expository method of problem solving

Expository Teaching: Ausubel Theory of Learning

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

Ausubel’s Ideas

• Expository teaching involves directly presenting information, concepts, ideas, and principles to students through explanation, demonstration, etc.
• It is an efficient way to transmit large bodies of knowledge across many subject areas. Students would not have time to rediscover everything independently.
• Expository teaching is not inherently authoritarian, as some critics claim. Students are not obliged to accept presented ideas on faith, but can be encouraged to examine them critically and tentatively.
• Expository teaching can be meaningful, not just rote learning, if students actively try to incorporate and integrate new material within their prior knowledge. Meaning emerges when ideas relate nonarbitrarily to cognitive structure.
• Effective expository teaching requires clear communication, organization of ideas, integration with previous lessons, and assessment focused on higher-order meaning, not just factual recall.
• While discovery techniques like problem-solving have a place, good expository teaching is still central to understanding established knowledge across disciplines.

Expository Method of Teaching

Expository Teaching (sometimes called Reception Learning) has been particularly influential in the contemporary British classroom.

• According to the expository method of teaching, the learner is an active agent who engages with and interprets information and incorporates it into existing cognitive schemata .
• In this context, the role of the teacher is not just to present new information but to do so in a meaningful way – taking account of the learner’s prior experience.
• New knowledge should always be subsumed under (related to, integrated with) previously familiar concepts, a hierarchical way of organizing knowledge in mind, general ideas followed by more complex ones, general ideas form advance organizer, which is a general/subsuming framework for understanding new concepts.

Like Piaget , Ausubel was interested in the process through which new information is incorporated into existing schemata. At the basis of his theory is the statement that “the most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already knows.”

This implies that existing knowledge is as important as anything new, as it is in these structures in which new learning will be incorporated (or, using Ausubel’s terminology, subsumed ).

According to Ausubel, schemata are hierarchical representations (or stores) of knowledge – with general concepts at the top and increasingly specific sub-concepts forming a tree beneath. In primary school, for instance, we are taught general concepts of numbers; the notions of order, amount, and difference.

Later, we add (or subsume) the ability to perform basic operations of addition and subtraction, then multiplication and division. Beyond this, we can further develop our “mathematical” hierarchy within more complex calculations such as squares and then elaborate procedures like quadratic equations.

According to Ausubel, subsumption (or learning) can only occur where similarities and links are found between past concepts and new ones.

He adds, however, that it is equally important that students are able to discern the differences between new concepts and previous ones (disassociative subsumption) – as this makes storage and recall far more likely.

He argues that, often, forgetting occurs because these differences are not made explicit (he calls this zero dissociability), and learners are unable to properly integrate new information into their schema.

Initially, Ausubel’s theory can seem a bit jargon-heavy; however, it has been extremely influential in contemporary teaching – and most students are unknowingly familiar with its practical implications.

Most notably, Ausubel advocates the use of Advance Organisers , statements given before any formally taught input that signal the new learning that will occur in the session, embedding it in previous knowledge.

Ausubel argues that these advance organizers should be established formally at the beginning of the session, recapping prior learning (i.e., establishing similarities) and distinguishing how new content will move students onward (outlining differences). He also maintains that they should remain on display throughout the lesson, where they will provide a constant guide on how new material should be subsumed into existing schemata.

Ausubel, therefore, places a great deal of emphasis on the role of the teacher – who should carefully structure knowledge in such a way as to establish and consolidate the formation of schemata in their students.

It is important to note – however – that he is not advocating rote learning; as the student remains central to the educative process as an active agent; if expository teaching is sucessful, then reception learning will occur, and the student will more readily be able to learn new information.

Ausubel, D. P. (1964). Some psychological and educational limitations of learning by discovery . The arithmetic teacher, 11 (5), 290-302.

Ausubel, D. P. (1961). Learning by discovery: Rationale and mystique . The Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, 45 (269), 18-58.

Ausubel, D. P. (1977). The facilitation of meaningful verbal learning in the classroom. Educational psychologist, 12 (2), 162-178.

Ausubel, D. P., Novak, J. D., & Hanesian, H. (1968). Educational psychology: A cognitive view (Vol. 6). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

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Expository Method of Teaching: Steps, Importance, Examples

The expository method of teaching, also known as the transmission approach, can be defined as follows:

Expository Method of Teaching:

• The teacher primarily imparts information to students in a concise manner.
• The approach allows for effective coverage of content within a limited timeframe.
• It is characterized by teacher-centered instruction.
• It aims to establish connections between concepts for better comprehension.
• The method is associated with the work of David P. Ausubel .

Table of Contents

Meaning: “Expository” means to set forth or explain.

Derived From: The term “expository” is derived from the Latin word “expositus,” which means “to set forth” or “to explain.”

expository ⟶ “expositus” ⟶ “to set forth” or “to explain”

Expository Method of Teaching = Transmitting Information + Establishing Connections + Teacher-Centered Instruction

Meaning of Expository Method of Teaching:

The expository method of teaching involves transmitting information to students in a teacher-centered approach while also establishing connections between concepts.

Clear and Connected Learning: An Understanding of the Expository Method of Teaching

The expository method of teaching is more than just presenting facts; it aims to establish connections between concepts, making it easier for students to grasp new information. By providing a comprehensive overview of the subject matter, this method helps students stay focused and avoid confusion.

Key Elements of Expository Method of Teaching

Teacher-centered approach:.

The teacher takes the lead in delivering instruction, providing expertise and guidance to students.

Structured and organized delivery: Information is presented in a logical and systematic manner, ensuring a clear flow of concepts.

Clear learning objectives:

The teacher outlines the goals and expectations for the lesson, setting a clear direction for students.

Direct instruction and explanation: Concepts are explained directly by the teacher, providing clarity and reducing ambiguity.

Use of visual aids and examples:

Visuals and real-life examples enhance understanding, making the content more relatable and engaging.

Encouraging student participation:

Students actively engage through questions and discussions, fostering a collaborative learning environment.

Exposition Teaching Strategies: Enhancing Understanding

Exposition teaching employs several strategies to enhance comprehension and promote effective learning. These strategies include:

Clear presentation of subject matter rules:

The teacher presents students with rules and provides examples that illustrate those rules. This includes pictorial relationships, historical context, application of rules, and prerequisite information, enhancing students’ understanding from various perspectives.

Teacher’s role in presenting content:

 In expository teaching, the teacher presents the entire content in its final form, reducing the need for independent discoveries by students. The teacher often starts with definitions, principles, or concepts and then elaborates on them, ensuring a deductive teaching approach.

Structure and transitions in lessons:

Expository instruction maintains a specific order in presenting information, ensuring students can easily follow the lesson. The use of transitions and a storyline helps guide students through the content, aiding comprehension and retention.

Summary and review:

Expository lessons typically conclude with a summary, providing a quick review of the most important facts to remember.

Two Ways of Delivering Instruction: Direct and Indirect Approaches

Direct Delivery of Instruction (Telling/Traditional/Didactic Mode):

Knowledge is directly transmitted by the teacher or through textbooks. This approach is effective for teaching skills such as reading, writing, mathematics, grammar, computer literacy, and factual parts of science and history. The teacher serves as the main source of information in a teacher-centered environment.

Indirect Delivery of Instruction (Showing and Providing Access to Information and Experiences with Active Engagement and Learning):

This approach involves showing and providing students with access to information and experiences, fostering active engagement and learning. It encourages students to explore and discover knowledge independently.

Exposition Teaching within Direct Teaching: Two Phases of Interaction

Exposition teaching within direct teaching involves two phases:

• Dissemination of information: The teacher presents information, either directly or through written material, in a structured manner.
• Checking for comprehension: The teacher assesses student understanding through questions to ensure comprehension and provide necessary feedback.

Benefits of Expository Method of Teaching

Interaction in exposition teaching offers several benefits:

• Encourages student engagement and participation, creating an interactive learning experience.
• Allows for feedback and clarification, promoting deeper understanding of the content.
• Encourages active learning and gives students the chance to use their knowledge and abilities in practical settings.
• Helps kids think critically and solve problems by having them interact with the subject.
• Fosters a sense of ownership and responsibility for learning, as students take an active role in their educational journey.

Importance of Expository Method of Teaching

Due to its numerous advantages and contributions to student learning, the expository approach of teaching is extremely important in learning. The explanatory approach is highly regarded for the following main reasons:

Encourages Active Participation and Engagement:

The expository approach of instruction is renowned for its capacity to foster active participation and student engagement. This approach improves students’ recall and knowledge of the subject matter by fostering an interactive learning environment.

Facilitates Clarification and Feedback:

The chance for instant response and clarification is one of the main benefits of interaction in expository teaching. Students can ask questions to help them grasp things better or seek clarification on them. This timely criticism corrects misunderstandings and guarantees thorough knowledge of the subject.

Feedback and clarification are possible:

Expository education involves interaction, which enables prompt feedback and explanation. To better grasp concepts, students might ask questions or request clarification. This prompt feedback assures accurate understanding of the subject matter and assists in addressing misconceptions.

Develops Problem-Solving and Critical Thinking Skills:

Students are forced to think critically and analyse information through contact with the subject matter. They gain the ability to use their knowledge in real-world situations, find solutions to issues, and integrate ideas from many disciplines. Critical thinking and problem-solving abilities are developed as a result, which are beneficial in both academic and practical contexts.

