features of language in writing

The Essential List of Language Features You Should Know for English

In any of your English subjects, there are always so many language features that are important to learn!

Understanding how a text is constructed will unlock key points for analysis and discussion, boosting your English marks. Even better — understanding language features can enrich your skills in other subjects too. You might find yourself analysing primary and secondary sources in history better, or delving deeper into a scientific report. 

Whatever it is, understanding language features is a great skill to have.  If you want to know more, you’re totally in the right place — keep reading for a comprehensive list! Our HSC English tutors can help you identify the perfect language features for your essay, so get in touch if you’re looking for guidance! 

Persuasive Devices Language Techniques Modality Grammatical and Story Structures

Download our list of English Language Features here!

Persuasive Devices 

A persuasive device is a type of language feature that expresses and supports an opinion, making it stand out. The following are some specific techniques.

Looking for tips on writing a persuasive text? Check out our guide here!

A situation or statement where two opposing things are presented, often to create favour for one or highlight their differences.  Example: In Despicable Me, Gru’s house is black and angular, contrasted with the more rounded and lightly coloured houses of the neighbours. 

Like contrast, analogies are not always a persuasive device, but they can be used powerfully as one. The device contrasts two ideas to create an otherwise unstated relationship between them. It’s often used to prove an already established argument.  Example: In Luka Lesson’s poetry, he compares a sword and spoken word, implying the power of language. 

Language Techniques

This means a subtle reference to an event, person, text, place, you name it that readers may infer. Allusions are often made in passing, but reveal deeper meaning in the text.  Example: In Sylvia Plath’s ‘Daddy’, Plath uses allusions to Hitler to emphasise the foul character of her father. 

Often in texts, the ending of a story or line is left for the reader to determine. This is particularly common in postmodern texts.  Authors who use ambiguity do not explicitly state what has happened to a character or plot. They may offer some clue for the reader to decipher, or they may keep it completely open-ended.  This encourages readers to think critically and engage more deeply with the text.  Example: At the end of Inception (Christopher Nolan), we do not know whether the main character is in reality or dreaming. This is shown through a camera cut just as audiences feel they are about to find out. 

A technique that you probably know, but don’t realise it! Assonance is like alliteration but emphasises vowel sounds being repeated. This is often at the start of words, but it can include repetition of vowels within words, too.  Example: “See ya later skater” repeats the ‘e’ and ‘a’ vowels, in this case creating a rhyming sequence. “‘Zooper Dooper’ (every Aussie kid’s favourite ice block) repeats the ‘o’.

Connotation

Some words or phrases evoke certain feelings for a reader. This can be because of how they sound or feel, historical context or pop culture.  Example: ‘Beautiful’ and ‘cute’, while both describing how something is visually appealing, have different connotations. ‘Beautiful’ creates a sense of grace, elegance and maturity, while ‘cute’ is typically associated with youth and innocence.

Lost or confused already? Let us help you with a tailored approach to your studies with English Tutoring across Sydney.

Diction refers to the author’s choice and use of words in a literary work. It includes the specific words chosen, their connotations, and the style in which they are used. Diction can have a powerful effect on the tone and meaning of a piece of writing. For example, the word “frustrated” has a different connotation than the word “angry.” A writer may choose one over the other based on the desired effect on the reader. Additionally, the style of diction can be formal or informal, and can help convey the tone of the writing. Example: From George Orwell’s “1984” : “The hallway smelt of boiled cabbage and old rag mats. At one end of it a coloured poster, too large for indoor display, had been tacked to the wall. It depicted simply an enormous face, more than a metre wide: the face of a man of about forty-five, with a heavy black moustache and ruggedly handsome features.” In this passage, Orwell’s diction is clear and descriptive, with words like “boiled,” “old,” and “coloured” creating a specific and vivid image of the hallway. The choice of words “enormous face,” “ruggedly handsome features” and “heavy black moustache” gives the reader a clear image of the poster, and its size and characteristics. The use of specific and descriptive words can help the reader create a more detailed mental image of the setting, characters, and objects within the narrative.

When a mild or “polite” expression is used instead of a vulgar or blunt term, it is a euphemism.  Example: We often say “passed away” instead of referring to death directly. 

Figurative Language

A little like connotation or euphemism, figurative language is a type of language feature used when certain words have meanings behind what is really being said. You can think of this like an extended metaphor. This type of language is particularly common in poetry. Example: “A handsome manor house grew out of darkness at the end of the straight drive.” (JK Rowling, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows)

The deliberate exaggeration of a topic for emphasis or humour. Often, hyperbole is used in already emotional situations to gain greater reaction.  Example: “I was so exhausted that I slept for ten days.”

Language that creates a mental picture of the topic it talks about, often to enhance the mood behind a text.  Example: “The leaves created a blanket on the ground, with all kinds of red and gold hues to match my boots.”

When language is used to express somebody’s meaning or situation, that generally means the opposite. Irony is often a tip-of-the-tongue kind of humour that points out awkward or funny situations.  Example: Saying “isn’t this great weather?” right before storm hits.

Often, two things are compared to one another by describing one thing as being ‘like’ the other. This can create contrast or offer more power to a concept.  Usually similes are phrased with the words ‘like’ or ‘as’. Example: “He roared like a lion.”

Juxtaposition 

When two things that are generally very opposite are placed next to each other, creating a stark contrast.  Example: A brand new building standing next to an old, historical one. 

Stating that something ‘is’ another thing to draw comparison or deeper understanding to a text. Often, figurative meanings can give the reader a greater appreciation of what is written.  Some metaphors appear continually throughout a text and help to shape the narrative arc. These are known as extended metaphors. Example: “She had once been a great fortress, keeping secrets closely hidden.

Onomatopoeia

A word that sounds exactly like what it represents, allowing the reader to ‘hear’ the text.  Example: Pop, snap, simmer, bubble, slop.

An oxymoron is a type of language feature where two words or concepts that contradict each other are used to create a complex idea, while maintaining some sense.  Example: “The dinner was awfully good.”

Personification

Personification is a literary device that involves giving human qualities, attributes, or emotions to non-human things or inanimate objects. The purpose of personification is to make the object or thing more relatable or understandable to the reader, by imbuing it with human-like qualities. Personification is often used in poetry, prose, and other forms of creative writing to create a vivid and engaging image or scene. Example: In the sentence “The wind whispered through the trees,” the wind is given a human-like quality of being able to whisper. This makes it easier for the reader to imagine and empathise with the wind.

Repetition is a literary device in which a word or phrase is repeated in a text to create emphasis, create a specific rhythm, or reinforce a specific idea or theme. It is a common technique used in poetry and prose, and can be used in various ways to achieve different effects. Example: Consider the following passage from Martin Luther King Jr.’s famous “I Have a Dream” speech: “I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: ‘We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal.'” In this passage, the phrase “I have a dream” is repeated several times to create a powerful and memorable rhythm. The repetition of this phrase emphasises King’s central message of hope and optimism and draws the listener’s attention to the idea of a better future. Additionally, the repetition of the phrase “We hold these truths to be self-evident” emphasises the importance of these words and their connection to the American Creed of freedom and equality.

Rhetorical Question

A question that has a very obvious answer, which the author does not expect to receive. Often rhetorical questions are used to make the audience think deeply about a topic. They can also provide humour and sarcasm. Example: “Did you know that thousands of plastic bags wash up on beaches each year?”

Sibilance sort of sounds like what it is! This technique is like alliteration, but when all ‘s’ sounds are used. It can add an air of mystery or danger to a character, or it can be soft and flowing.  Example: When the snake talks in The Jungle King movie, she often uses several  ‘s’ words in a row to highlight her hissing and sound more dangerous. 

Sound Devices 

This is a blanket term for techniques often used within a text to focus on the sounds words produce and how they relate to each other. This can be important for rhyming schemes and tempo.  You’ll find many examples of this in poetry or songs.  Example: Rhythm, rhyme, resonance, etc.

The strength or force of a word, with low modality words being passive while high modality words are forceful.

Characters giving speeches or rallying crowds would use high modality words, as they raise the intensity and strength of the language and scene.

Exclamation

This is one form of showing modality within a text. Exclamation marks generally suggest high modality, or shock, excitement and anger. This can express the tone of dialogue being written.  Example: “This is the best day of my life!” elicits a response of elation. 

Tone and Mood

Like the atmosphere, tone or mood is about creating certain feelings within a text. This time, it focusses more on the emotions the author has towards very specific subjects, rather than the scene as a whole.  Example: The enemy? His sense of duty was no less that yours, I deem. You wonder what his name was, where he came from. And if he was really evil at heart. […] War will make corpses of us all.” (J. R. R. Tolkien, Lord of the Rings) This dialogue expresses a mood of distaste for war and that it only leads to death, reflecting Tolkien’s own views. Learn more about emotive language here!

Syntax is all about specific sentence structure and how the construction of words into a sentence creates meaning. This is a huge topic (in fact, people do entire degrees on it). In a simple sense, syntax affects the readability and tone of a certain text. Short sentences create urgency, while compound sentences can create a more passive flow.  Example: “I could hear him behind me. Just one step off. I ran. I ran.”

Grammatical and Story Structures

This type of language feature is used when a story or narrative has two meanings that are presented. One is overt, or obvious. The other may be metaphoric and hidden. Often, this second meaning forms commentary around social or political aspects of the narrative.  Example: Narnia is often viewed as an allegory for the Bible, with Aslan as a symbol of Jesus. This creates religious understanding that runs alongside the main plot. 

Putting two sentences, people or situations that are entirely different next to each other or in immediate succession.  This technique can increase tension, help audiences weigh up different scenarios or allow characters to balance one another out.  Example: “If you fail to plan, you plan to fail.”

Archetypes are incredibly important in shaping stories. These characters or objects have recognisable tropes, often progressed across different texts by various authors.  This technique can add an element of predictability or certainty to a piece, but it can also be subverted to create great plot twists.  Example: Cady in Mean Girls and Mia in The Princess Diaries fit the archetype of a nerdy girl who is transformed. 

Atmosphere, or mood, is vital in creating a compelling story. It refers to the feeling created by a scene, situation or text. It’s often driven by careful word choice. You might think of it a little like mise en scène in a movie, but in written form.  Example: “It was a cruel day, the bright orange blaze ripped through the treetops as I stood and watched it ravage homes, helpless.”

