic?

     - Is the source objective or biased?

• 1 or 2 sentences to  reflect   on the source.

     - Was this source helpful to you?

     - How can you use this source for your research project?

     - Has it changed how you think about your topic?

• a title page, and
• the annotated bibliography which begins on its own page with the word References bolded and centered at the top of the page.

Each entry begins with an APA reference for the resource with the annotation appearing directly beneath. The entire annotation is indented 0.5 inches from the left margin.

Entries are listed in alphabetical order. The entire document is typed on one of the six approved font styles and sizes and is double spaced.  There is no additional space between entires.

Consider using Academic Writer or NoodleTools to create and format your annotated bibliography.  

APA Citation Style Resources and Tools

Apa academic writer.

Use the tools in the  References tab to create APA references for the resources in your annotated bibliography.  The form includes a text box for your annotation.  You can create your title page and assemble your annotated bibliography in the Write tab in this authoritative resource.

Create and format your annotated bibliography in NoodleTools .  Find information on how to create an account, create APA references, and creating and formatting an annotated bibliography in the NoodleTools Guide.

• NoodleTools Guide

This video below provides an overview of how to create an annotated bibliography including evaluating resources, writing annotations, creating APA references, and formatting the final document in the APA style. 

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• Next: Finding Help >>
• Last Updated: May 7, 2024 10:19 AM
• URL: https://guides.rasmussen.edu/apa

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How to Add Annotations in Word

Last Updated: December 26, 2022 Tested

wikiHow is a “wiki,” similar to Wikipedia, which means that many of our articles are co-written by multiple authors. To create this article, 9 people, some anonymous, worked to edit and improve it over time. The wikiHow Tech Team also followed the article's instructions and verified that they work. This article has been viewed 273,405 times. Learn more...

An annotation is a note made on a document concerning a specific word, passage or paragraph. It may signify the need for an error correction or perhaps an editor's suggestion to recast the text. Annotations can also be used by teachers and professors when grading and reviewing a student's work. Whatever the situation may be, annotations can be easily added in a Word document.

• This is to preserve the original file.

• In Word 2003, you will find this under the "View" menu.
• In Word 2007 or 2010, click on the Review tab on the menu or ribbon and select "Comments" under the "Show Markup" drop-down box.

• In Word 2003, click the Insert menu and choose "Comment."
• In Word 2007 or 2010, click "New Comment" in the Comments section of the Review tab.
• Type out your comment and press the ESC key to close it.
• Edit or delete comments by right-clicking on them and either choosing "Delete" or altering the text.

Community Q&A

• Advise any future recipients of the document to turn on the "Markup" feature in order to see your comments and track changes. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• The "Track Changes" feature in Word will allow you to edit a document while noting your changes and the original text. Changes can then be accepted or rejected by either yourself or another user. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• Word also allows you to insert footnotes and endnotes in your text by using the Cross-reference or Reference tool located on the Insert tab and menu. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

• Keep your comments as professional as you would any other form of communication that could be viewed by students, peers, coworkers or supervisors. You never know who will have access to track changes in the document and your attached comments. Thanks Helpful 1 Not Helpful 1

Things You'll Need

You might also like.

• http://support.microsoft.com/kb/286169
• http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/annotation

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Meaning of annotated in English

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• The book's annotated bibliography fills 45 pages .
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Jurors in Trump Trial Hear Witness Tie the President to the Payment

Before prosecutors began presenting crucial records, the judge held Donald J. Trump in contempt, saying his complaints about the jury were “a direct attack on the rule of law.”

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By Ben Protess ,  Jonah E. Bromwich ,  Alan Feuer and William K. Rashbaum

Follow our live coverage of Trump’s hush money trial in Manhattan.

After two weeks of enthralling jurors with stories of sex and scandal, prosecutors delved into the documents at the heart of Donald J. Trump’s criminal trial on Monday, a pivotal turn in the case that came on the same day the judge held Mr. Trump in contempt and threatened to jail him .

After the judge rebuked Mr. Trump for violating a gag order and mounting “a direct attack on the rule of law,” the prosecutors provided jurors with their first look at the 34 records they say he falsified to cover up an infamous payment.

Mr. Trump made the payment to his longtime fixer, Michael D. Cohen, reimbursing him for a $130,000 hush-money payoff to a porn star, Stormy Daniels, prosecutors say. Before Mr. Trump repaid Mr. Cohen, prosecutors say, he orchestrated a scheme to falsify the records.