Develops a Sense of Ownership and Responsibility for Learning:

The expository method empowers students by giving them an active role in their educational journey. Pupils gain a sense of ownership and responsibility for their learning by participating in interactive conversations & activities. They become more accountable for their academic progress and are motivated to take initiative in acquiring knowledge.

Enhances Comprehension and Application:

The interactive nature of expository teaching facilitates deeper comprehension of the subject matter. Pupils can apply their knowledge and abilities to real-world issues through conversations,exchanges, interactions, talks, meetings, debates, and hands-on activities ,hands on tasks. This practical application enhances their understanding and ability to transfer learned concepts to different contexts.

Promotes Teamwork and Communication Skills:

Expository Method of Teaching frequently involves interaction between students through group projects. Students gain the ability to collaborate well, share ideas, and articulate their opinions. These abilities are necessary for productive teamwork, clear communication, and upcoming career endeavours.

Encourages individualised learning:

In a group context, the expository method enables individualised learning experiences. Teachers can determine students’ specific strengths, weaknesses, and learning requirements through interaction. In order to fulfil the various needs of pupils, they are able to offer individualised guidance, support, and customised instruction.

Confidence and self-efficacy are increased:

Students’ confidence and self-efficacy are boosted through interaction and active engagement in expository teaching. As they interact with the content, express their ideas, opinions, and viewpoints, receive feedback, and communicate with one other, students gain confidence in their abilities and competencies. Their general academic performance and drive to learn are positively impacted by this confidence.

Improves Knowledge Retention and Transferring:

Expository instruction’s interactive format improves information transmission + retention. Students improve their retention of the material they have learnt and their capacity to recall and apply it in various circumstances through active involvement and practical application. Meaningful learning experiences and long-term retention are encouraged by this.

Supports Social and Emotional Development:

Interaction in expository teaching nurtures social and emotional development. Students learn to collaborate, respect diverse perspectives, and engage in constructive dialogue. This promotes empathy, tolerance, and positive social relationships among peers, contributing to their holistic development.

In summary, the expository method of teaching is highly valuable due to its ability to promote active engagement, encourage critical thinking, develop a sense of ownership, and enhance comprehension and application of knowledge. By fostering interaction and collaboration, this method contributes to students’ overall academic success and prepares them for lifelong learning.

Expository Method of Teaching Sequence: Guiding Students to Mastery

The expository method of teaching sequence consists of several important steps:

Daily Review and Checking the Previous Day’s Work:

This establishes a connection between lessons and reinforces previously learned knowledge, helping students see new information as an extension of what they have already mastered.

Presenting and Structuring:

The content is organized into small, manageable parts, focusing on one idea at a time to ensure mastery before moving on. Techniques such as stating lesson goals, providing step-by-step directions, and offering numerous examples are used to facilitate understanding.

Guided Student Practice:

Students are given opportunities to practice the desired behavior in a supportive environment. Teachers provide guidance, correct errors, and use prompting techniques (verbal, gestural, or physical) to help students formulate correct responses.

Feedback and Correctives:

Effective feedback strategies are employed to handle right and wrong answers. Key facts or rules are reviewed, solution steps are explained, and clues or hints are provided to guide students towards the correct answer. Incorrect responses are not left uncorrected or undetected.

Independent Practice:

Students are given the opportunity to practice independently, consolidating their understanding and developing automatic responses. This phase allows them to apply what they have learned and reinforces their ability to use the acquired knowledge simultaneously.

Weekly and Monthly Reviews:

These reviews ensure comprehensive coverage of task-relevant information, identify areas that may require reteaching, strengthen correct but hesitant responses, and gradually increase the coverage and depth of the reviews, building momentum in the learning process.

Examples of Expository Method of Teaching with Real-Life Examples:

Science: unveiling the wonders of the water cycle.

In science class, the expository method comes alive when teaching the water cycle. By employing a visual presentation enriched with interactive simulations, students are transported into the fascinating world of rain, evaporation, & condensation. Real-life examples, such as observing raindrops dancing on a windowpane or witnessing the transformation of a puddle into a cloud, reinforce the concepts and make them relatable.

History: Journeying Through Time with Exposition

History comes alive through the expository approach, guiding students on a captivating journey through historical events. A meticulously crafted timeline takes center stage, accompanied by clear explanations that unravel the stories behind significant moments. Visual aids like historical maps, photographs, & primary sources transport students to different eras, fostering a deeper understanding of the past. Engaging discussions and debates among students ignite a passion for uncovering the historical context and the profound impact of key events.

Mathematics: Unlocking the Magic of Problem-Solving

In the realm of mathematics, the expository method serves as a key to unlock the magic of problem-solving. Students are led through the complexities of mathematical puzzles step by step. With clear explanations and illustrative examples, mathematical concepts come to life. Visual representations, such as diagrams, charts, and number lines, illuminate the path to understanding. Manipulatives, like colorful counters and geometric shapes, provide a tangible way for students to grasp abstract concepts. Technology-based tools, including interactive math software & online tutorials, offer an immersive and self-paced learning experience.

Language Arts: Nurturing Grammar and Language Mastery

Within the domain of language arts, the expository method nurtures grammar and language mastery. Clear explanations take center stage, unraveling the rules and intricacies of grammar. Through illustrative examples that showcase proper grammar usage, students embark on a journey of discovery. Engaging exercises and lively discussions provide opportunities for students to actively participate, applying their newfound knowledge and honing their language skills.

Environmental Science: Exploring the Wonders of Ecosystems

Environmental science comes alive through the expository method, captivating students with the wonders of ecosystems. Visual diagrams unfold before their eyes, revealing the intricate web of life. Real-life examples showcase diverse ecosystems, from lush rainforests to delicate coral reefs. Students gain an understanding of the relationships between creatures and their habitats through concise explanations, developing a sense of accountability and respect for the natural world.

These captivating examples illustrate how the expository method of teaching breathes life into various subjects, empowering students to grasp complex concepts, make meaningful connections, and engage in active learning. By using visual aids, real-life examples, and interactive experiences, educators can ignite a passion for knowledge and create a dynamic learning environment that sparks curiosity and nurtures understanding.

Advantages of the Expository Method of Teaching

The expository method of teaching offers several advantages for both educators and students:

Clarity and Focus:

By presenting all necessary information in a clear and organized manner, expository instruction helps students stay focused on the topic at hand, reducing distractions and confusion.

Contextual Elaboration:

The use of examples and real-life illustrations gives students a better understanding of the subject matter from different perspectives, making it more relatable and interesting.

Clear Presentation:

Expository teaching involves presenting subject matter rules and providing illustrative examples, enhancing students’ comprehension and retention of key concepts.

The structured nature of expository lessons helps students easily follow the flow of information from one concept to the next, promoting a systematic understanding of the content.

Efficient and Effective Content Delivery:

Students receive all the necessary information directly from the teacher, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter.

Strong Foundation of Knowledge:

The expository method establishes a solid base for further learning by providing students with a clear overview and understanding of fundamental concepts.

Development of Critical Thinking:

Through the expository approach, students acquire problem-solving skills as they engage with the content, analyze information, and make connections between different concepts.

Understanding Complex Concepts:

Expository teaching simplifies challenging ideas by breaking them down into manageable parts and providing clear explanations. This approach enables students to grasp complex concepts more easily and build a strong foundation of knowledge.

Suitable for Large Group Instruction:

The expository method is well-suited for large group settings, allowing teachers to efficiently deliver information to a large number of students simultaneously. This makes it practical for classroom environments with diverse learners.

Support for Note-Taking and Retention:

The structured and organized nature of expository teaching facilitates note-taking, as students can easily follow the flow of information. This promotes better retention and recall of key concepts and details.

Disadvantages of Expository Method of Teaching:

While the expository Method of Teaching  has several benefits, it is vital to be aware of its drawbacks & possible objections:

Potential for Passive Learning:

 In an expository approach, students may have limited engagement and participation, as the focus is primarily on the teacher delivering information. Efforts should be made to encourage active student involvement through discussions, questions, and interactive activities.

Lack of Individualized Instruction:

Personalized learning may be limited in the expository method, as the instruction is typically delivered to the whole class. Teachers should strive to incorporate differentiated strategies and provide additional support to meet the diverse needs of students.

Limited Student Creativity and Exploration:

Opportunities for independent discovery and exploration may be reduced in an expository teaching environment, as the emphasis is on transmitting information. Teachers or educators should find ways to foster creativity & encourage students (pupils) to apply their knowledge in innovative ways.

Overreliance on Teacher Expertise:

The expository method relies heavily on the teacher’s knowledge plus expertise. This may hinder the development of self-directed learning skills in students. Teachers should gradually transition to more student-centered approaches that promote independent thinking & problem-solving.

Strategies for Effective Expository Method of Teaching:

To ensure the effectiveness of expository teaching, educators can employ the following strategies:

Planning and Organizing the Lesson:

Prepare a well-structured and engaging lesson plan that outlines clear learning objectives, instructional strategies, and assessment methods. This helps create a cohesive and focused learning experience.

Engaging Students through Interactive Activities:

Incorporate hands-on activities, discussions, and group work to promote active engagement and participation. Encourage students to exercise critical thought, pose inquiries, and use their knowledge in everyday situations.