Characterisation

Characters are first introduced in a certain light, then formed through the arc of the story, often by their own actions or the actions of those around them.  You know the characterisation of a person is strong if you can imagine how they would react in a situation they are not already in.  Example: Sybil in Downton Abbey is characterised as being forthright and rebellious. Through her relationships, her empathetic side is drawn out. 

Overused expressions that create instant meaning. Sometimes cliches can be annoying, but when used effectively, they create humour and momentum.  Example: “He ran like the wind.”

The time, place and social setting in which a text was written or set. Often, this determines the values and perspectives within a certain text.  It’s important to understand three kinds of contexts within text. First, we have literary (what was being written and created at the time of writing), historical (what was going on in the border world when the text was written), and personal (who the author was and what they had experienced). On top of this, there’s also the internal context of where the text is set, which may be different from the context of when it was written.  Example: Picasso’s painting ‘Guernica’ was informed by the context of pre-WW2 Europe, so Picasso used blue and red in the work to symbolise anti-war sentiment. 

A flashback is a literary device in which the narrative of a story shifts to a previous time period or event. Flashbacks are often used to provide additional context or backstory for a character, setting, or plot, and can be used to reveal important information or character development. Example: Consider the following passage from F. Scott Fitzgerald’s “The Great Gatsby”: “He smiled understandingly-much more than understandingly. It was one of those rare smiles with a quality of eternal reassurance in it, that you may come across four or five times in life. It faced–or seemed to face–the whole external world for an instant, and then concentrated on you with an irresistible prejudice in your favor. It understood you just so far as you wanted to be understood, believed in you as you would like to believe in yourself, and assured you that it had precisely the impression of you that, at your best, you hoped to convey.” In this passage, the narrator describes a smile that he had seen in the past. The description of the smile is a flashback, as it shifts the narrative to a previous time period. The purpose of the flashback is to provide context for the relationship between the narrator and the person who smiled, and to suggest that the relationship was a significant and memorable one.

Linear and Non-linear Narrative 

Narratives in this context are about how a text is structured to create meaning.  Linear narratives follow the same time sequence as our usual days — always moving forward, in sequential order. A non-linear narrative jumps around in time to draw the audience’s attention to different elements.  You will notice that it’s quite rare for a novel or movie to be purely linear, as some non-linear elements break up pacing.  Example: The Age of Adeline is a film that follows a non-linear narrative.

Frame Narrative

Sometimes, texts present a ‘story within a story’, where the main narrative is being told by someone outside of the narrative itself. This can add suspense of an extra layer of context. Example: In Little Women, Jo tells the story through her book by the same name.

Intertextuality 

When a text references another text, it’s known as intertextuality. This can be very overt, or it can be an allusion designed only for those who know both texts to pick up on it.  Example: Ten Things I Hate About You is based on and makes references to Shakespeare’s The Taming Of The Shrew.

Foreshadowing

When a situation is hinted at before it actually occurs. This is usually done by drawing audience attention to a particular subject or item that drops hints.  Example: In Juno, the main character by the same name starts displaying pregnancy symptoms before she actually takes a test.

The location that a narrative is placed in, like an internal context. This often affects the arc of the story.  Example: Abandoned castles and stormy moors are classic settings used in Gothic texts, while teen dramas are typically set in high schools and suburban towns.

The structure of a text that comes from the text type, broader context and stylistic choices of the author. This may include the way language is structured or different sentence choices.  Example: Divergent and The Hunger Games are both survival young adult novels, yet the authors’ choices and context of writing create differing themes. 

An object or subject that symbolises a much larger element of the story. Hero characters often have a symbol attached as a way to enhance meaning and importance.  Example: Superman is symbolised by his cape, Katniss by a Mockingjay, etc.

Sometimes elements are intentionally left out of a text by the author. This is called omission, and it leaves a level of ambiguity for audiences to ‘fill in the blank’. Sometimes, an ending scenario can be implied but this is not always the case.  Example: At the end of the book, The Great Gatsby , the audience isn’t told explicitly what happens to each character, but they are given enough information to infer an ending. 

Like so many language features, parallels create a contrast between two characters or plot points, allowing links to be formed between them. This is often seen if two plots run next to each other, or two characters with similar features but differing stories are introduced.  Example: In the film, Fantastic Mr Fox, Ash follows his father and lives a younger version of his life. However, he makes different decisions that reveal Mr Fox’s mistakes to himself. 

Pathetic Fallacy  

When you give a non-human object feelings or senses, you are using pathetic fallacy. This is most commonly associated with weather.  Example: “The wind was angry as it ran through the trees.”

Point of View

Point of view refers to the perspective from which a story or narrative is told. It is the way that the author chooses to present the events of a story to the reader. There are three main points of view: first-person, second-person, and third-person. First-person point of view is when the story is told from the perspective of a character within the story, using “I” or “we”. For example, in F. Scott Fitzgerald’s “The Great Gatsby,” the narrator is Nick Carraway, who tells the story from his own perspective. He says, “In my younger and more vulnerable years my father gave me some advice that I’ve been turning over in my mind ever since.” The reader experiences the events of the story through Nick’s eyes, and only knows what he knows. Second-person point of view is less common in literature and is when the story is told directly to the reader, using “you.” An example of second-person point of view is Jay McInerney’s “Bright Lights, Big City,” in which the author speaks directly to the protagonist, saying, “You are not the kind of guy who would be at a place like this at this time of the morning.” Third-person point of view is when the story is told by a narrator outside of the story, using “he,” “she,” or “they.” The narrator may be omniscient (knowing everything about the characters and their thoughts), limited omniscient (knowing some, but not all, of the characters’ thoughts and feelings), or objective (reporting only the facts). An example of third-person point of view is Harper Lee’s “To Kill a Mockingbird,” in which the story is told by an omniscient narrator who is not a character in the story. The narrator says, “Maycomb was a tired old town, even in 1932 when I first knew it.” The choice of point of view can greatly impact the way a story is received by the reader, and different points of view can create different effects and meanings in a story.

In literature, a theme is a central idea or message that the author wants to convey to the reader. Themes can be expressed in various ways, such as through the characters, setting, plot, or symbolism of a work. A theme is often universal and can be applied to the human experience in general, rather than specific to a particular story or character. Example: In William Shakespeare’s play “Romeo and Juliet”, one of the main themes is the destructive power of hatred and the consequences of feuding. Throughout the play, the hatred between the Capulet and Montague families drives the actions of the characters, ultimately leading to the tragic deaths of Romeo and Juliet. The theme of hatred and feuding is expressed through the actions of the characters, such as the street brawls, the harsh words exchanged between the families, and the way the characters treat each other. The theme is also reflected in the setting, which is a city torn apart by conflict and violence.

Dramatic Irony 

When a story is structured to provide the audience with an ‘inside scoop’ that characters do not know about. This is often shown through different phrasing to create tension.  Example: In Hamlet , revolving scenes allow the audience to see who is plotting to kill, without it being given away to characters. This creates suspense and betrayals of trust.  

There you have it!

Now you have a complete guide to English language features, it’s time to put them into practice! Refer back to this list as you keep progressing in your studies. 

On the hunt for other English resources, aside from language features?

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• Band 6 Guide to Year 11 Advanced English Module B: Critical Study of Literature
• Your Kickass Guide to Analysing Visual Texts for HSC English

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Lucinda Garbutt-Young  hopes to one day be writing for a big-shot newspaper… or maybe just for a friendly magazine in the arts sector. Right now, she is enjoying studying a Bachelor of Public Communication (Public Relations and Journalism) at UTS while she writes on the side. She also loves making coffees for people in her job as a barista, and loves nothing more than a sun shower.

• Topics: ✏️ English , ✍️ Learn

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Speaking, writing and reading are integral to everyday life, where language is the primary tool for expression and communication. Studying how people use language – what words and phrases they unconsciously choose and combine – can help us better understand ourselves and why we behave the way we do.

Linguistics scholars seek to determine what is unique and universal about the language we use, how it is acquired and the ways it changes over time. They consider language as a cultural, social and psychological phenomenon.

“Understanding why and how languages differ tells about the range of what is human,” said Dan Jurafsky , the Jackson Eli Reynolds Professor in Humanities and chair of the Department of Linguistics in the School of Humanities and Sciences at Stanford . “Discovering what’s universal about languages can help us understand the core of our humanity.”

The stories below represent some of the ways linguists have investigated many aspects of language, including its semantics and syntax, phonetics and phonology, and its social, psychological and computational aspects.

Understanding stereotypes

Stanford linguists and psychologists study how language is interpreted by people. Even the slightest differences in language use can correspond with biased beliefs of the speakers, according to research.

One study showed that a relatively harmless sentence, such as “girls are as good as boys at math,” can subtly perpetuate sexist stereotypes. Because of the statement’s grammatical structure, it implies that being good at math is more common or natural for boys than girls, the researchers said.

Language can play a big role in how we and others perceive the world, and linguists work to discover what words and phrases can influence us, unknowingly.

How well-meaning statements can spread stereotypes unintentionally

New Stanford research shows that sentences that frame one gender as the standard for the other can unintentionally perpetuate biases.

Algorithms reveal changes in stereotypes

New Stanford research shows that, over the past century, linguistic changes in gender and ethnic stereotypes correlated with major social movements and demographic changes in the U.S. Census data.

Exploring what an interruption is in conversation

Stanford doctoral candidate Katherine Hilton found that people perceive interruptions in conversation differently, and those perceptions differ depending on the listener’s own conversational style as well as gender.

Cops speak less respectfully to black community members

Professors Jennifer Eberhardt and Dan Jurafsky, along with other Stanford researchers, detected racial disparities in police officers’ speech after analyzing more than 100 hours of body camera footage from Oakland Police.

How other languages inform our own

People speak roughly 7,000 languages worldwide. Although there is a lot in common among languages, each one is unique, both in its structure and in the way it reflects the culture of the people who speak it.

Jurafsky said it’s important to study languages other than our own and how they develop over time because it can help scholars understand what lies at the foundation of humans’ unique way of communicating with one another.

“All this research can help us discover what it means to be human,” Jurafsky said.

Stanford PhD student documents indigenous language of Papua New Guinea

Fifth-year PhD student Kate Lindsey recently returned to the United States after a year of documenting an obscure language indigenous to the South Pacific nation.

Students explore Esperanto across Europe

In a research project spanning eight countries, two Stanford students search for Esperanto, a constructed language, against the backdrop of European populism.

Chris Manning: How computers are learning to understand language​

A computer scientist discusses the evolution of computational linguistics and where it’s headed next.