Mr. Trump, the first American president to face prosecution, is on trial for 34 felony counts of falsifying business records, one for each document: 11 checks to Mr. Cohen, 11 invoices from Mr. Cohen and 12 entries in Mr. Trump’s general ledger. The invoices and ledger entries claimed that Mr. Cohen had been repaid for “legal expenses” that arose from a “retainer agreement.”

But prosecutors say the purported expenses and retainer agreement were works of fiction. And they used veterans of Mr. Trump’s accounting department against him, calling on the Trump Organization’s former controller, Jeffrey McConney, and its accounts payable supervisor, Deborah Tarasoff, to walk jurors through the records.

Who Are Key Players in the Trump Manhattan Criminal Trial?

The first criminal trial of former President Donald J. Trump is underway. Take a closer look at central figures related to the case.

While Mr. McConney testified that he did not know the true nature of the payments to Mr. Cohen, he bolstered the prosecution’s contention that the records were fishy.

When a prosecutor, Matthew Colangelo, asked Mr. McConney whether he ever saw a retainer agreement, he responded “I did not.” And when asked if he sent the invoice to the company’s legal department — as was common at the Trump Organization — he offered a telling one-word acknowledgment: “No.”

Mr. McConney also told jurors that much of the money for Mr. Cohen had come from Mr. Trump’s personal bank account. The company sent nine of the checks to the White House for Mr. Trump to sign, Mr. McConney explained.

His testimony marked a turning point in the prosecution’s case as it pivots from lurid details about buying and burying sex scandals — during the 2016 presidential campaign, Ms. Daniels was shopping her story of a tryst with Mr. Trump — to the records that the former president is accused of falsifying.

Both phases of the case, the captivating sleaze and the stultifying records, are essential to proving the charges. New York law requires prosecutors to show that Mr. Trump falsified the records to conceal another crime, in this case, what the prosecution says was a conspiracy to influence the election by concealing damaging stories from voters.

The Donald Trump Indictment, Annotated

The indictment unveiled in April 2023 centers on a hush-money deal with a porn star, but a related document alleges a broader scheme to protect Donald J. Trump’s 2016 campaign.

Mr. McConney took the stand after the judge held Mr. Trump in contempt of court for a second time and threatened to jail him if he continued to break the gag order that bars him from attacking jurors.

In a remarkable moment without the jury present, the judge, Juan M. Merchan, addressed Mr. Trump personally from the bench, saying that if there were further violations, he might place the former president behind bars.

Justice Merchan acknowledged that jailing Mr. Trump was “the last thing” he wanted, but explained that his responsibility was to “protect the dignity of the justice system.”

The judge said that he understood “the magnitude of such a decision” and that jailing Mr. Trump would be a last resort. He noted: “You are the former president of the United States, and possibly the next president as well.”

As the judge delivered his admonition and imposed a $1,000 fine, Mr. Trump stared straight at him, blinking but not reacting, and when the remarks were over, the former president shook his head.

The violation for which he was punished Monday stemmed from an incident on April 22, when Mr. Trump made disparaging remarks about jurors during a telephone interview with a far-right media outlet, Real America’s Voice. The jury, he said, had been picked “so fast” and was “mostly all Democrat,” adding, “It’s a very unfair situation.”

Prosecutors from the Manhattan district attorney’s office, which brought the case, argued that with that remark and others Mr. Trump had committed four new violations of the order. But Justice Merchan concluded that only the incident in which Mr. Trump attacked the jury amounted to a violation.

“Defendant not only called into question the integrity, and therefore the legitimacy of these proceedings, but again raised the specter of fear for the safety of the jurors and of their loved ones,” Justice Merchan wrote in his order.

The order came less than a week after Justice Merchan had issued a separate decision fining Mr. Trump $9,000 for nine earlier violations. In that ruling, the judge had warned Mr. Trump that continued disobedience could land him in jail.

On Monday, he issued a more explicit and sterner warning, all but pleading with the former president to stop attacking the jury.

“The last thing I want to do is put you in jail,” Justice Merchan said, adding quickly, “But at the end of the day, I have a job to do.”

Tension in the room eased once Mr. McConney took the stand, though his testimony was critical.

Prosecutors say that Mr. Trump, Mr. Cohen and the Trump Organization’s chief financial officer, Allen H. Weisselberg, hashed out a plan to falsify records to disguise the purpose of the reimbursement.