Using Multimedia and Technology Resources:

To improve the presentation of information, use digital tools, multimedia resources, and visual aids. This can make the content more engaging, interactive, and accessible to diverse learners.

Monitoring Student Understanding:

Continuously assess student comprehension and adjust instruction accordingly. Use formative assessments, class discussions, and individual feedback to identify areas of difficulty and provide necessary support and clarification.

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FAQs: People Also Ask?

Expository teaching, also known as the transmission approach, is a method where the teacher imparts information to students in a concise manner. An example would be a teacher presenting the water cycle using interactive simulations and diagrams.

The exploratory method of teaching is a Teachered-centered approach that focuses on students exploring and discovering knowledge independently. It encourages active engagement and learning through firsthand experiences.

Advantages of expository teaching include clarity and focus, contextual elaboration through examples, structured presentation of content, efficient content delivery, development of critical thinking, & understanding complex concepts.

Another name for the expository method is the transmission approach.

Four examples of expository teaching include explaining the water cycle in science, presenting a timeline of historical events in history, demonstrating step-by-step problem-solving in mathematics, and providing clear rules and examples in language arts.

Three expository examples are explaining the concept of photosynthesis in biology, discussing the causes and effects of the Industrial Revolution in history, and teaching the process of long division in mathematics.

Expository method refers to a teaching approach where the teacher presents information directly to students in a structured and organized manner, focusing on clarity and comprehension.

The exploratory method emphasizes student exploration and discovery, while the explanatory method focuses on the teacher delivering information to students.

Expository teaching is used to effectively deliver information to students in a concise and organized manner, promoting clarity, understanding, and retention of the subject matter.

The purpose of expository teaching is to provide a comprehensive overview of the subject matter, establish connections between concepts, and facilitate students’ understanding and learning.

Expository teaching is important as it helps students stay focused, avoid confusion, and develop critical thinking skills. It also lays a strong foundation of knowledge and promotes systematic understanding of complex concepts.

The difference between expository and exploratory lies in the approach to teaching. Expository is teacher-centered, with the teacher delivering information, while exploratory is student-centered, with students exploring and discovering knowledge independently.

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Understand What is Expository Learning: A Guided Tour

Table of Contents

Expository learning is a powerful educational approach that focuses on providing factual information to enhance learning and critical thinking skills. Unlike other learning styles that aim to entertain or persuade, expository learning aims to educate and inform readers. It is commonly found in scholarly articles, textbooks, news reports, and instructional guides.

Expository writing presents information in a logical and objective manner, without bias or attempts to change the reader’s perspective. While it prioritizes the delivery of facts, it can still be engaging by using techniques borrowed from narrative and descriptive writing to make the information more vivid.

There are different types of expository writing, including compare and contrast, definition, classification, problem and solution, and process. Each type serves a specific purpose in presenting information effectively.

When writing expository pieces, it is important to work through the entire writing process, be creative within the constraints of presenting facts, fact-check all information, and present the facts in an engaging style. This ensures that readers can easily understand and benefit from the information being presented.

Educators can help students struggling with expository writing by employing a text feature walk, which is a guided process that helps students understand and learn from challenging texts. The text feature walk involves identifying the main points of the text, creating questions to aid comprehension, and providing prompts for students to answer the questions.

Key Takeaways:

• Expository learning focuses on providing factual information to enhance learning and critical thinking skills.
• It is commonly found in scholarly articles, textbooks, news reports, and instructional guides.
• Expository writing presents information objectively and logically, without bias or attempts to change the reader’s perspective.
• Different types of expository writing include compare and contrast, definition, classification, problem and solution, and process.
• When writing expository pieces, it is important to work through the entire writing process, fact-check all information, and present the facts in an engaging style.
• Educators can help students struggling with expository writing through a text feature walk.

Exploring Expository Learning: Definition and Characteristics

Expository learning, also known as direct instruction or explicit teaching, is an educational approach that emphasizes the delivery of clear and structured information to students. It is a method that focuses on providing factual knowledge and understanding, rather than just entertaining or persuading. With expository learning, educators strive to present information in a logical and objective manner, without bias or attempts to change the reader’s perspective.

When engaging in expository writing, it is crucial to work through the entire writing process, ensuring that facts are fact-checked and presented in an engaging style. Different types of expository writing methods, including compare and contrast, definition, classification, problem and solution, and process, can be used to effectively communicate information to readers.

To help students struggling with expository texts, educators can employ a text feature walk, which is a guided process that aids comprehension of challenging texts. By identifying the main points, generating questions, and providing prompts for students to answer, the text feature walk facilitates understanding and learning from the material.

Expository Learning Strategies

Effective expository learning strategies can play a vital role in enhancing student engagement and knowledge acquisition. Some key strategies include:

• Clear organization: Breaking down complex topics into smaller, manageable units helps students grasp the information more easily.
• Visual aids: Incorporating visual elements such as diagrams, charts, and infographics can enhance understanding and retention.
• Active participation: Encouraging students to actively participate in discussions, group activities, and hands-on experiences fosters deeper learning.

By implementing these strategies and creating a supportive learning environment, educators can maximize the benefits of expository learning and promote student success.

Expository Learning: A Powerful Educational Tool

Expository learning is a powerful educational tool that equips students with essential knowledge and critical thinking skills. Through the delivery of clear and structured information, students are better prepared to comprehend and analyze complex subjects. It provides a foundation for deeper learning and encourages students to explore further on their own.

To learn more about expository learning and its impact on education, visit Exquisitive Education , a leading online resource dedicated to providing valuable insights and resources for educators.

The Mechanics of Expository Learning

Expository learning works by providing students with explanations, demonstrations, or lectures that deliver information in a teacher-centered manner. Unlike other learning styles that focus on student-centered approaches, expository learning relies on the expertise of the teacher to impart knowledge and guide students through the learning process. This method of instruction is commonly used in classroom settings to present new concepts, facts, and theories.

During expository learning, teachers utilize varied techniques to engage students and enhance their understanding of the subject matter. These techniques may include the use of visual aids, such as charts, diagrams, and multimedia presentations, to help students visualize complex ideas. Additionally, teachers may employ questioning techniques to encourage critical thinking and stimulate discussion among students.

Expository Learning Techniques

• Direct instruction: The teacher directly presents information to students, providing clear explanations and examples.
• Explicit teaching: The teacher uses explicit and structured instruction to ensure students grasp the content.
• Guided practice: Students are given the opportunity to apply the learned information under the guidance of the teacher.

By utilizing these techniques, expository learning aims to provide students with a solid foundation of knowledge and promote active engagement in the learning process. This allows students to acquire new information, develop critical thinking skills, and make connections between different concepts and ideas.

Benefits of Expository Learning

Expository learning offers several benefits, including improved retention of information, enhanced analytical skills, and a deeper understanding of concepts. By presenting factual information in a clear and structured manner, expository learning helps students retain knowledge for longer periods of time. This is because when information is presented in a logical sequence, it becomes easier for the brain to process and store. Additionally, the emphasis on providing evidence and supporting details in expository writing helps students develop critical thinking and analytical skills. They learn to evaluate and interpret information, draw connections between ideas, and make informed judgments.

Furthermore, expository learning promotes a deeper understanding of concepts. By focusing on factual explanations and providing concrete examples, students are able to grasp complex ideas more effectively. They can see the practical applications and real-life relevance of the concepts they are learning, which enhances their engagement and motivation. Expository learning also encourages active participation and interaction, as students are encouraged to ask questions, seek clarification, and engage in discussions to deepen their understanding.

Research Supporting Expository Learning

Research has consistently shown the effectiveness of expository learning in improving student outcomes. Studies have found that students who engage in expository learning demonstrate higher levels of knowledge acquisition and comprehension compared to those taught through other methods. For example, a study conducted by Smith and Johnson (2018) found that students who received instruction through expository learning strategies showed a 25% increase in test scores compared to students using traditional teaching methods. Another study by Jones et al. (2019) revealed that expository learning enhanced critical thinking skills and problem-solving abilities among high school students.

In conclusion, expository learning offers numerous benefits for students, including improved retention of information, enhanced analytical skills, and a deeper understanding of concepts. The research consistently supports the effectiveness of expository learning strategies in improving student outcomes. By incorporating expository learning into educational settings, educators can provide students with a solid foundation of knowledge and equip them with the skills necessary for success in academia and beyond.

Expository Learning vs. Inquiry-Based Learning

Expository learning and inquiry-based learning are two distinct approaches in education, each with its own merits and limitations. Expository learning, also known as direct instruction or explicit teaching, focuses on providing students with structured and organized information. It follows a teacher-centered approach, where the instructor plays a central role in delivering content, explaining concepts, and guiding students through the learning process.

In contrast, inquiry-based learning places the emphasis on students’ active participation and exploration. It encourages students to ask questions, investigate topics, and solve problems independently or in collaboration with peers. This approach promotes critical thinking, problem-solving skills, and self-directed learning.

Comparison of Expository Learning and Inquiry-Based Learning

To better understand the differences between expository learning and inquiry-based learning, let’s examine their key characteristics:

While expository learning provides a structured foundation for knowledge acquisition, inquiry-based learning encourages students to explore and construct their understanding. Both approaches have their place in education, and educators can utilize a combination of both to create a well-rounded learning experience for students.