Stanford research explores novel perspectives on the evolution of Spanish

Using digital tools and literature to explore the evolution of the Spanish language, Stanford researcher Cuauhtémoc García-García reveals a new historical perspective on linguistic changes in Latin America and Spain.

Language as a lens into behavior

Linguists analyze how certain speech patterns correspond to particular behaviors, including how language can impact people’s buying decisions or influence their social media use.

For example, in one research paper, a group of Stanford researchers examined the differences in how Republicans and Democrats express themselves online to better understand how a polarization of beliefs can occur on social media.

“We live in a very polarized time,” Jurafsky said. “Understanding what different groups of people say and why is the first step in determining how we can help bring people together.”

Analyzing the tweets of Republicans and Democrats

New research by Dora Demszky and colleagues examined how Republicans and Democrats express themselves online in an attempt to understand how polarization of beliefs occurs on social media.

Examining bilingual behavior of children at Texas preschool

A Stanford senior studied a group of bilingual children at a Spanish immersion preschool in Texas to understand how they distinguished between their two languages.

Predicting sales of online products from advertising language

Stanford linguist Dan Jurafsky and colleagues have found that products in Japan sell better if their advertising includes polite language and words that invoke cultural traditions or authority.

Language can help the elderly cope with the challenges of aging, says Stanford professor

By examining conversations of elderly Japanese women, linguist Yoshiko Matsumoto uncovers language techniques that help people move past traumatic events and regain a sense of normalcy.

Language Features Overview

Language Features for Students and Teachers

Language features are the building blocks of reading and writing..

Explore English language features, conventions and devices with our ever-growing collection of language resources for students and teachers.

Learn what makes up the Parts of Speech with our complete guide here.

Take a deep dive into Grammar and explore how to teach it with our complete guide here.

Our complete guide to punctuation will provide all the essentials teachers and students need to know on this challenging topic.

Explore the elements of literatur e with our complete guide for teachers and students.

Read our complete guide to figurative language for teachers and students here.

Explore the many literary devices that make up the English Language with our complete guide here.

Our guide to Hyperbole for teachers and students will “Blow your Mind!”

This guide into sarcasm , satire and parody is probably the “Greatest guide ever written.”

Onomatopoeia is found in more than just Batman comics. Learn all about it here.

Our guide to personification for teachers and students explains this concept in detail.

Learn what the elements of poetry are and how they are used to create various types of poetry here.

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Understanding The Difference Between Formal and Informal Language in Writing

A good writer knows when to use formal or informal language in their writing. We’ll go over the difference between the two and provide examples.

Quick Summary of Formal and Informal Language

• The main difference between formal and informal language in writing is that formal language is more rigid and less personal, whereas informal language is more easygoing and adaptive.
• Deciding on using formal or informal language depends on what you’re writing and who you’re writing it for:
• Formal language is usually reserved for professional and academic settings, while informal writing is used for more casual settings, like friendly text messages and creative writing.
• There are many differences found in formal and informal writing. One of them is that contractions shouldn’t be used in formal writing, but are acceptable in informal writing .
• Vocabulary is another major difference between formal and informal language.

Formal vs. Informal Language

Effective writing has a lot to do with not only what you write but also how you write it. The type of language you use— formal or informal —must suit your audience and setting.

If you want your message to resonate, then it wouldn’t be a good idea to use colloquialisms in formal settings. Similarly, you shouldn’t use rigid language when you’re writing about something light, playful, or funny.

But what exactly is the difference between formal and informal language in writing? That’s what we’ll be covering in this blog. We’ll also provide helpful examples so you can better recognize the difference.

Plus, we’ll show you a paraphrasing tool that’ll ensure your text is pristine, regardless of what you’re writing.

Let’s begin!

What Is The Difference Between Formal and Informal Language?

Compared to formal language, informal language is considered more casual. Informal language also evolves much more rapidly than formal language. While new words or phrases can be introduced to informal language seemingly overnight (e.g., GOAT referring to the greatest of all time) , these changes can take years in formal language (e.g., you replacing thou, thee, and thy ).

But there are also more notable differences between formal and informal language. We’ll give some examples below.

1. Contractions

It is advised to avoid contractions (shortened versions of words) in formal language, but they’re acceptable in informal language.

Unfortunately, the team could not replicate the results. (Formal)

Unfortunately, the team couldn’t replicate the results. ( Informal)

2. Colloquial Phrases/Slang

Formal language is also marked by an absence of colloquial phrases and slang (words or phrases that are common only in everyday speech), but are typically used in informal language.

Everyone was disappointed . (Formal)

Everyone was bummed . ( Informal)

3. First-Person Pronouns

Generally, first-person pronouns (like I and we ) are avoided when writing with formal language. However, it’s accepted (and expected) in informal language.

The students were asked to fill out the questionnaire. (Formal)

Informal: We asked the students to fill out the questionnaire. ( Informal)

4. Phrasal Verbs

When using formal language in your writing, it is also recommended to replace phrasal verbs (proper verbs that are followed by one or more prepositions and act as a single verb).

It was something the protestors could endure . (Formal)

It was something the protestors could put up with . ( Informal)

5. Grammar Rules

When writing for formal settings, it is recommended to follow all grammar rules, even those that are considered trivial. In informal settings, some grammar rules can be ignored. For example, in informal settings, it’s okay to use who in place of whom . However, always using who in place of whom is not recommended when writing with formal language.

Whom do I have to speak to? (Formal)

Who do I have to speak to? ( Informal)

6. Vocabulary Choice

Formal language tends to use longer, more complex vocabulary. Sometimes it is not recommended to use this type of vocabulary with informal language (depending on what you’re writing) because it can confuse or distract your audience.

They needed assistance while recovering from the outcomes of the hurricane. (Formal)

They needed help while recovering from the effects of the hurricane. ( Informal)

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• > The Cambridge Handbook of Language Learning
• > Language Learning Through Writing: Theoretical Perspectives and Empirical Evidence

Book contents

• The Cambridge Handbook of Language Learning
• Cambridge Handbooks in Language and Linguistics
• Copyright page
• Contributors
• Acknowledgements
• Introduction
• Part I Theories
• Part II Methods
• Part III Skill Development
• 10 Interaction in L2 Learning
• 11 Speaking
• 12 Second Language Listening: Current Ideas, Current Issues
• 13 Contemporary Perspectives on L2 Upper-Register Text Processing
• 14 Language Learning Through Writing: Theoretical Perspectives and Empirical Evidence
• Part IV Individual Differences
• Part V Pedagogical Interventions and Approaches
• Part VI Context and Environment
• Part VII Moving Forward

14 - Language Learning Through Writing: Theoretical Perspectives and Empirical Evidence

from Part III - Skill Development

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 June 2019

This chapter contributes a review of theoretical perspectives and selected empirical studies on how and why writing can be a site for language learning. This area of scholarly interest, a newcomer to language learning studies, has been characterized as “a well-defined space for a future research domain at the intersection between L2 [second language] writing and SLA” (second language acquisition; Manchón, 2011a, p. 62) whose key research preoccupation can be encapsulated in the following question: “Can the processes involved in writing—planning, composing, reflection, monitoring, retrieving knowledge, and processing feedback—promote L2 acquisition?” (Manchón & Williams, 2016, p. 569).

Despite its short history, this research domain is gradually developing into a vibrant strand with a rich scholarly output that includes theoretical accounts of the language learning potential of L2 writing and written corrective feedback (WCF) processing, together with an expanding body of SLA-oriented empirical research.

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• Language Learning Through Writing: Theoretical Perspectives and Empirical Evidence
• By Rosa M. Manchón , Olena Vasylets
• Edited by John W. Schwieter , Alessandro Benati , American University of Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
• Book: The Cambridge Handbook of Language Learning
• Online publication: 25 June 2019
• Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108333603.015

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• Introduction

Definitions of language

• Historical attitudes toward language
• Phonetics and phonology
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• Language typology

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language , a system of conventional spoken, manual (signed), or written symbols by means of which human beings, as members of a social group and participants in its culture , express themselves. The functions of language include communication , the expression of identity , play , imaginative expression, and emotional release.

Characteristics of language

Many definitions of language have been proposed. Henry Sweet, an English phonetician and language scholar, stated: “Language is the expression of ideas by means of speech-sounds combined into words. Words are combined into sentences, this combination answering to that of ideas into thoughts.” The American linguists Bernard Bloch and George L. Trager formulated the following definition: “A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group cooperates.” Any succinct definition of language makes a number of presuppositions and begs a number of questions. The first, for example, puts excessive weight on “thought,” and the second uses “arbitrary” in a specialized, though legitimate , way.

A number of considerations (marked in italics below) enter into a proper understanding of language as a subject:

Every physiologically and mentally typical person acquires in childhood the ability to make use, as both sender and receiver, of a system of communication that comprises a circumscribed set of symbols (e.g., sounds, gestures, or written or typed characters). In spoken language , this symbol set consists of noises resulting from movements of certain organs within the throat and mouth. In signed languages , these symbols may be hand or body movements, gestures, or facial expressions. By means of these symbols, people are able to impart information, to express feelings and emotions, to influence the activities of others, and to comport themselves with varying degrees of friendliness or hostility toward persons who make use of substantially the same set of symbols.

Different systems of communication constitute different languages; the degree of difference needed to establish a different language cannot be stated exactly. No two people speak exactly alike; hence, one is able to recognize the voices of friends over the telephone and to keep distinct a number of unseen speakers in a radio broadcast. Yet , clearly, no one would say that they speak different languages. Generally, systems of communication are recognized as different languages if they cannot be understood without specific learning by both parties, though the precise limits of mutual intelligibility are hard to draw and belong on a scale rather than on either side of a definite dividing line. Substantially different systems of communication that may impede but do not prevent mutual comprehension are called dialects of a language. In order to describe in detail the actual different language patterns of individuals, the term idiolect , meaning the habits of expression of a single person, has been coined.

Typically, people acquire a single language initially—their first language, or native tongue, the language used by those with whom, or by whom, they are brought up from infancy. Subsequent “second” languages are learned to different degrees of competence under various conditions. Complete mastery of two languages is designated as bilingualism ; in many cases—such as upbringing by parents using different languages at home or being raised within a multilingual community—children grow up as bilinguals. In traditionally monolingual cultures , the learning, to any extent, of a second or other language is an activity superimposed on the prior mastery of one’s first language and is a different process intellectually.