And when the issue made its way to Mr. McConney, he said, Mr. Weisselberg ordered him to pay Mr. Cohen, who ultimately received $420,000 in 11 checks. That covered the hush money, plus a bonus and additional funds, prosecutors say.

Mr. Colangelo, the prosecutor, walked Mr. McConney through each of Mr. Cohen’s monthly invoices sent to the Trump Organization. The first came via email in February 2017, and Mr. Cohen was direct: “Pursuant to the retainer agreement kindly remit payment,” he wrote Mr. McConney.

Mr. Weisselberg chimed in to approve, emailing Mr. McConney to say that he could release the money for Mr. Cohen, “per agreement with Don and Eric.” That was a reference to Mr. Trump’s adult sons, who took over the company when their father became president.

Mr. McConney then instructed Ms. Tarasoff, to pay and to note the charge in Mr. Trump’s ledger as “legal expenses” that pertained to a “retainer,” the very statements that prosecutors say are false.

He explained that the company’s accounting software had a variety of descriptions for payments, and, “We were paying a lawyer, so I said to put it — posted it to legal expenses.”

Ms. Tarasoff took the stand herself on Monday afternoon to answer questions about the process; her testimony was granular yet essential. With Ms. Tarasoff, prosecutors introduced the checks, which Mr. Trump signed with a black Sharpie.

When cross-examining Mr. McConney and Ms. Tarasoff, Mr. Trump’s lawyers sought to emphasize that the Trump Organization employees were in the dark about the reason for the repayments to Mr. Cohen.

“You don’t know one way or the other, from your vantage point, whether Mr. Cohen did legal work for President Trump in 2017, do you?” Emil Bove, a defense lawyer, asked Mr. McConney. Mr. McConney acknowledged that he did not.

But Mr. Colangelo appeared to think Mr. McConney’s ignorance was an asset for the prosecution, not the defense, suggesting that his bosses were operating in secret.

“Have you learned there were matters that Mr. Weisselberg kept you in the dark about?” he asked Mr. McConney, when he got a chance to question him again. Mr. McConney said he had.

Mr. Trump’s lawyers also repeatedly sought to put distance between the former president and the actions described during testimony. Mr. Bove got Mr. McConney, for example, to say that he never discussed the accounting software with Mr. Trump.

And while questioning Ms. Tarasoff, another of Mr. Trump’s lawyers noted that she didn’t receive direct permission from Mr. Trump to draft the checks he signed, but rather from Mr. McConney, who had been her boss.

Month after month, Mr. Cohen submitted his invoices and was paid. But one month, the payment seemed slow to arrive, and he followed up with Mr. McConney.

“I’ll check the status tomorrow,” Mr. McConney replied. “DJT needs to sign check.”

Kate Christobek and Wesley Parnell contributed reporting.

Ben Protess is an investigative reporter at The Times, writing about public corruption. He has been covering the various criminal investigations into former President Trump and his allies. More about Ben Protess

Jonah E. Bromwich covers criminal justice in New York, with a focus on the Manhattan district attorney’s office and state criminal courts in Manhattan. More about Jonah E. Bromwich

Alan Feuer covers extremism and political violence for The Times, focusing on the criminal cases involving the Jan. 6 attack on the Capitol and against former President Donald J. Trump.  More about Alan Feuer

William K. Rashbaum is a Times reporter covering municipal and political corruption, the courts and broader law enforcement topics in New York. More about William K. Rashbaum

Our Coverage of the Trump Hush-Money Trial

News and Analysis

Michael Cohen was paid to fix Donald Trump’s problems. Now, as he prepares to take the stand in Trump’s criminal trial, he’s one of them .

Ahead of Cohen’s testimony, Justice Juan Merchan told prosecutors to keep Cohen from speaking about the case .

Witnesses have described Trump monitoring the minutiae of his business , a portrait prosecutors are drawing to help convince the jury that he couldn’t have helped but oversee the hush-money payment.

More on Trump’s Legal Troubles

Key Inquiries: Trump faces several investigations  at both the state and the federal levels, into matters related to his business and political careers.

Case Tracker:  Keep track of the developments in the criminal cases  involving the former president.

What if Trump Is Convicted?: Could he go to prison ? And will any of the proceedings hinder Trump’s presidential campaign? Here is what we know , and what we don’t know .

Trump on Trial Newsletter: Sign up here  to get the latest news and analysis  on the cases in New York, Florida, Georgia and Washington, D.C.