To learn more about educational approaches and strategies, visit Exquisitive Education .

Incorporating Expository Learning in Education

As an educator, you have the opportunity to enhance your teaching practices by incorporating expository learning strategies into your classroom. By utilizing clear explanations, structured presentations, and guided activities, you can create an engaging and effective learning environment for your students.

One effective strategy is to provide clear explanations of the subject matter. Break down complex concepts into easily understandable chunks, using simple language and examples that resonate with your students. This helps them grasp the information more readily and retain it for longer periods of time.

Structured presentations are another key element of expository learning. Organize your lessons in a logical sequence, presenting information in a step-by-step manner. Use visuals, such as diagrams or charts, to make the content more visually appealing and comprehensible. This approach encourages students to follow along and understand the progression of ideas.

Guided activities can further enhance the efficacy of expository learning. Incorporate interactive tasks that allow students to apply their knowledge and engage in hands-on learning experiences. This could include group discussions, problem-solving exercises, or practical assignments. By actively participating in their own learning process, students are more likely to internalize the information and develop critical thinking skills.

By incorporating expository learning strategies into your teaching practices, you can create an enriching educational experience for your students. Encourage active engagement, foster critical thinking, and promote knowledge retention. Embrace the power of expository learning and witness the positive impact it can have on your students’ academic achievements.

The Role of Expository Learning in Student Achievement

Research has shown that expository learning plays a crucial role in improving student achievement and fostering a deeper understanding of subject matter. This educational approach focuses on presenting factual information in a clear and organized manner, allowing learners to build knowledge and develop critical thinking skills. By providing students with direct instruction and explicit teaching, expository learning helps them grasp complex concepts and apply them effectively.

Expository learning in education emphasizes the importance of providing students with structured and well-defined content. This approach enables learners to acquire a solid foundation of knowledge and develop analytical reasoning abilities. By following a logical sequence of information, students can better understand the subject matter and make connections between different concepts.

One effective way to implement expository learning is through the use of instructional materials and resources that promote active engagement. For example, educators can utilize multimedia presentations, interactive exercises, and visual aids to enhance student learning experiences. These tools help students visualize concepts, reinforce understanding, and make learning more enjoyable and memorable.

Overall, incorporating expository learning into educational practices can have significant benefits for student achievement. By providing students with structured and factual information, educators can empower them to become independent learners and critical thinkers. Through the use of effective techniques and approaches, expository learning creates a solid educational foundation that prepares students for future academic success.

Enhancing Expository Learning: Effective Techniques and Approaches

To enhance expository learning, educators can utilize a variety of techniques and approaches that promote active participation and student engagement. These strategies help students develop a deeper understanding of the subject matter and enhance their critical thinking skills. One effective technique is the use of multimedia resources, such as videos, animations, and interactive presentations.

By incorporating visuals and interactive elements, educators can make the learning experience more engaging and visually appealing. This approach allows students to grasp complex concepts more easily and retain information more effectively. For example, a biology teacher may use an interactive 3D model of a cell to help students visualize its structure and functions.

Another effective approach is the use of collaborative learning activities. By organizing group discussions, debates, and problem-solving tasks, educators encourage students to actively participate in the learning process. Collaborative activities promote peer learning and foster the development of communication and teamwork skills. Through these activities, students can exchange ideas, debate different perspectives, and collectively solve problems.

Example: Collaborative Learning Activity

Furthermore, incorporating technology into the learning environment can greatly enhance expository learning. Educators can use various digital tools, such as educational apps, online quizzes, and virtual simulations, to provide interactive and immersive learning experiences. These digital resources make learning more accessible and adaptable to different learning styles, enabling students to explore concepts at their own pace and engage with the content in a meaningful way.

In conclusion, by implementing effective techniques and approaches, educators can enhance expository learning and create a dynamic and engaging educational experience. Through the use of multimedia resources, collaborative learning activities, and technology, students can develop a deeper understanding of the subject matter, enhance their critical thinking skills, and become active participants in their own learning journey.

Expository Learning in Practice: Real-World Examples

Expository learning can be applied to various subjects and grade levels, promoting deep understanding and knowledge retention in students. By utilizing this approach, educators can empower students to actively engage with and internalize factual information. Let’s explore some real-world examples of how expository learning is implemented in educational settings.

In science classes, expository learning is often used to teach complex scientific concepts. For example, students may study the water cycle through a combination of text-based information, interactive diagrams, and hands-on experiments. By presenting the facts in a clear and structured manner, students can grasp the interconnected processes and develop a solid foundation of knowledge in the subject.

In history lessons, expository learning helps students gain a comprehensive understanding of significant events and their impact. Educators can use primary and secondary sources, such as historical documents, photographs, and videos, to present factual information. By analyzing these sources, students can make connections, draw conclusions, and develop critical thinking skills.

Mathematics:

Expository learning is crucial in mathematics education, where students learn various concepts, formulas, and problem-solving techniques. Through step-by-step explanations, visual aids, and practice exercises, students can grasp mathematical principles and apply them in real-world scenarios. This approach fosters a deep understanding of mathematical concepts and promotes long-term knowledge retention.

Expository learning techniques enable students to gain a deeper understanding of subject matter, develop critical thinking skills, and retain knowledge in a meaningful way. By incorporating these techniques into various subjects and grade levels, educators can cultivate a love for learning and empower students to become lifelong learners.

For more information on how expository learning can enhance education, visit Exquisitive Education .

Expository learning, often referred to as direct instruction or explicit teaching, offers a proven approach to education that enhances learning outcomes and critical thinking skills. By providing students with factual information in a logical and objective manner, expository learning helps them develop a solid educational foundation. This type of learning goes beyond entertainment or persuasion and focuses on educating and informing students.

Incorporating expository learning in educational settings has numerous benefits. It enhances knowledge acquisition, improves critical thinking and problem-solving skills, and fosters a deeper understanding of subject matter content. Research supports the effectiveness of expository learning in promoting student achievement. It equips students with the necessary skills to analyze and evaluate information, enabling them to make informed decisions and engage in reasoned arguments.

When implementing expository learning, educators can employ a variety of effective techniques and approaches. Utilizing technology, multimedia resources, and interactive activities can facilitate engagement and enhance the learning experience. By incorporating real-world examples, educators can bridge the gap between theory and practice, showcasing the relevance of expository learning in various subjects and grade levels.

As educators strive to provide quality education, expository learning offers a sound pedagogical approach. By presenting factual information in a clear and structured manner, students can develop a deep understanding of the subject matter. Expository learning serves as a solid foundation upon which students can build their knowledge and skills, preparing them for future academic and professional success.

Discover more about the benefits and implementation of expository learning by visiting ExquisitiveEducation.com . Here, you will find a wealth of resources, strategies, and techniques to enhance your teaching practices and promote student success.

Q: What is expository learning?

A: Expository learning is a type of learning that focuses on providing factual information to educate and inform readers rather than entertaining or persuading them.

Q: Where can expository learning be found?

A: Expository learning can be found in scholarly articles, textbooks, news reports, and instructional guides.

Q: What is the goal of expository writing?

A: Expository writing aims to present information in a logical and objective manner, without bias or attempts to change the reader’s perspective.

Q: How can expository writing be engaging?

A: Expository writing can be engaging by using techniques borrowed from narrative and descriptive writing to make the facts more vivid.

Q: What are the different types of expository writing?

A: Different types of expository writing include compare and contrast, definition, classification, problem and solution, and process.

Q: What is a text feature walk?

A: A text feature walk is a guided process that helps students understand and learn from a challenging text. It involves identifying the main points, creating questions for comprehension, and providing prompts for students to answer the questions.

About The Author

Ethan Emerson

Ethan Emerson is a passionate author and dedicated advocate for the transformative power of education. With a background in teaching and a love for writing, Ethan brings a unique blend of expertise and creativity to his contributions on ExquisitiveEducation.com .His articles are a delightful mix of insightful knowledge and engaging storytelling, aiming to inspire and empower learners of all ages. Ethan's mission is to ignite the spark of curiosity and foster a love for learning in every reader.Ethan Emerson, is your companion in the realm of general education exploration. With a passion for knowledge, He delves into the intricate world of Education Expenses & Discounts , uncovering financial insights for your educational journey. From the vitality of Physical Education to the synergy of Education & Technology , Ethan's here to bridge the gap between traditional and innovative learning methods. Discover the art of crafting impressive Resume & Personal Documentation in Education , as well as insights into diverse Career Paths, Degrees & Educational Requirements . Join Ethan in navigating through a sea of Educational Courses & Classes , exploring the nuances of various Education Systems , and understanding the empowering realm of Special Education . With an eye on Teaching & Teachers , He offers a glimpse into the world of educators who shape minds. Let's unlock Studying Tips & Learning Methods that turn education into a delightful journey of growth with Exquisitive Education .

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This chapter excerpt describes the basic elements of three forms of teacher-centered instruction: direct instruction, expository teaching, and mastery learning. Each of these is an important pedagogical tool. Video mini-lectures are included.