Language, as described above, is species-specific to human beings. Other members of the animal kingdom have the ability to communicate, through vocal noises or by other means, but the most important single feature characterizing human language (that is, every individual language), against every known mode of animal communication, is its infinite productivity and creativity . Human beings are unrestricted in what they can communicate; no area of experience is accepted as necessarily incommunicable, though it may be necessary to adapt one’s language in order to cope with new discoveries or new modes of thought . Animal communication systems are by contrast very tightly circumscribed in what may be communicated. Indeed, displaced reference, the ability to communicate about things outside immediate temporal and spatial contiguity, which is fundamental to speech, is found elsewhere only in the so-called language of bees . Bees are able, by carrying out various conventionalized movements (referred to as bee dances) in or near the hive, to indicate to others the locations and strengths of food sources. But food sources are the only known theme of this communication system. Surprisingly, however, this system, nearest to human language in function, belongs to a species remote from humanity in the animal kingdom. On the other hand, the animal performance superficially most like human speech, the mimicry of parrots and of some other birds that have been kept in the company of humans, is wholly derivative and serves no independent communicative function. Humankind’s nearest relatives among the primates, though possessing a vocal physiology similar to that of humans, have not developed anything like a spoken language. Attempts to teach sign language to chimpanzees and other apes through imitation have achieved limited success, though the interpretation of the significance of ape signing ability remains controversial.

In most accounts, the primary purpose of language is to facilitate communication, in the sense of transmission of information from one person to another. However, sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic studies have drawn attention to a range of other functions for language. Among these is the use of language to express a national or local identity (a common source of conflict in situations of multiethnicity around the world, such as in Belgium, India , and Quebec). Also important are the “ludic” (playful) function of language—encountered in such phenomena as puns , riddles , and crossword puzzles —and the range of functions seen in imaginative or symbolic contexts , such as poetry , drama , and religious expression.

Language interacts with every aspect of human life in society, and it can be understood only if it is considered in relation to society. This article attempts to survey language in this light and to consider its various functions and the purposes it can and has been made to serve. Because each language is both a working system of communication in the period and in the community wherein it is used and also the product of its history and the source of its future development, any account of language must consider it from both these points of view.

The science of language is known as linguistics . It includes what are generally distinguished as descriptive linguistics and historical linguistics . Linguistics is now a highly technical subject; it embraces, both descriptively and historically, such major divisions as phonetics , grammar (including syntax and morphology ), semantics , and pragmatics , dealing in detail with these various aspects of language.

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• Formal and Informal Style

Whether you use formal or informal style in writing will depend on the assignment itself, its subject, purpose, and audience.

Formal language is characterized by the use of standard English, more complex sentence structures, infrequent use of personal pronouns, and lack of colloquial or slang terms.

Informal language allows the use of nonstandard English forms, colloquial vocabulary and typically shorter sentence structures.

The choice of formal or informal style will affect the following areas:

• standard or nonstandard English
• choice of vocabulary
• use of contractions
• use of pronouns

Rule to Remember

Formal style affects the form of English, the choice of vocabulary, and the use of contractions and pronouns.

Standard or Nonstandard English

Standard English is the language used in professional and business communication. It is the form of English that follows the formal rules of the language.

Nonstandard English uses regional or social language variations. Nonstandard English should only be used when there is a purpose for it in writing. For example, it can be used in a narrative to describe a person with a specific regional dialect. Otherwise, the standard form of English should be used.

Choice of Vocabulary

Vocabulary  needs to be adjusted depending on the level of formality of any written work.

Consider the following words: investigate, examine, check out . Each of them has a different level of formality. While check out can be used in informal writing and speech, using it in a formal research paper would not be appropriate.

Use more formal vocabulary and avoid the use of contractions in formal writing.

Sometimes the whole sentence needs to be rephrased:

Contractions are more casual, and if you are striving for more formal style, they should not be used. Contractions in negative sentences should be especially avoided since they are easy to miss.

The Use of Pronouns

Formal language tends to be impersonal and precise. The use of pronouns , therefore, is restricted. In formal writing, when addressing the audience, you may use the passive voice or an adverbial clause in place of the personal pronoun:

Restrict the use of personal pronouns in formal writing.

The writer's presence, signaled by the use of the personal pronoun I , or we (if there are several authors), can also make writing more informal and less credible.

The second sentence is more formal and can be perceived by the audience to be more credible.

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Language in Academic Writing: Features and Topical Issues

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Types of Academic Writing: Language Features | Purposes

For every academic scholar, whether a high school student or a doctoral candidate, understanding the different types of academic writing and knowing when and how to implement them is crucial. Academic writing is broadly classified into 4 distinct categories: analytical, descriptive, persuasive, and critical writing. Each of these categories has certain defining features and different purposes; however, an academic document can feature the usage of more than one of these types in conjunction.

This article d iscusses the main types of academic writing and their specific language features and purposes. To give you an opportunity to practice proofreading, we have left a few spelling, punctuation, or grammatical errors in the text. See if you can spot them! If you spot the errors correctly, you will be entitled to a 10% discount.

As a literary genre, academic writing is fairly vast. From high-school essays to be meticulously researched and put together journal articles, academic writing encompasses a broad spectrum of academic documents. Each document requires one to possess adequate knowledge about its style, structure, tone, regulations, and best practices. As such, for every academic scholar, whether a high school student or a doctoral candidate, understanding the different types of academic writing and knowing when and how to implement them is crucial. Here, we will classify the types of academic writing based on their writing style and discuss some writing tips to help you master each of these styles.

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Four Types of Writing

Academic writing is broadly classified into 4 distinct categories: analytical, descriptive, persuasive, and critical writing. Each of these categories has certain defining features and different purposes; however, an academic document can feature the usage of more than one of these types in conjunction.

1. Descriptive Writing

Descriptive academic writing signifies writing that provides some sort of description. The description can be an article, an experiment, or a report (and the ilk). Descriptive writing is concerned with offering facts and information to the readers. Hence, when writing descriptively, care should be taken not to take a stance or provide personal opinions on the subject matter. Failing to do so will eliminate the very purpose of writing. When it comes to writing a descriptive academic document, you first need to scrutinize the topic at hand carefully. Next, you need to record all your observations and summarize them in writing.

2. Analytical Writing

Analytical academic writing can be a heightened form of descriptive writing. More common in college/university-level academic writing, analytical writing requires you to not only include extensive descriptions but also test your analytical skills. For analytical writing, you ought to:

analyze the subject matter

conduct detailed comparisons with other similar topics

examine the comparisons to filter out the similarities and differences

record your observations.

Analytical writing is more intensive than its descriptive counterpart. Hence, to excel at it, you need to:

plan the layout of your document in advance

break down information into categories (such as dos and don’ts, pros and cons)

make the structure of your document easy to navigate for the readers

include a precise introduction to your document.

3. Persuasive Writing

As the name suggests, persuasive writing is meant to persuade the readers. Persuasive academic writing incorporates most of, if not all, elements of analytical writing in addition to the author’s opinion on the subject matter.

Writing persuasively entails:

taking a stand

stating forward arguments in its support

Corroborate your arguments with sound reasoning and proof

evaluating other opinions on the same topic and juxtaposing them with yours.

Some tips on how to write persuasively:

Read the canon related to your subject matter and form an opinion

Read the works of others to analyze their points-of-view on the same topic

Devise explanations for your stand

Succor your viewpoint with evidence

Possess strong language skills.

4. Critical Writing

Critical writing is essentially persuasive writing since you are convincing the readers about the validity of your argument. However, in this case, you are offering a critique of others’ opinions. In short, you are adding not just one but two (or more) points of view to your academic document, in which one is yours. For instance, if you come across a paper criticizing the impact of the Internet on people’s social lives, you can offer a counterargument by stating that the Internet is not inherently evil and people need to educate themselves more to balance their virtual and real lives better.

Critical writing is commonly seen among the writing of undergraduates, postgraduates, and research scholars.

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Academic writing, in general, emphasizes the usage of formal language and the precise delivery of information. Thus, no matter what type of academic document you produce, you need to have a firm grip of good language skills and good research skills.

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Language of Narration / Description

The Language of Narration

Descriptive Language / Aesthetic Language

Narration literally means to tell a story. Plot, setting & characterization = 3 key elements.

Descriptive language creates a clear picture in your mind of what is being described.

Aesthetic language is beautiful, artistic & carefully crafted with a poetic rhythm & flow.

Genre – novels, short stories, memoirs, personal essays, diary entries, travel writing and poetry all make use of narrative, descriptive and aesthetic language. Speech writers and journalists writing articles often use these techniques in their writing.

Target audience – anyone who reads for pleasure and out of curiosity to know more about life, the world and human beings (rather than simply to find out information or to argue a point of view). Your audience wants to be entertained, thrilled, shocked, angered, made to laugh out loud or to cry silently into their coffee, provoked into thinking about life as a ridiculous joke, or as a wonderful dance, or as a tragic tale “ full of sound and fury, signifying nothing ”.

Language register – depends on the writer and the style of writing. If it’s a novel, play, short story or diary entry you can use slang and curse words, especially in dialogue, but keep it to a minimum. If it’s a personal essay, poem, piece of travel writing, speech or newspaper article it’s best to avoid cursing and slang (unless quoting someone).

Techniques: Narration

Stories are expected to have a clear beginning, middle and end (not necessarily in that order!). Something must happen in your story, but take a short time span and don’t have LOTS of dramatic events happening in a short story. Tension & suspense can be created by leaving some questions unanswered in the reader’s mind and then gradually revealing the truth. A sense of unity & closure is important. Avoid a predictable ending.

Clearly describing your setting allows the reader to imagine being in that place , allows them to mentally look around & see what the characters see. It also helps to create a specific mood & atmosphere .

CHARACTERISATION =

Readers get to know a character’s personality through what they say , what they do , how they look and from other people’s opinions & attitudes towards this character. These details need to be revealed gradually and to be worked naturally into the act of telling the story. You can also reveal their thoughts and feelings, which gives the reader a greater insight into the character’s true self. Only have 1 or 2 main characters to avoid confusion. Your reader needs to relate to the character on some level (to feel sympathy, fascination or amusement); the reader need to feel curious to find out more about them; and finally the reader must believe in the character – must understand what motivates them and feel that their actions, statements and thought processes are convincing and true to life.

* Writers generally use the PAST TENSE when describing something – but recently quite a few successful novels have been written in the PRESENT TENSE (The Hunger Games, Skippy Dies) as it creates a dramatic immediacy for the reader. The important thing is to pick a tense and stick with it.

* Narrative writers use all the techniques of descriptive writing.

* Anecdotes (a short tale narrating an interesting or amusing biographical incident) use narrative techniques in the space of a few lines. Here’s an example:

“ Cary Grant is said to have been reluctant to reveal his age to the public, having played the youthful lover for more years than would have been appropriate. One day, while he was sorting out some business with his agent , a telegram arrived from a journalist who was desperate to learn how old the actor was. It read: HOW OLD CARY GRANT? Grant, who happened to open it himself, immediately cabled back: OLD CARY GRANT FINE. HOW YOU?”

Techniques: Description (vivid imagery)

Vivid imagery literally means that the words create a clear picture in your mind, using:

Action words, which show what is happening, what someone is doing e.g. “ Suzie  bounces over, screaming with excitement “. To paraphrase Orwell, ‘all verbs are active, but some verbs are more active than others’. Your verbs need to be specific. They need to work hard if they are going to successfully add energy and excitement to a sentence. For example, the sentence above wouldn’t be nearly as effective if it said “ Suzie walks over and says she’s really excited “.

ADJECTIVES =

Words which describe the noun eg. “ a heavy low grey cloud loomed on the distant horizon”. In this sentence the cloud and the horizon are the nouns being described.

Words which describe the verb eg. “ the cloud loomed menacingly , then burst suddenly . Freezing raindrops immediately soaked through my flimsy nightdress”

In this sentence ‘loomed’ ‘burst’ & ‘soaked’ are the verbs whose action is described.

To compare two things using the word “like” or the word “as”. A really good simile draws an unexpected connection between two things and helps us to see the thing being described in a new light. For example, Muhammad Ali used a simile to describe the art of boxing: “float like a butterfly, sting like a bee”. This is considered a brilliant comparison because it asks the reader to consider boxing as a sport that requires agility, speed, precision and a lightness of foot. Traditionally people viewed it as a violent aggressive lumbering sport, but this simile asks them to view it in a new light.

Similes can be ironic or sarcastic, often creating a humorous effect: “as subtle as a sledgehammer” “as elegant as a dead cat” “his touch was like the cool caress of sandpaper”. The following description deliberately contradicts the idea that the person being described is praiseworthy (or genuinely nice, or kind, or dependable):

“ He’s nice. Like tissues when your nose is runny. He’s kind. Like your granny giving you 50c for sweets when what you really need is six quid for fags. He’s dependable. Like that old pair of tatty grey knickers you wear when everything else is in the wash”.

Less impressive similes are ones that have been used so often they have become clichés

Eg. ‘ As blind as a bat’, ‘howl like a hyena’, ‘as black as coal’, ‘sweet like chocolate’ .

METAPHORS =

Make a direct comparison, saying something IS something else. Eg. “all the world’s a stage” “you’re my own personal Jesus” “her face was a knotted tree trunk of misery”

Like similes, metaphors can be used for comic effect. The following extended metaphor is deliberately hyperbolic/sarcastic: “ This is a crisis. A large crisis. In fact, if you’ve got a moment, it’s a twelve-story crisis with a magnificent entrance hall, carpeting throughout, 24-hour porterage and an enormous sign on the roof saying ‘This Is a Large Crisis .'”

Less impressive metaphors are ones that have been used so often they’ve become clichés: eg. “ they broke the ice” “take the bull by the horns” “she was an angel in white”.

EVOKE 5 SENSES =

Really good descriptive writing doesn’t just describe SIGHTS, but also SOUNDS SMELLS and less often TASTE and TOUCH . This gives the reader a fuller experience in their imagination, because in real life we experience the world through all 5 senses.

eg “ the church bells chimed loudly to remind us that life would continue on as normal, but the foul taste of smoke in my mouth and the rancid smell of burning flesh suggested otherwise. I winced as the nurse wound a bandage around my mangled leg, the open wound throbbing at her gentle touch ”.

SYMBOLISM =

Where a word/object has a deeper meaning above and beyond its dictionary definition . A beautiful house filled with dirty dishes & grime could be a symbol of a characters’ depression. A storm could be a symbol of a troubled mind. A flower in spring could symbolise a new beginning. A candle in a dark room could symbolise hope. This allows reader & writer to see and appreciate a deeper meaning beyond the obvious.

PERSONIFICATION = Describing an object as though it is alive . Giving it human qualities. This is effective because it makes the writing buzz with life, Eg “ The teddy bear sat slumped on the bed, looking sadly at its feet .” “ this computer loves to torture me” “death stalked the town, seeking newer victims”.

Techniques: Aesthetic language

Aesthetic language involves using words artistically , in the same way that painting involves using paint to create something beautiful/artistic/memorable. Writers pay attention not necessarily to what they want to say, but focus more on how they say it .

Poetry is the most obvious example of aesthetic language, but all types of writing aim to appeal aesthetically to the reader. Remember, the message can be ugly but the writing beautiful eg “ sing a last song for the lady who has gone, fertile source of guilt and pain ”

All of the devices used in descriptive writing (see above) and those listed below add to the aesthetic value of a text.

REPETITION = A word/phrase is deliberately repeated to emphasise its importance.

“ I dream of tomorrow, I dream of an end to sorrow, I dream of peace”

CONTRAST = Placing opposites side by side to point out the differences between them and the unique characteristics of each:

“ her poisoned blood stained the pure white snow”

HYPERBOLE = Deliberate exaggeration. Makes writing more dramatic or humorous.

“ I’ve had a thousand chances & I’ve flushed every one down the toilet”

RHETORICAL QUESTIONS = Writer asks a question but doesn’t expect a response (or the answer is obvious). Is this used to grab the readers attention?

EMPHATIC WORDS = words which imply absolute certainty. Used to make us trust the writer – they must have a reason for being so sure of themselves! Now, never, always, forever, all, every, none, nothing, any, must, certainly, absolutely, definitely, honest(ly), truth/true/truly, the one, the only, yes.

LISTS / TRIADS = reader feels overwhelmed with info & finds it hard to disagree/resist.

“ the fear and pain and poverty and hardship hit you like an oil tanker”

ALLITERATION = repetition of a letter at the beginning of a series of words eg “ cruel cramped conditions ” which attracts the eye and the ear.

ONOMATOPOEIA = words whose sound imitates their meaning: “ buzz, screech, gulp ”.

Hearing the sound of what’s described brings it to life for the reader.

Narrative / Descriptive / Aesthetic Language

Comprehensions:

What features of good descriptive writing are evident in this passage?

Would reading this extract encourage you to read the novel in full?

What kind of world has been created by the author in this extract?

Question B :

Inspired by Seamus Heaney’s essay about the importance of objects from the past, your class has decided to organise an exhibition celebrating the significance of objects from childhood in the lives of well-known people.

Write the letter you would send to a well-known person, inviting him or her to contribute an object from his or her childhood and a written explanation regarding its personal significance. In your letter, you should explain the inspiration for the project and include, as an example, a piece you have written about an object from your childhood that is of significance to you.

Write a letter to Margaret Laurence in response to Text 1, commenting on what you find interesting in the extract and telling her about your home place and its impact on you.

Write a talk, to be delivered to your School Book Club, on the enduring appeal of the mysterious in books, films, etc. You might refer to some of the following aspects of the mystery genre in your answer: setting, tension, suspense, dialogue, characterisation, atmosphere, music, special effects, etc.

Imagine you are Sarah, the young girl in Text 3 above. Based on your reading of this extract, write two diary entries, one shortly before and one shortly after your journey to Dublin.

Imagine you are making a cartoon film (featuring animals as characters) either to promote or oppose zoos. Write the script of a scene (in dialogue form) between two of the animal characters.

Write two diary entries: one written by Alexander , recalling his encounter with Eva in Tompkins Square Park and the second by Zach , giving his thoughts on hearing that Eva has purchased the violin.

Imagine that, in an attempt to control his feelings, the boy writes into his diary an account of the incident and his reactions to it. Write out his diary entry.

Write three diary entries that Margaret Ann might have written over a series of Saturday evenings.Your writing should relate to her experience as described in the passage.

Imagine that you have discovered a time capsule containing a number of items from the distant or more recent past. Write a letter to a local or national newspaper announcing your find & describing the items in the capsule.

You have been asked to give a short talk on radio about an interesting journey you have made. Write out the text of the talk you would give.

Write three or four diary entries that record the details of a disastrous holiday (real or imaginary) that you experienced.

Imagine your local radio station is producing a programme entitled Comic Moments in which a person from the community introduces his/her favourite moment from the world of radio, television or live performance. Write the text of the presentation you would like to make.

Choose one of the people pictured in Text 4 and write 4 short diary entries that your chosen person might write on one important day in his/her life.

Essay Titles:

Short Story – every year there’s been at least one, and often two out of seven titles.

If asked for a story based on one of the images, you must say which image.

Personal Essay – every year there’s at least one.

Magazine Articles – some articles call for a very personal approach e.g. “Write an article about the beginning and ending of a relationship”

Descriptive essay – this appeared for the first time in 2011.

Write a short story in which a central character is either manipulated or is manipulative.

Write a short story about a reunion.

Write a descriptive essay based on a variety of glimpsed moments.

Write a personal essay in which you explore the storytelling evident in music and song and its impact on you as a listener.

Write a personal essay about the tension you find between the everyday treadmill and the gilded promises of life.

Write a short story inspired by the phrase “an inferior rock band howling for fame”

Write a short story in which a young character is eager to leave home.

Write a personal essay on what you consider to be the marvels of today’s world.

Write a descriptive essay about twenty-four hours in the life of a town or city.

Write a story to be included in a collection of modern fairytales.

Write a short story in which a mystery is solved.

Write a personal essay about your clothes, what they mean to you and what they say about you.

2010 + 2004 (performance)

Write a personal essay about your experience (as performer and/or audience member) of the dramatic arts: plays, musicals, concerts, comedy, etc.

Write a short story in which two unusual or eccentric characters meet for the first time.

Write an opinion piece for a popular magazine entitled “Indecision – my own and other people’s”.

Write a short story in which a photograph, or a set of photographs, plays a part in the plot. Your story may be prompted by one or more of the photographs in TEXT 3.

Write a short story in which the central character is a rebellious teenager (male or female)

Write a personal essay in which you describe a place that you consider beautiful.

Write a personal essay on the idealism and passions of youth.