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• Published: 11 January 2023

The effectiveness of collaborative problem solving in promoting students’ critical thinking: A meta-analysis based on empirical literature

• Enwei Xu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6424-8169 1 ,
• Wei Wang 1 &
• Qingxia Wang 1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  10 , Article number:  16 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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Collaborative problem-solving has been widely embraced in the classroom instruction of critical thinking, which is regarded as the core of curriculum reform based on key competencies in the field of education as well as a key competence for learners in the 21st century. However, the effectiveness of collaborative problem-solving in promoting students’ critical thinking remains uncertain. This current research presents the major findings of a meta-analysis of 36 pieces of the literature revealed in worldwide educational periodicals during the 21st century to identify the effectiveness of collaborative problem-solving in promoting students’ critical thinking and to determine, based on evidence, whether and to what extent collaborative problem solving can result in a rise or decrease in critical thinking. The findings show that (1) collaborative problem solving is an effective teaching approach to foster students’ critical thinking, with a significant overall effect size (ES = 0.82, z  = 12.78, P  < 0.01, 95% CI [0.69, 0.95]); (2) in respect to the dimensions of critical thinking, collaborative problem solving can significantly and successfully enhance students’ attitudinal tendencies (ES = 1.17, z  = 7.62, P  < 0.01, 95% CI[0.87, 1.47]); nevertheless, it falls short in terms of improving students’ cognitive skills, having only an upper-middle impact (ES = 0.70, z  = 11.55, P  < 0.01, 95% CI[0.58, 0.82]); and (3) the teaching type (chi 2  = 7.20, P  < 0.05), intervention duration (chi 2  = 12.18, P  < 0.01), subject area (chi 2  = 13.36, P  < 0.05), group size (chi 2  = 8.77, P  < 0.05), and learning scaffold (chi 2  = 9.03, P  < 0.01) all have an impact on critical thinking, and they can be viewed as important moderating factors that affect how critical thinking develops. On the basis of these results, recommendations are made for further study and instruction to better support students’ critical thinking in the context of collaborative problem-solving.

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Introduction.

Although critical thinking has a long history in research, the concept of critical thinking, which is regarded as an essential competence for learners in the 21st century, has recently attracted more attention from researchers and teaching practitioners (National Research Council, 2012 ). Critical thinking should be the core of curriculum reform based on key competencies in the field of education (Peng and Deng, 2017 ) because students with critical thinking can not only understand the meaning of knowledge but also effectively solve practical problems in real life even after knowledge is forgotten (Kek and Huijser, 2011 ). The definition of critical thinking is not universal (Ennis, 1989 ; Castle, 2009 ; Niu et al., 2013 ). In general, the definition of critical thinking is a self-aware and self-regulated thought process (Facione, 1990 ; Niu et al., 2013 ). It refers to the cognitive skills needed to interpret, analyze, synthesize, reason, and evaluate information as well as the attitudinal tendency to apply these abilities (Halpern, 2001 ). The view that critical thinking can be taught and learned through curriculum teaching has been widely supported by many researchers (e.g., Kuncel, 2011 ; Leng and Lu, 2020 ), leading to educators’ efforts to foster it among students. In the field of teaching practice, there are three types of courses for teaching critical thinking (Ennis, 1989 ). The first is an independent curriculum in which critical thinking is taught and cultivated without involving the knowledge of specific disciplines; the second is an integrated curriculum in which critical thinking is integrated into the teaching of other disciplines as a clear teaching goal; and the third is a mixed curriculum in which critical thinking is taught in parallel to the teaching of other disciplines for mixed teaching training. Furthermore, numerous measuring tools have been developed by researchers and educators to measure critical thinking in the context of teaching practice. These include standardized measurement tools, such as WGCTA, CCTST, CCTT, and CCTDI, which have been verified by repeated experiments and are considered effective and reliable by international scholars (Facione and Facione, 1992 ). In short, descriptions of critical thinking, including its two dimensions of attitudinal tendency and cognitive skills, different types of teaching courses, and standardized measurement tools provide a complex normative framework for understanding, teaching, and evaluating critical thinking.

Cultivating critical thinking in curriculum teaching can start with a problem, and one of the most popular critical thinking instructional approaches is problem-based learning (Liu et al., 2020 ). Duch et al. ( 2001 ) noted that problem-based learning in group collaboration is progressive active learning, which can improve students’ critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Collaborative problem-solving is the organic integration of collaborative learning and problem-based learning, which takes learners as the center of the learning process and uses problems with poor structure in real-world situations as the starting point for the learning process (Liang et al., 2017 ). Students learn the knowledge needed to solve problems in a collaborative group, reach a consensus on problems in the field, and form solutions through social cooperation methods, such as dialogue, interpretation, questioning, debate, negotiation, and reflection, thus promoting the development of learners’ domain knowledge and critical thinking (Cindy, 2004 ; Liang et al., 2017 ).

Collaborative problem-solving has been widely used in the teaching practice of critical thinking, and several studies have attempted to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis of the empirical literature on critical thinking from various perspectives. However, little attention has been paid to the impact of collaborative problem-solving on critical thinking. Therefore, the best approach for developing and enhancing critical thinking throughout collaborative problem-solving is to examine how to implement critical thinking instruction; however, this issue is still unexplored, which means that many teachers are incapable of better instructing critical thinking (Leng and Lu, 2020 ; Niu et al., 2013 ). For example, Huber ( 2016 ) provided the meta-analysis findings of 71 publications on gaining critical thinking over various time frames in college with the aim of determining whether critical thinking was truly teachable. These authors found that learners significantly improve their critical thinking while in college and that critical thinking differs with factors such as teaching strategies, intervention duration, subject area, and teaching type. The usefulness of collaborative problem-solving in fostering students’ critical thinking, however, was not determined by this study, nor did it reveal whether there existed significant variations among the different elements. A meta-analysis of 31 pieces of educational literature was conducted by Liu et al. ( 2020 ) to assess the impact of problem-solving on college students’ critical thinking. These authors found that problem-solving could promote the development of critical thinking among college students and proposed establishing a reasonable group structure for problem-solving in a follow-up study to improve students’ critical thinking. Additionally, previous empirical studies have reached inconclusive and even contradictory conclusions about whether and to what extent collaborative problem-solving increases or decreases critical thinking levels. As an illustration, Yang et al. ( 2008 ) carried out an experiment on the integrated curriculum teaching of college students based on a web bulletin board with the goal of fostering participants’ critical thinking in the context of collaborative problem-solving. These authors’ research revealed that through sharing, debating, examining, and reflecting on various experiences and ideas, collaborative problem-solving can considerably enhance students’ critical thinking in real-life problem situations. In contrast, collaborative problem-solving had a positive impact on learners’ interaction and could improve learning interest and motivation but could not significantly improve students’ critical thinking when compared to traditional classroom teaching, according to research by Naber and Wyatt ( 2014 ) and Sendag and Odabasi ( 2009 ) on undergraduate and high school students, respectively.

The above studies show that there is inconsistency regarding the effectiveness of collaborative problem-solving in promoting students’ critical thinking. Therefore, it is essential to conduct a thorough and trustworthy review to detect and decide whether and to what degree collaborative problem-solving can result in a rise or decrease in critical thinking. Meta-analysis is a quantitative analysis approach that is utilized to examine quantitative data from various separate studies that are all focused on the same research topic. This approach characterizes the effectiveness of its impact by averaging the effect sizes of numerous qualitative studies in an effort to reduce the uncertainty brought on by independent research and produce more conclusive findings (Lipsey and Wilson, 2001 ).

This paper used a meta-analytic approach and carried out a meta-analysis to examine the effectiveness of collaborative problem-solving in promoting students’ critical thinking in order to make a contribution to both research and practice. The following research questions were addressed by this meta-analysis:

What is the overall effect size of collaborative problem-solving in promoting students’ critical thinking and its impact on the two dimensions of critical thinking (i.e., attitudinal tendency and cognitive skills)?

How are the disparities between the study conclusions impacted by various moderating variables if the impacts of various experimental designs in the included studies are heterogeneous?

This research followed the strict procedures (e.g., database searching, identification, screening, eligibility, merging, duplicate removal, and analysis of included studies) of Cooper’s ( 2010 ) proposed meta-analysis approach for examining quantitative data from various separate studies that are all focused on the same research topic. The relevant empirical research that appeared in worldwide educational periodicals within the 21st century was subjected to this meta-analysis using Rev-Man 5.4. The consistency of the data extracted separately by two researchers was tested using Cohen’s kappa coefficient, and a publication bias test and a heterogeneity test were run on the sample data to ascertain the quality of this meta-analysis.

Data sources and search strategies

There were three stages to the data collection process for this meta-analysis, as shown in Fig. 1 , which shows the number of articles included and eliminated during the selection process based on the statement and study eligibility criteria.

This flowchart shows the number of records identified, included and excluded in the article.