Write a magazine article (serious or light-hearted) entitled: “The Modern Shopping Centre”.

Write an article for a popular magazine on the importance of the imagination.

Write an article for a popular magazine on the importance of romance in our lives.

Write a personal essay on the part which other people’s expectations play in our lives.

Write a short story suggested by one or more of the images in TEXT 2.

Write a personal essay in which you explore some of your earliest memories of childhood.

“ ‘See you later, Paul,’ said one of the girls. There was a titter of laughter.”

Write a short story suggested by these words

2004 + several other years

Write a short story suggested by one or more of the images in TEXT 3.

Imagine you are a member of Tim Severin’s crew on board the new Argo. Write a letter (or series of letters) to a personal friend or family member in which you describe some of your adventures.

“…huge funds of energy but very little money.”

Using this as your title, write a personal essay.

Write an article for a popular magazine or journal in which you explore the aspects of your own family that are special to you.

“After the war” Write a short story inspired by this title.

Write an article (serious or lighthearted) about the beginning and ending of a relationship in your life.

Write a personal essay in which you explore your sense of what it means to be Irish.

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10 Main Features Or Characteristics of language

Table of Contents

10 Main Characteristics of language

Hey there, language lover! Have you ever been amazed by the power of words? Language is a wonderful thing that lets us communicate with each other and express our thoughts, feelings, and ideas. In this post, we’re going to read about into 10 main characteristics of language that make it so darn cool. But before we get into the nitty-gritty, let’s take a minute or two to think about what language really is and how it works. By understanding the basics of language, we can better appreciate its intricacies and the role it plays in our lives.

So, let’s get started and explore the amazing world of language together!

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Meaning of Language

Language is a medium of communication that enables us to express our thoughts, ideas, information and feelings to others. It is a very complex <table width="100%"><tbody><tr><td> <strong>complex / complexity</strong><strong>If something is complex, it is </strong><strong>not simple</strong><strong> and that means it can be </strong><strong>hard to understand</strong><strong>. In other words, it has many parts and normally takes a long time to study or understand. It can be used in a neutral way, but is sometimes negative, when a person wants to say something should be simple, but isn’t. Very often the structures, models and theories that you come across at university are complex - this often means that you need to analyse them - in other words, break them down into the different components. The noun form is 'complexity'.</strong><strong> </strong><strong>This is a</strong><strong> </strong><strong>complex</strong><strong> </strong><strong>question which requires careful consideration.</strong><strong>The complexity of the problem meant that we needed to spend many more hours on identifying its causes and recommending solutions.</strong></td></tr></tbody></table> " data-gt-translate-attributes='[{"attribute":"data-cmtooltip", "format":"html"}]' tabindex=0 role=link>complex and dynamic system that has evolved slowly over thousands of years and is unique to humans. Language enables us to express and convey inside-out, thoughts, information, and share creativity, ask questions, give instructions, express emotions, and do a variety of other wonderful things.

Language is an important aspect of human society and culture. Human civilization has only been possible because of language. It is only through language that brought humanity out of the stone age and made big leaps in science, art, and technology.

Language is a human thing, so it is different from how animals talk in many ways. Language has a lot of different qualities, but the most important ones are that it is arbitrary, productive, creative, systematic, vocalic, social, not instinctive, and conventional. These things about language make it different from how animals talk. Some of these things might be part of how animals talk to each other, but they are not all of it.

The sociolinguistic level of the language system is shaped by social factors such as age, gender and social class. It’s easiest to understand when you think about the subtle but clear differences between how men and women say the same thing.

The third feature, “dialect,” describes how language varies from one place to another. The English spoken in places like Australia and London is very different from the English spoken in the North of the United States. These differences can be heard and are also clear.

Sociolect is directly linked to the social class of the person speaking. For example, a king or queen may use different words and tones than a pauper, and the language of the hip-hop generation is very different from that of the “valley.”

Lastly, the most specific thing about language is idiolect. It has to do with the way someone talks. From this point of view, even twins who have lived together their whole lives will speak different languages. It includes the quality of the voice, the pitch, the intonation, the choice of words, and many other things.

Now, let’s dive into the 10 key characteristics of human language.

10 Key Characteristics of Language

1. language is verbal, vocal: language is sound.

Language is an organization of sounds, of vocal symbols. It is the sounds produced by the mouth with the help of various organs of speech to convey some meaningful message. It also means that speech is primary to writing. There are several languages because they are spoken. Music and singing also employ vocal sounds, but they are not languages. Language is systematic verbal symbolism; it makes use of verbal elements such as sounds, words. and phrases, which are arranged in certain ways to make sentences. Language is vocal in as much as it is made up of sounds which can be produced by the organs of speech.

2. Language is a means of communication

Language is the most powerful, convenient and permanent means and form of communication. Non-linguistic symbols such as expressive gestures signals of various kinds, traffic lights, road signs, flags, emblems and many more such things as well as shorthand, mores and other codes, the deaf and dumb braille alphabets, the symbols of mathematics and logic, etc. are also means of communication, yet they are not so flexible, comprehensive, perfect and extensive as language is. Language is the best means of self-expression. It is through language that humans express their thoughts, desires, emotions and feelings; it is through it that they store knowledge, and transmit messages, knowledge and experience from one person to another, from one generation to another. Most of the activities in the world are carried on through or by it. It is through it that humans interact. It is language again that yokes the present, the past and the future together.

3. Language is a social phenomenon

Language is a set of conventional communicative signals used by humans for communication in a community. Language in this sense is a possession of a social group, comprising an indispensable set of rules which permits its members to relate to each other; it is a social institution. Language exists in society; it is a means of nourishing and developing culture and establishing human relations. It is a member of society that a human being acquires a language. We learn not born with an instinct to learn a particular language– English, Hindi, Russian, Bengali, Chinese, Tamil, or French. We learn a language as members of society using that language, or because we want to understand that society or, to be understood by that speech community. If a language is not used in any society it dies out.

A language is thus a social event. It can be described only if we know all about the people who are involved in it, their personalities, their beliefs, attitudes, knowledge of the world, relationship to each other, their social status, what activity they are engaged in what they are talking about, what has gone before linguistically and non-linguistically, what happens after, what they are and host of other facts about them and the situation they are placed in.

4. Language is arbitrary

By the arbitrariness of language, we mean that there is no inherent or logical relation or similarity between any given feature of language and its meaning. That is entirely arbitrary, that there is no direct, necessary connection between the nature of things or ideas the language deals with, and the linguistics unites are combinations by which these things or ideas are expressed. There is no reason why four-legged domestic animals should be called Dog in English, Kutta in Hindi, Kukkur in Sanskrit, Kutta in Telugu, Kukur in Bengali, Chien in French, and Kalb in Arabic and so on. That those particular words that imitate the sounds of their referents, for example- buzz, hiss, hum, bang in English and Kal-Kal in Hindi, may seem to invalidate this statement, but such words are comparatively few in different languages, and the accuracy of the limitation depends on the sounds available in the language. Furthermore, these are a variation in different languages of the world and have no uniformity.

5. Language is non-instinctive, Conventional

No language was created in a day out of a mutually agreed-upon formula by a group of humans. Language is the outcome of evolution and Convention <strong>Convention</strong>: In general, an accepted way of doing things. " data-gt-translate-attributes='[{"attribute":"data-cmtooltip", "format":"html"}]' tabindex=0 role=link>convention . Each generation transmits this Convention <strong>Convention</strong>: In general, an accepted way of doing things. " data-gt-translate-attributes='[{"attribute":"data-cmtooltip", "format":"html"}]' tabindex=0 role=link>convention on to the next, Like all human institutions languages also change and die, grow and expand. Every language then is a conventional community, It is non-instinctive because it is acquired by human beings. Nobody gets a language an innate ability to acquire language. Animals inherit their system of communication by heredity, humans do not.

6. Language is symbolic

7. language is systematic.

Although the language is symbolic, its symbols are arranged in a particular system. All languages have their system of arrangements. Though symbols in each human language are finite, they can be arranged in infinity; that is to say, we can produce an infinite set of sentences by a finite set of symbols.

Every language is a system of systems. All languages have a phonological and grammatical system we have morphological and syntactic systems, and within these two sub-systems, we have several other systems such as those of plural, of mood, of aspect, of tense, etc.

By “systematic” we also mean the following: the speakers of language use only certain combinations. Thus although the sounds b and z occur in English. There is no word in English which begins with bz. Similarly, we can say that the beautiful girl chased the brown dog is a sentence in English, but the edfulauti girl chased the brown dog is not. Thus we conclude that all languages, though linear in their visual manifestation, have a dual system of sound and meaning. In other words, Language is the systematic composition or arrangement of linguistics which correlates words and meaning. Each language, therefore, can be described as a special system, suitable for conveying the message within its own framework of structure and meaning and having very little direct physical relation to the meanings or acts which it involves. it should also be remembered that language is meaningful.

8. Each Language is Different, creative, complex and modi fiable

language has creativity and productivity. The structural elements of human language can be combined to produce new utterances, which neither the speaker nor his hearers may ever have made or heard before any listener, yet which both sides understand without difficulty, language changes according to the needs of society. Old English is different from modern English.

9. Language is human and structurally complex

No species other than humans has been endowed with language. Although, animals cannot communicate in the same way humans do, some species can exhibit complex <table width="100%"><tbody><tr><td> <strong>complex / complexity</strong><strong>If something is complex, it is </strong><strong>not simple</strong><strong> and that means it can be </strong><strong>hard to understand</strong><strong>. In other words, it has many parts and normally takes a long time to study or understand. It can be used in a neutral way, but is sometimes negative, when a person wants to say something should be simple, but isn’t. Very often the structures, models and theories that you come across at university are complex - this often means that you need to analyse them - in other words, break them down into the different components. The noun form is 'complexity'.</strong><strong> </strong><strong>This is a</strong><strong> </strong><strong>complex</strong><strong> </strong><strong>question which requires careful consideration.</strong><strong>The complexity of the problem meant that we needed to spend many more hours on identifying its causes and recommending solutions.</strong></td></tr></tbody></table> " data-gt-translate-attributes='[{"attribute":"data-cmtooltip", "format":"html"}]' tabindex=0 role=link>complex communication systems using vocalizations, gestures, and other signals . Animals do not have the type of brain which human beings possess and their articulatory organs are also very much different from those of human beings. Furthermore, any system of animal communication does not make use of the quality of features, that is, of concurrent systems of sound and meaning. Human language is open-ended, extendable and modifiable whereas animal language is not.