First, the databases used to systematically search for relevant articles were the journal papers of the Web of Science Core Collection and the Chinese Core source journal, as well as the Chinese Social Science Citation Index (CSSCI) source journal papers included in CNKI. These databases were selected because they are credible platforms that are sources of scholarly and peer-reviewed information with advanced search tools and contain literature relevant to the subject of our topic from reliable researchers and experts. The search string with the Boolean operator used in the Web of Science was “TS = (((“critical thinking” or “ct” and “pretest” or “posttest”) or (“critical thinking” or “ct” and “control group” or “quasi experiment” or “experiment”)) and (“collaboration” or “collaborative learning” or “CSCL”) and (“problem solving” or “problem-based learning” or “PBL”))”. The research area was “Education Educational Research”, and the search period was “January 1, 2000, to December 30, 2021”. A total of 412 papers were obtained. The search string with the Boolean operator used in the CNKI was “SU = (‘critical thinking’*‘collaboration’ + ‘critical thinking’*‘collaborative learning’ + ‘critical thinking’*‘CSCL’ + ‘critical thinking’*‘problem solving’ + ‘critical thinking’*‘problem-based learning’ + ‘critical thinking’*‘PBL’ + ‘critical thinking’*‘problem oriented’) AND FT = (‘experiment’ + ‘quasi experiment’ + ‘pretest’ + ‘posttest’ + ‘empirical study’)” (translated into Chinese when searching). A total of 56 studies were found throughout the search period of “January 2000 to December 2021”. From the databases, all duplicates and retractions were eliminated before exporting the references into Endnote, a program for managing bibliographic references. In all, 466 studies were found.

Second, the studies that matched the inclusion and exclusion criteria for the meta-analysis were chosen by two researchers after they had reviewed the abstracts and titles of the gathered articles, yielding a total of 126 studies.

Third, two researchers thoroughly reviewed each included article’s whole text in accordance with the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Meanwhile, a snowball search was performed using the references and citations of the included articles to ensure complete coverage of the articles. Ultimately, 36 articles were kept.

Two researchers worked together to carry out this entire process, and a consensus rate of almost 94.7% was reached after discussion and negotiation to clarify any emerging differences.

Eligibility criteria

Since not all the retrieved studies matched the criteria for this meta-analysis, eligibility criteria for both inclusion and exclusion were developed as follows:

The publication language of the included studies was limited to English and Chinese, and the full text could be obtained. Articles that did not meet the publication language and articles not published between 2000 and 2021 were excluded.

The research design of the included studies must be empirical and quantitative studies that can assess the effect of collaborative problem-solving on the development of critical thinking. Articles that could not identify the causal mechanisms by which collaborative problem-solving affects critical thinking, such as review articles and theoretical articles, were excluded.

The research method of the included studies must feature a randomized control experiment or a quasi-experiment, or a natural experiment, which have a higher degree of internal validity with strong experimental designs and can all plausibly provide evidence that critical thinking and collaborative problem-solving are causally related. Articles with non-experimental research methods, such as purely correlational or observational studies, were excluded.

The participants of the included studies were only students in school, including K-12 students and college students. Articles in which the participants were non-school students, such as social workers or adult learners, were excluded.

The research results of the included studies must mention definite signs that may be utilized to gauge critical thinking’s impact (e.g., sample size, mean value, or standard deviation). Articles that lacked specific measurement indicators for critical thinking and could not calculate the effect size were excluded.

Data coding design

In order to perform a meta-analysis, it is necessary to collect the most important information from the articles, codify that information’s properties, and convert descriptive data into quantitative data. Therefore, this study designed a data coding template (see Table 1 ). Ultimately, 16 coding fields were retained.

The designed data-coding template consisted of three pieces of information. Basic information about the papers was included in the descriptive information: the publishing year, author, serial number, and title of the paper.

The variable information for the experimental design had three variables: the independent variable (instruction method), the dependent variable (critical thinking), and the moderating variable (learning stage, teaching type, intervention duration, learning scaffold, group size, measuring tool, and subject area). Depending on the topic of this study, the intervention strategy, as the independent variable, was coded into collaborative and non-collaborative problem-solving. The dependent variable, critical thinking, was coded as a cognitive skill and an attitudinal tendency. And seven moderating variables were created by grouping and combining the experimental design variables discovered within the 36 studies (see Table 1 ), where learning stages were encoded as higher education, high school, middle school, and primary school or lower; teaching types were encoded as mixed courses, integrated courses, and independent courses; intervention durations were encoded as 0–1 weeks, 1–4 weeks, 4–12 weeks, and more than 12 weeks; group sizes were encoded as 2–3 persons, 4–6 persons, 7–10 persons, and more than 10 persons; learning scaffolds were encoded as teacher-supported learning scaffold, technique-supported learning scaffold, and resource-supported learning scaffold; measuring tools were encoded as standardized measurement tools (e.g., WGCTA, CCTT, CCTST, and CCTDI) and self-adapting measurement tools (e.g., modified or made by researchers); and subject areas were encoded according to the specific subjects used in the 36 included studies.

The data information contained three metrics for measuring critical thinking: sample size, average value, and standard deviation. It is vital to remember that studies with various experimental designs frequently adopt various formulas to determine the effect size. And this paper used Morris’ proposed standardized mean difference (SMD) calculation formula ( 2008 , p. 369; see Supplementary Table S3 ).

Procedure for extracting and coding data

According to the data coding template (see Table 1 ), the 36 papers’ information was retrieved by two researchers, who then entered them into Excel (see Supplementary Table S1 ). The results of each study were extracted separately in the data extraction procedure if an article contained numerous studies on critical thinking, or if a study assessed different critical thinking dimensions. For instance, Tiwari et al. ( 2010 ) used four time points, which were viewed as numerous different studies, to examine the outcomes of critical thinking, and Chen ( 2013 ) included the two outcome variables of attitudinal tendency and cognitive skills, which were regarded as two studies. After discussion and negotiation during data extraction, the two researchers’ consistency test coefficients were roughly 93.27%. Supplementary Table S2 details the key characteristics of the 36 included articles with 79 effect quantities, including descriptive information (e.g., the publishing year, author, serial number, and title of the paper), variable information (e.g., independent variables, dependent variables, and moderating variables), and data information (e.g., mean values, standard deviations, and sample size). Following that, testing for publication bias and heterogeneity was done on the sample data using the Rev-Man 5.4 software, and then the test results were used to conduct a meta-analysis.

Publication bias test

When the sample of studies included in a meta-analysis does not accurately reflect the general status of research on the relevant subject, publication bias is said to be exhibited in this research. The reliability and accuracy of the meta-analysis may be impacted by publication bias. Due to this, the meta-analysis needs to check the sample data for publication bias (Stewart et al., 2006 ). A popular method to check for publication bias is the funnel plot; and it is unlikely that there will be publishing bias when the data are equally dispersed on either side of the average effect size and targeted within the higher region. The data are equally dispersed within the higher portion of the efficient zone, consistent with the funnel plot connected with this analysis (see Fig. 2 ), indicating that publication bias is unlikely in this situation.

This funnel plot shows the result of publication bias of 79 effect quantities across 36 studies.

Heterogeneity test

To select the appropriate effect models for the meta-analysis, one might use the results of a heterogeneity test on the data effect sizes. In a meta-analysis, it is common practice to gauge the degree of data heterogeneity using the I 2 value, and I 2  ≥ 50% is typically understood to denote medium-high heterogeneity, which calls for the adoption of a random effect model; if not, a fixed effect model ought to be applied (Lipsey and Wilson, 2001 ). The findings of the heterogeneity test in this paper (see Table 2 ) revealed that I 2 was 86% and displayed significant heterogeneity ( P  < 0.01). To ensure accuracy and reliability, the overall effect size ought to be calculated utilizing the random effect model.

The analysis of the overall effect size

This meta-analysis utilized a random effect model to examine 79 effect quantities from 36 studies after eliminating heterogeneity. In accordance with Cohen’s criterion (Cohen, 1992 ), it is abundantly clear from the analysis results, which are shown in the forest plot of the overall effect (see Fig. 3 ), that the cumulative impact size of cooperative problem-solving is 0.82, which is statistically significant ( z  = 12.78, P  < 0.01, 95% CI [0.69, 0.95]), and can encourage learners to practice critical thinking.

This forest plot shows the analysis result of the overall effect size across 36 studies.

In addition, this study examined two distinct dimensions of critical thinking to better understand the precise contributions that collaborative problem-solving makes to the growth of critical thinking. The findings (see Table 3 ) indicate that collaborative problem-solving improves cognitive skills (ES = 0.70) and attitudinal tendency (ES = 1.17), with significant intergroup differences (chi 2  = 7.95, P  < 0.01). Although collaborative problem-solving improves both dimensions of critical thinking, it is essential to point out that the improvements in students’ attitudinal tendency are much more pronounced and have a significant comprehensive effect (ES = 1.17, z  = 7.62, P  < 0.01, 95% CI [0.87, 1.47]), whereas gains in learners’ cognitive skill are slightly improved and are just above average. (ES = 0.70, z  = 11.55, P  < 0.01, 95% CI [0.58, 0.82]).

The analysis of moderator effect size

The whole forest plot’s 79 effect quantities underwent a two-tailed test, which revealed significant heterogeneity ( I 2  = 86%, z  = 12.78, P  < 0.01), indicating differences between various effect sizes that may have been influenced by moderating factors other than sampling error. Therefore, exploring possible moderating factors that might produce considerable heterogeneity was done using subgroup analysis, such as the learning stage, learning scaffold, teaching type, group size, duration of the intervention, measuring tool, and the subject area included in the 36 experimental designs, in order to further explore the key factors that influence critical thinking. The findings (see Table 4 ) indicate that various moderating factors have advantageous effects on critical thinking. In this situation, the subject area (chi 2  = 13.36, P  < 0.05), group size (chi 2  = 8.77, P  < 0.05), intervention duration (chi 2  = 12.18, P  < 0.01), learning scaffold (chi 2  = 9.03, P  < 0.01), and teaching type (chi 2  = 7.20, P  < 0.05) are all significant moderators that can be applied to support the cultivation of critical thinking. However, since the learning stage and the measuring tools did not significantly differ among intergroup (chi 2  = 3.15, P  = 0.21 > 0.05, and chi 2  = 0.08, P  = 0.78 > 0.05), we are unable to explain why these two factors are crucial in supporting the cultivation of critical thinking in the context of collaborative problem-solving. These are the precise outcomes, as follows:

Various learning stages influenced critical thinking positively, without significant intergroup differences (chi 2  = 3.15, P  = 0.21 > 0.05). High school was first on the list of effect sizes (ES = 1.36, P  < 0.01), then higher education (ES = 0.78, P  < 0.01), and middle school (ES = 0.73, P  < 0.01). These results show that, despite the learning stage’s beneficial influence on cultivating learners’ critical thinking, we are unable to explain why it is essential for cultivating critical thinking in the context of collaborative problem-solving.

Different teaching types had varying degrees of positive impact on critical thinking, with significant intergroup differences (chi 2  = 7.20, P  < 0.05). The effect size was ranked as follows: mixed courses (ES = 1.34, P  < 0.01), integrated courses (ES = 0.81, P  < 0.01), and independent courses (ES = 0.27, P  < 0.01). These results indicate that the most effective approach to cultivate critical thinking utilizing collaborative problem solving is through the teaching type of mixed courses.

Various intervention durations significantly improved critical thinking, and there were significant intergroup differences (chi 2  = 12.18, P  < 0.01). The effect sizes related to this variable showed a tendency to increase with longer intervention durations. The improvement in critical thinking reached a significant level (ES = 0.85, P  < 0.01) after more than 12 weeks of training. These findings indicate that the intervention duration and critical thinking’s impact are positively correlated, with a longer intervention duration having a greater effect.

Different learning scaffolds influenced critical thinking positively, with significant intergroup differences (chi 2  = 9.03, P  < 0.01). The resource-supported learning scaffold (ES = 0.69, P  < 0.01) acquired a medium-to-higher level of impact, the technique-supported learning scaffold (ES = 0.63, P  < 0.01) also attained a medium-to-higher level of impact, and the teacher-supported learning scaffold (ES = 0.92, P  < 0.01) displayed a high level of significant impact. These results show that the learning scaffold with teacher support has the greatest impact on cultivating critical thinking.

Various group sizes influenced critical thinking positively, and the intergroup differences were statistically significant (chi 2  = 8.77, P  < 0.05). Critical thinking showed a general declining trend with increasing group size. The overall effect size of 2–3 people in this situation was the biggest (ES = 0.99, P  < 0.01), and when the group size was greater than 7 people, the improvement in critical thinking was at the lower-middle level (ES < 0.5, P  < 0.01). These results show that the impact on critical thinking is positively connected with group size, and as group size grows, so does the overall impact.

Various measuring tools influenced critical thinking positively, with significant intergroup differences (chi 2  = 0.08, P  = 0.78 > 0.05). In this situation, the self-adapting measurement tools obtained an upper-medium level of effect (ES = 0.78), whereas the complete effect size of the standardized measurement tools was the largest, achieving a significant level of effect (ES = 0.84, P  < 0.01). These results show that, despite the beneficial influence of the measuring tool on cultivating critical thinking, we are unable to explain why it is crucial in fostering the growth of critical thinking by utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving.

Different subject areas had a greater impact on critical thinking, and the intergroup differences were statistically significant (chi 2  = 13.36, P  < 0.05). Mathematics had the greatest overall impact, achieving a significant level of effect (ES = 1.68, P  < 0.01), followed by science (ES = 1.25, P  < 0.01) and medical science (ES = 0.87, P  < 0.01), both of which also achieved a significant level of effect. Programming technology was the least effective (ES = 0.39, P  < 0.01), only having a medium-low degree of effect compared to education (ES = 0.72, P  < 0.01) and other fields (such as language, art, and social sciences) (ES = 0.58, P  < 0.01). These results suggest that scientific fields (e.g., mathematics, science) may be the most effective subject areas for cultivating critical thinking utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving.

The effectiveness of collaborative problem solving with regard to teaching critical thinking

According to this meta-analysis, using collaborative problem-solving as an intervention strategy in critical thinking teaching has a considerable amount of impact on cultivating learners’ critical thinking as a whole and has a favorable promotional effect on the two dimensions of critical thinking. According to certain studies, collaborative problem solving, the most frequently used critical thinking teaching strategy in curriculum instruction can considerably enhance students’ critical thinking (e.g., Liang et al., 2017 ; Liu et al., 2020 ; Cindy, 2004 ). This meta-analysis provides convergent data support for the above research views. Thus, the findings of this meta-analysis not only effectively address the first research query regarding the overall effect of cultivating critical thinking and its impact on the two dimensions of critical thinking (i.e., attitudinal tendency and cognitive skills) utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving, but also enhance our confidence in cultivating critical thinking by using collaborative problem-solving intervention approach in the context of classroom teaching.

Furthermore, the associated improvements in attitudinal tendency are much stronger, but the corresponding improvements in cognitive skill are only marginally better. According to certain studies, cognitive skill differs from the attitudinal tendency in classroom instruction; the cultivation and development of the former as a key ability is a process of gradual accumulation, while the latter as an attitude is affected by the context of the teaching situation (e.g., a novel and exciting teaching approach, challenging and rewarding tasks) (Halpern, 2001 ; Wei and Hong, 2022 ). Collaborative problem-solving as a teaching approach is exciting and interesting, as well as rewarding and challenging; because it takes the learners as the focus and examines problems with poor structure in real situations, and it can inspire students to fully realize their potential for problem-solving, which will significantly improve their attitudinal tendency toward solving problems (Liu et al., 2020 ). Similar to how collaborative problem-solving influences attitudinal tendency, attitudinal tendency impacts cognitive skill when attempting to solve a problem (Liu et al., 2020 ; Zhang et al., 2022 ), and stronger attitudinal tendencies are associated with improved learning achievement and cognitive ability in students (Sison, 2008 ; Zhang et al., 2022 ). It can be seen that the two specific dimensions of critical thinking as well as critical thinking as a whole are affected by collaborative problem-solving, and this study illuminates the nuanced links between cognitive skills and attitudinal tendencies with regard to these two dimensions of critical thinking. To fully develop students’ capacity for critical thinking, future empirical research should pay closer attention to cognitive skills.

The moderating effects of collaborative problem solving with regard to teaching critical thinking

In order to further explore the key factors that influence critical thinking, exploring possible moderating effects that might produce considerable heterogeneity was done using subgroup analysis. The findings show that the moderating factors, such as the teaching type, learning stage, group size, learning scaffold, duration of the intervention, measuring tool, and the subject area included in the 36 experimental designs, could all support the cultivation of collaborative problem-solving in critical thinking. Among them, the effect size differences between the learning stage and measuring tool are not significant, which does not explain why these two factors are crucial in supporting the cultivation of critical thinking utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving.

In terms of the learning stage, various learning stages influenced critical thinking positively without significant intergroup differences, indicating that we are unable to explain why it is crucial in fostering the growth of critical thinking.

Although high education accounts for 70.89% of all empirical studies performed by researchers, high school may be the appropriate learning stage to foster students’ critical thinking by utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving since it has the largest overall effect size. This phenomenon may be related to student’s cognitive development, which needs to be further studied in follow-up research.

With regard to teaching type, mixed course teaching may be the best teaching method to cultivate students’ critical thinking. Relevant studies have shown that in the actual teaching process if students are trained in thinking methods alone, the methods they learn are isolated and divorced from subject knowledge, which is not conducive to their transfer of thinking methods; therefore, if students’ thinking is trained only in subject teaching without systematic method training, it is challenging to apply to real-world circumstances (Ruggiero, 2012 ; Hu and Liu, 2015 ). Teaching critical thinking as mixed course teaching in parallel to other subject teachings can achieve the best effect on learners’ critical thinking, and explicit critical thinking instruction is more effective than less explicit critical thinking instruction (Bensley and Spero, 2014 ).

In terms of the intervention duration, with longer intervention times, the overall effect size shows an upward tendency. Thus, the intervention duration and critical thinking’s impact are positively correlated. Critical thinking, as a key competency for students in the 21st century, is difficult to get a meaningful improvement in a brief intervention duration. Instead, it could be developed over a lengthy period of time through consistent teaching and the progressive accumulation of knowledge (Halpern, 2001 ; Hu and Liu, 2015 ). Therefore, future empirical studies ought to take these restrictions into account throughout a longer period of critical thinking instruction.

With regard to group size, a group size of 2–3 persons has the highest effect size, and the comprehensive effect size decreases with increasing group size in general. This outcome is in line with some research findings; as an example, a group composed of two to four members is most appropriate for collaborative learning (Schellens and Valcke, 2006 ). However, the meta-analysis results also indicate that once the group size exceeds 7 people, small groups cannot produce better interaction and performance than large groups. This may be because the learning scaffolds of technique support, resource support, and teacher support improve the frequency and effectiveness of interaction among group members, and a collaborative group with more members may increase the diversity of views, which is helpful to cultivate critical thinking utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving.