Did you know? Trivia about the characteristics of language:

4. Social Glue:

These are just a few fascinating trivia points about the diverse <table width="100%"><tbody><tr><td><strong style="font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit;">diverse / diversity / to diversify / diversification</strong><strong>‘Diverse’ means ‘varied’ – in other words, including very different things. If an organisation is diverse, it has many different kinds of people in it. So, Auckland, for instance, has a diverse population. Diversity can make a society more complex and more interesting! In nature, biodiversity means a place has many different species of plants and animals. If a company wants to include more different products or markets, it diversifies. For instance, Sony started off as a manufacturer of home electronics, but has diversified into several different areas, including gaming and movies. Diversification can make a company more stable. There’s a common saying: Don’t put all your eggs in one basket. However, it can also be risky if a company abandons its core business and moves into areas where it has little expertise or recognition. Enron, originally a gas producer, diversified into financial markets and broadband where important mistakes and fraud led to the downfall of the whole company.</strong><strong>Our class is very diverse with students from all over the world.</strong><strong>With its great diversity of unique birds and plants, New Zealand is an ideal place for groups of nature-lovers to visit.</strong><strong>Once a manufacturing company, Sony successfully diversified into a global entertainment giant.</strong></td></tr></tbody></table> " data-gt-translate-attributes='[{"attribute":"data-cmtooltip", "format":"html"}]' tabindex=0 role=link>diverse and ever-evolving characteristics of language. As we continue to explore this complex <table width="100%"><tbody><tr><td> <strong>complex / complexity</strong><strong>If something is complex, it is </strong><strong>not simple</strong><strong> and that means it can be </strong><strong>hard to understand</strong><strong>. In other words, it has many parts and normally takes a long time to study or understand. It can be used in a neutral way, but is sometimes negative, when a person wants to say something should be simple, but isn’t. Very often the structures, models and theories that you come across at university are complex - this often means that you need to analyse them - in other words, break them down into the different components. The noun form is 'complexity'.</strong><strong> </strong><strong>This is a</strong><strong> </strong><strong>complex</strong><strong> </strong><strong>question which requires careful consideration.</strong><strong>The complexity of the problem meant that we needed to spend many more hours on identifying its causes and recommending solutions.</strong></td></tr></tbody></table> " data-gt-translate-attributes='[{"attribute":"data-cmtooltip", "format":"html"}]' tabindex=0 role=link>complex system, we discover even more about its power to connect, create, and shape our world.

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1. Researching, Writing and Presenting Information - A How To Guide: Writing a Feature Article

• Brainstorming and Planning
• Effective Research
• Note-taking
• Writing an Essay
• Writing a Discussion
• Writing an Exposition
• Writing a Rationale
• Years 11 & 12
• Writing a Blog Post
• Writing a Feature Article
• Preparing Oral Presentations
• Creating a Podcast
• Technologies
• Effective Proofreading Skills
• Glossary of Common Instruction Terms
• Glossary of Literary Terms
• How to use Appendices
• How to paraphrase

Writing an Article

Feature articles explore issues, experiences, opinions and ideas. They present research in an engaging and detailed piece of writing. Features articles are written using language and content tailored to their chosen audience. Always refer to your task guidelines for specific instructions from your teacher.

A Step by Step Guide To Planning Your Article

1. Topic - what is the idea, issue or experience that you intend to explore?

2. Audience - who is the target audience of the publication that will contain your feature article?

3. Purpose - why are you exploring this issue, idea or experience?

4. Research the publication. Remember that each publication has a specific target audience and a distinct style of writing. If you’re writing for a well-known magazine, journal or newspaper, find some examples of feature articles to get an idea of the layout, structure and style.

5. Research your topic. Research will ground your article in fact. Good details to include in your article are statistics, quotes, definitions, anecdotes, references to other media (print, film, television, radio) or references to local venues or events (if for a regional/local publication).

• Draws attention to the main idea of the article
• Encourages the reader to engage with the article

Introduction - the first paragraph

• Establishes tone
• Provides necessary background information
• Includes a hook or unusual statement
• Heightens drama or importance of topic to increase appeal
• May include subheadings
• Personal viewpoints
• Quotes, interviews, expert opinions
• Specific names, places and dates
• Photographs, diagrams, tables and graphs
• Suggests an appropriate course of action
• Encourages reader to change attitude or opinion
• Reinforces article's main idea

Language features of an Article

The language features of an article will depend upon the purpose and audience; usually, the vocabulary of the article will fit the topic content, and who it is targeted at.

• Direct quotes - personalises the topic
• Imagery and description - engage reader's imagination
• Facts & research - validate the viewpoints being presented
• Anecdotes - personalise & maintain interest
• Relevant jargon - increases authenticity
• Personal tone - created using informal, colloquial language and first person narrative where relevant to purpose and audience
• << Previous: Writing a Blog Post
• Next: Preparing Oral Presentations >>
• Last Updated: Sep 15, 2022 2:24 PM
• URL: https://stcc.libguides.com/c.php?g=926682

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Drawing on evidence from neurobiology, cognitive science, and corpus linguistics, researchers make the case that language is a tool for communication, not for thought.

What is language for?

by Jennifer Michalowski | June 19, 2024 June 26, 2024

Categories: Brain Imaging , Cognitive Neuroscience , Computational Neuroscience , Ev Fedorenko

Language is a defining feature of humanity, and for centuries, philosophers and scientists have contemplated its true purpose. We use language to share information and exchange ideas—but is it more than that? Do we use language not just to communicate, but to think?

In the June 19, 2024, issue of the journal Nature , McGovern Institute neuroscientist Evelina Fedorenko and colleagues argue that we do not. Language, they say, is primarily a tool for communication.

Fedorenko acknowledges that there is an intuitive link between language and thought. Many people experience an inner voice that seems to narrate their own thoughts. And it’s not unreasonable to expect that well-spoken, articulate individuals are also clear thinkers. But as compelling as these associations can be, they are not evidence that we actually use language to think.

  “I think there are a few strands of intuition and confusions that have led people to believe very strongly that language is the medium of thought,” she says.

“But when they are pulled apart thread by thread, they don’t really hold up to empirical scrutiny.”

Separating language and thought

For centuries, language’s potential role in facilitating thinking was nearly impossible to evaluate scientifically. But neuroscientists and cognitive scientists now have tools that enable a more rigorous consideration of the idea. Evidence from both fields, which Fedorenko, MIT cognitive scientist and linguist Edward Gibson, and University of California Berkeley cognitive scientist Steven Piantadosi review in their Nature Perspective, supports the idea that language is a tool for communication, not for thought.

“What we’ve learned by using methods that actually tell us about the engagement of the linguistic processing mechanisms is that those mechanisms are not really engaged when we think,” Fedorenko says. Also, she adds, “you can take those mechanisms away, and it seems that thinking can go on just fine.”

Over the past 20 years, Fedorenko and other neuroscientists have advanced our understanding of what happens in the brain as it generates and understands language. Now, using functional MRI to find parts of the brain that are specifically engaged when someone reads or listens to sentences or passages, they can reliably identify an individual’s language-processing network. Then they can monitor those brain regions while the person performs other tasks, from solving a sudoku puzzle to reasoning about other people’s beliefs.

“Your language system is basically silent when you do all sorts of thinking.” – Ev Fedorenko

“Pretty much everything we’ve tested so far, we don’t see any evidence of the engagement of the language mechanisms,” Fedorenko says. “Your language system is basically silent when you do all sorts of thinking.”

That’s consistent with observations from people who have lost the ability to process language due to an injury or stroke. Severely affected patients can be completely unable to process words, yet this does not interfere with their ability to solve math problems, play chess, or plan for future events. “They can do all the things that they could do before their injury. They just can’t take those mental representations and convert them into a format which would allow them to talk about them with others,” Fedorenko says. “If language gives us the core representations that we use for reasoning, then…destroying the language system should lead to problems in thinking as well, and it really doesn’t.”

Conversely, intellectual impairments do not always associate with language impairment; people with intellectual disability disorders or neuropsychiatric disorders that limit their ability to think and reason do not necessarily have problems with basic linguistic functions. Just as language does not appear to be necessary for thought, Fedorenko and colleagues conclude that it is also not sufficient to produce clear thinking.

Language optimization

In addition to arguing that language is unlikely to be used for thinking, the scientists considered its suitability as a communication tool, drawing on findings from linguistic analyses. Analyses across dozens of diverse languages, both spoken and signed, have found recurring features that make them easy to produce and understand. “It turns out that pretty much any property you look at, you can find evidence that languages are optimized in a way that makes information transfer as efficient as possible,” Fedorenko says.

That’s not a new idea, but it has held up as linguists analyze larger corpora across more diverse sets of languages, which has become possible in recent years as the field has assembled corpora that are annotated for various linguistic features. Such studies find that across languages, sounds and words tend to be pieced together in ways that minimize effort for the language producer without muddling the message. For example, commonly used words tend to be short, while words whose meanings depend on one another tend to cluster close together in sentences. Likewise, linguists have noted features that help languages convey meaning despite potential “signal distortions,” whether due to attention lapses or ambient noise.

“All of these features seem to suggest that the forms of languages are optimized to make communication easier,” Fedorenko says, pointing out that such features would be irrelevant if language was primarily a tool for internal thought.

“Given that languages have all these properties, it’s likely that we use language for communication,” she says. She and her coauthors conclude that as a powerful tool for transmitting knowledge, language reflects the sophistication of human cognition—but does not give rise to it.

Paper: "Language is primarily a tool for communication rather than thought"

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What is language for?

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Language is a defining feature of humanity, and for centuries, philosophers and scientists have contemplated its true purpose. We use language to share information and exchange ideas — but is it more than that? Do we use language not just to communicate, but to think?

In the June 19 issue of the journal Nature , McGovern Institute for Brain Research neuroscientist Evelina Fedorenko and colleagues argue that we do not. Language, they say, is primarily a tool for communication.

Fedorenko acknowledges that there is an intuitive link between language and thought. Many people experience an inner voice that seems to narrate their own thoughts. And it’s not unreasonable to expect that well-spoken, articulate individuals are also clear thinkers. But as compelling as these associations can be, they are not evidence that we actually use language to think.

“I think there are a few strands of intuition and confusions that have led people to believe very strongly that language is the medium of thought,” she says. “But when they are pulled apart thread by thread, they don’t really hold up to empirical scrutiny.”