With regard to the learning scaffold, the three different kinds of learning scaffolds can all enhance critical thinking. Among them, the teacher-supported learning scaffold has the largest overall effect size, demonstrating the interdependence of effective learning scaffolds and collaborative problem-solving. This outcome is in line with some research findings; as an example, a successful strategy is to encourage learners to collaborate, come up with solutions, and develop critical thinking skills by using learning scaffolds (Reiser, 2004 ; Xu et al., 2022 ); learning scaffolds can lower task complexity and unpleasant feelings while also enticing students to engage in learning activities (Wood et al., 2006 ); learning scaffolds are designed to assist students in using learning approaches more successfully to adapt the collaborative problem-solving process, and the teacher-supported learning scaffolds have the greatest influence on critical thinking in this process because they are more targeted, informative, and timely (Xu et al., 2022 ).

With respect to the measuring tool, despite the fact that standardized measurement tools (such as the WGCTA, CCTT, and CCTST) have been acknowledged as trustworthy and effective by worldwide experts, only 54.43% of the research included in this meta-analysis adopted them for assessment, and the results indicated no intergroup differences. These results suggest that not all teaching circumstances are appropriate for measuring critical thinking using standardized measurement tools. “The measuring tools for measuring thinking ability have limits in assessing learners in educational situations and should be adapted appropriately to accurately assess the changes in learners’ critical thinking.”, according to Simpson and Courtney ( 2002 , p. 91). As a result, in order to more fully and precisely gauge how learners’ critical thinking has evolved, we must properly modify standardized measuring tools based on collaborative problem-solving learning contexts.

With regard to the subject area, the comprehensive effect size of science departments (e.g., mathematics, science, medical science) is larger than that of language arts and social sciences. Some recent international education reforms have noted that critical thinking is a basic part of scientific literacy. Students with scientific literacy can prove the rationality of their judgment according to accurate evidence and reasonable standards when they face challenges or poorly structured problems (Kyndt et al., 2013 ), which makes critical thinking crucial for developing scientific understanding and applying this understanding to practical problem solving for problems related to science, technology, and society (Yore et al., 2007 ).

Suggestions for critical thinking teaching

Other than those stated in the discussion above, the following suggestions are offered for critical thinking instruction utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving.

First, teachers should put a special emphasis on the two core elements, which are collaboration and problem-solving, to design real problems based on collaborative situations. This meta-analysis provides evidence to support the view that collaborative problem-solving has a strong synergistic effect on promoting students’ critical thinking. Asking questions about real situations and allowing learners to take part in critical discussions on real problems during class instruction are key ways to teach critical thinking rather than simply reading speculative articles without practice (Mulnix, 2012 ). Furthermore, the improvement of students’ critical thinking is realized through cognitive conflict with other learners in the problem situation (Yang et al., 2008 ). Consequently, it is essential for teachers to put a special emphasis on the two core elements, which are collaboration and problem-solving, and design real problems and encourage students to discuss, negotiate, and argue based on collaborative problem-solving situations.

Second, teachers should design and implement mixed courses to cultivate learners’ critical thinking, utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving. Critical thinking can be taught through curriculum instruction (Kuncel, 2011 ; Leng and Lu, 2020 ), with the goal of cultivating learners’ critical thinking for flexible transfer and application in real problem-solving situations. This meta-analysis shows that mixed course teaching has a highly substantial impact on the cultivation and promotion of learners’ critical thinking. Therefore, teachers should design and implement mixed course teaching with real collaborative problem-solving situations in combination with the knowledge content of specific disciplines in conventional teaching, teach methods and strategies of critical thinking based on poorly structured problems to help students master critical thinking, and provide practical activities in which students can interact with each other to develop knowledge construction and critical thinking utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving.

Third, teachers should be more trained in critical thinking, particularly preservice teachers, and they also should be conscious of the ways in which teachers’ support for learning scaffolds can promote critical thinking. The learning scaffold supported by teachers had the greatest impact on learners’ critical thinking, in addition to being more directive, targeted, and timely (Wood et al., 2006 ). Critical thinking can only be effectively taught when teachers recognize the significance of critical thinking for students’ growth and use the proper approaches while designing instructional activities (Forawi, 2016 ). Therefore, with the intention of enabling teachers to create learning scaffolds to cultivate learners’ critical thinking utilizing the approach of collaborative problem solving, it is essential to concentrate on the teacher-supported learning scaffolds and enhance the instruction for teaching critical thinking to teachers, especially preservice teachers.

Implications and limitations

There are certain limitations in this meta-analysis, but future research can correct them. First, the search languages were restricted to English and Chinese, so it is possible that pertinent studies that were written in other languages were overlooked, resulting in an inadequate number of articles for review. Second, these data provided by the included studies are partially missing, such as whether teachers were trained in the theory and practice of critical thinking, the average age and gender of learners, and the differences in critical thinking among learners of various ages and genders. Third, as is typical for review articles, more studies were released while this meta-analysis was being done; therefore, it had a time limit. With the development of relevant research, future studies focusing on these issues are highly relevant and needed.

Conclusions

The subject of the magnitude of collaborative problem-solving’s impact on fostering students’ critical thinking, which received scant attention from other studies, was successfully addressed by this study. The question of the effectiveness of collaborative problem-solving in promoting students’ critical thinking was addressed in this study, which addressed a topic that had gotten little attention in earlier research. The following conclusions can be made:

Regarding the results obtained, collaborative problem solving is an effective teaching approach to foster learners’ critical thinking, with a significant overall effect size (ES = 0.82, z  = 12.78, P  < 0.01, 95% CI [0.69, 0.95]). With respect to the dimensions of critical thinking, collaborative problem-solving can significantly and effectively improve students’ attitudinal tendency, and the comprehensive effect is significant (ES = 1.17, z  = 7.62, P  < 0.01, 95% CI [0.87, 1.47]); nevertheless, it falls short in terms of improving students’ cognitive skills, having only an upper-middle impact (ES = 0.70, z  = 11.55, P  < 0.01, 95% CI [0.58, 0.82]).

As demonstrated by both the results and the discussion, there are varying degrees of beneficial effects on students’ critical thinking from all seven moderating factors, which were found across 36 studies. In this context, the teaching type (chi 2  = 7.20, P  < 0.05), intervention duration (chi 2  = 12.18, P  < 0.01), subject area (chi 2  = 13.36, P  < 0.05), group size (chi 2  = 8.77, P  < 0.05), and learning scaffold (chi 2  = 9.03, P  < 0.01) all have a positive impact on critical thinking, and they can be viewed as important moderating factors that affect how critical thinking develops. Since the learning stage (chi 2  = 3.15, P  = 0.21 > 0.05) and measuring tools (chi 2  = 0.08, P  = 0.78 > 0.05) did not demonstrate any significant intergroup differences, we are unable to explain why these two factors are crucial in supporting the cultivation of critical thinking in the context of collaborative problem-solving.

Data availability

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included within the article and its supplementary information files, and the supplementary information files are available in the Dataverse repository: https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/IPFJO6 .

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Acknowledgements

This research was supported by the graduate scientific research and innovation project of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region named “Research on in-depth learning of high school information technology courses for the cultivation of computing thinking” (No. XJ2022G190) and the independent innovation fund project for doctoral students of the College of Educational Science of Xinjiang Normal University named “Research on project-based teaching of high school information technology courses from the perspective of discipline core literacy” (No. XJNUJKYA2003).

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Xu, E., Wang, W. & Wang, Q. The effectiveness of collaborative problem solving in promoting students’ critical thinking: A meta-analysis based on empirical literature. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 10 , 16 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-01508-1

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Case-based learning ; Discovery learning model ; Problem-based learning ; Simulation-based learning

Guided discovery learning is based upon the discovery learning model, which also forms the basis of problem-based learning, simulation-based learning, and case-based learning, terms which are similar in origin but not identical to guided discovery learning.

The word “discover” comes from the Late Latin word discooperire , to discover, reveal, defined as to be the first to find out, see or know about, find out, learn of the existence of, or realize. Guided discovery learning combines pointing the way to understanding or problem-solving by a guide with the discovery of facts, relationships, and solutions by students themselves, as they explore, manipulate objects, discuss, or perform experiments, drawing upon their own experience and existing knowledge. Guided discovery learning combines didactic instruction presented by a teacher, lecturer, or author with a more student-...

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Department of Pharmacology & Physiology, and of Neurology (ret.), The George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, 2300 Eye Street, N.W., Washington, DC, 20037, USA

Dr. Robert A. Lavine ( Clinical Psychologist, Associate Professor )

Reston Psychological Center, Reston, 20190, VA, USA

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Correspondence to Robert A. Lavine .

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Faculty of Economics and Behavioral Sciences, Department of Education, University of Freiburg, 79085, Freiburg, Germany

Norbert M. Seel

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Lavine, R.A. (2012). Guided Discovery Learning. In: Seel, N.M. (eds) Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_526

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Effects of problem-solving, guided-discovery and expository teaching strategies on students' performance in redox reactions.

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