Separating language and thought

For centuries, language’s potential role in facilitating thinking was nearly impossible to evaluate scientifically. But neuroscientists and cognitive scientists now have tools that enable a more rigorous consideration of the idea. Evidence from both fields, which Fedorenko, MIT brain and cognitive scientist and linguist Edward Gibson , and University of California at Berkeley cognitive scientist Steven Piantadosi review in their Nature Perspective, supports the idea that language is a tool for communication, not for thought.

“What we’ve learned by using methods that actually tell us about the engagement of the linguistic processing mechanisms is that those mechanisms are not really engaged when we think,” Fedorenko says. Also, she adds, “you can take those mechanisms away, and it seems that thinking can go on just fine.”

Over the past 20 years, Fedorenko and other neuroscientists have advanced our understanding of what happens in the brain as it generates and understands language. Now, using functional MRI to find parts of the brain that are specifically engaged when someone reads or listens to sentences or passages, they can reliably identify an individual’s language-processing network. Then they can monitor those brain regions while the person performs other tasks, from solving a sudoku puzzle to reasoning about other people’s beliefs.

“Pretty much everything we’ve tested so far, we don’t see any evidence of the engagement of the language mechanisms,” Fedorenko says. “Your language system is basically silent when you do all sorts of thinking.”

That’s consistent with observations from people who have lost the ability to process language due to an injury or stroke. Severely affected patients can be completely unable to process words, yet this does not interfere with their ability to solve math problems, play chess, or plan for future events. “They can do all the things that they could do before their injury. They just can’t take those mental representations and convert them into a format which would allow them to talk about them with others,” Fedorenko says. “If language gives us the core representations that we use for reasoning, then … destroying the language system should lead to problems in thinking as well, and it really doesn’t.”

Conversely, intellectual impairments do not always associate with language impairment; people with intellectual disability disorders or neuropsychiatric disorders that limit their ability to think and reason do not necessarily have problems with basic linguistic functions. Just as language does not appear to be necessary for thought, Fedorenko and colleagues conclude that it is also not sufficient to produce clear thinking.

Language optimization

In addition to arguing that language is unlikely to be used for thinking, the scientists considered its suitability as a communication tool, drawing on findings from linguistic analyses. Analyses across dozens of diverse languages, both spoken and signed, have found recurring features that make them easy to produce and understand. “It turns out that pretty much any property you look at, you can find evidence that languages are optimized in a way that makes information transfer as efficient as possible,” Fedorenko says.

That’s not a new idea, but it has held up as linguists analyze larger corpora across more diverse sets of languages, which has become possible in recent years as the field has assembled corpora that are annotated for various linguistic features. Such studies find that across languages, sounds and words tend to be pieced together in ways that minimize effort for the language producer without muddling the message. For example, commonly used words tend to be short, while words whose meanings depend on one another tend to cluster close together in sentences. Likewise, linguists have noted features that help languages convey meaning despite potential “signal distortions,” whether due to attention lapses or ambient noise.

“All of these features seem to suggest that the forms of languages are optimized to make communication easier,” Fedorenko says, pointing out that such features would be irrelevant if language was primarily a tool for internal thought.

“Given that languages have all these properties, it’s likely that we use language for communication,” she says. She and her coauthors conclude that as a powerful tool for transmitting knowledge, language reflects the sophistication of human cognition — but does not give rise to it. 

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• Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences

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QuillBot AI Review: Everything You Need to Know (2024)

Artificial intelligence (AI) is evolving quickly, and new AI tools and platforms are constantly appearing. In an era where clear, concise writing is highly coveted, AI writing tools are becoming increasingly crucial. One such impressive technology is QuillBot AI . Starting as a simple paraphrasing tool, QuillBot has become a robust AI writing assistant that symbolizes a significant stride in AI content optimization. This review thoroughly explores QuillBot AI, focusing on its key features, pricing structure, and strengths and weaknesses.

• 1 What is QuillBot AI?
• 2 How Quillbot AI Works
• 3.1 1. The Paraphraser
• 3.2 2. The Grammar Checker
• 3.3 3. Summarizer
• 3.4 4. Citation Generator
• 3.5 5. QuillBot Plagiarism Checker
• 3.6 6. The Translator
• 3.7 7. Quillbot Extensions
• 4 QuillBot AI Pricing and Plans Review
• 5.1 Pros of Using QuillBot AI
• 5.2 Cons of Using QuillBot AI
• 6 How QuillBot Compares to Other Similar Tools
• 7 Should You Use QuillBot? (The Verdict)
• 8 Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

What is QuillBot AI?

QuillBot AI is a leading AI writing companion and paraphrasing software designed to help anyone elevate the quality of their writing. At its core, it functions as one of the best AI rewriter tools to edit, rephrase, and enhance content like a professional.

It presents various features, including grammar checking, plagiarism detection, and content summarization. As such, QuillBot AI delivers substantial benefits for academics, essayists, and writers. Creating high-quality professional content can be time-consuming, and Quillbot streamlines the process using AI to improve your writing quickly, offering real-time suggestions and one-click solutions. Plus, it is an all-in-one solution that replaces the need to invest in multiple tools, making it cost-effective.

The versatility of the software caters to a diverse audience. While students can utilize its various writing tools, professional writers can efficiently collaborate and summarize lengthy text. If you want to improve your writing process, whether writing an email, an essay, or a long-form blog article, you will find Quillbot AI to be a valuable addition to your writing toolkit. It can revolutionize your writing process to produce surprising results.

How Quillbot AI Works

You can access QuillBot by visiting their online platform on their website . You don’t need to create an account; you can use a free version of QuillBot with limitations. Once you are there, you will see the available tools in the left sidebar. Click any of the tools to launch the user interface for each.

Each tool will have a consistent layout with different features that you can use to start refining your content. For example, when using the Grammar Checker, you can copy and paste your content into the user interface. QuillBot will readily analyze your text, pinpointing broken sentences and grammatical errors you can fix with a single click.

And the other other tools share the same easy-to-use interface and functionality. For instance, the Summarizer makes condensing long-form content or essays easy. Paste your text to generate a summary of key points. Additionally, it features a plagiarism checker, which helps identify and fix plagiarized content to ensure the originality of your content.

QuillBot’s AI functions by learning from datasets. Comprehending grammar, spelling, punctuation, tone, sentence structure, and readability, these datasets serve as knowledge accumulations. So, when users regularly disregard a specific suggestion, the AI adjusts to present more contextually relevant alternatives.

Breaking Down QuillBot AI Features

QuillBot AI offers several features for easy and effective content organization. We’ll delve into these features now.

1. The Paraphraser

QuillBot AI includes a paraphrasing tool. It empowers writers to rephrase text while preserving its central message. It’s an ideal tool for students and aspiring authors, requiring no account signup. Options for ‘Fewer Changes’ or ‘More Changes’ are available, with premium users getting maximum adjustments.

Paraphrase Modes

QuillBot AI assists users in paraphrasing and refining text. It employs seven unique modes, each tailored to specific objectives, to enhance the quality and readability of written content. Whether striving for clarity, professionalism, creativity, or conciseness, QuillBot AI offers a mode to suit your needs.

Here is an example sentence I added to the paraphraser text input area:

“It was a tough match. After three hours of immense struggle, I was able to get the job done.”

1. Standard Mode

Standard Mode serves as the default setting. It balances modifying the text for clarity and fluency while preserving the original meaning. The result is a refined text that maintains its natural flow and readability.

After clicking the Rephrase button, QuillBot swiftly provided a paraphrased output in Standard Mode. It merits noting that the level of paraphrasing hinges on the level of synonyms you set in the Synonyms bar at the right of the Modes bar above the content. The higher the level, the more liberty you give QuillBot to change the words of the original content.

The ensuing result was generated with a low Synonyms bar:

“It was a challenging game. I had to struggle for three hours before I was able to finish the task.”

The following result was generated with a maximum level of Synonyms:

“It was a challenging game. I had to battle for three hours before I was able to finish the task.”

With just one sentence, you can see that only one word changed, but with larger blocks of content, you will see that QuillBot will make more word changes with a higher level of synonyms.

2. Fluency Mode

In Fluency Mode, QuillBot AI ensures that the text is grammatically sound and genuinely readable. It makes minimal changes, primarily correcting grammar and providing the text sounds natural. Synonym substitutions are kept to a minimum, preserving the original meaning.

We paraphrased the same content in Fluency mode . It generated the following output:

“It was a difficult match. I completed the task after three hours of intense effort.”

3. Formal Mode

Formal Mode is the ideal choice for those working in academic or professional contexts. It transforms the text to sound more polished and professional, making it suitable for business reports, academic papers, and formal documents.

We paraphrased the same content in Formal Mode . It generated the following output:

“ It was a difficult match. After three hours of arduous effort, I was able to complete the task. ”

4. Academic Mode

Then, we paraphrased the same content in Academic Mode . Unlike the other modes, it doesn’t have any Synonyms bar. Instead, it seemed to give the content more details and wording suitable for academia. It generated the following output:

“ The contest was challenging. Following a prolonged period of three hours, characterized by significant exertion and effort, I successfully completed the task at hand. ”

5. Simple Mode

Simple Mode simplifies the text, making it easier to understand and more accessible to a broader audience. It is an excellent choice when clarity and straightforward communication are essential.

We paraphrased the same content in Simple Mode . It generated the following output:

“ It was a hard game. I was able to finish the job after three hours of hard work. ”

6. Creative Mode

Creative Mode is the way to go if you’re looking to unleash your creativity and generate entirely unique content. This Mode substantially changes the text, potentially altering the original meaning. It’s a valuable tool for content creators seeking a fresh spin on their writing.

We paraphrased the same content in Creative Mode . It generated the following output:

“ That was one intense contest. It took me three hours of relentless effort, but I finally completed the task at hand. ”

7. Expand Mode

Expand Mode is perfect for those aiming to increase the length of their text. It adds words and details while retaining the original meaning, making it valuable for projects requiring a higher word count.

We paraphrased the same content in Expand Mode . It generated the following output:

“ It was a difficult match to watch. I had to put in a lot of effort for three hours before I was finally successful in completing the task. ”

Then, we produced an output with a high level of Synonyms as follows:

“The contest was a challenging one. I was able to finish the work, despite the fact that it took me three hours of intense effort.”

8. Shorten Mode

Shorten Mode comes to the rescue when you need to reduce the overall word count while maintaining the essence of your text. It trims unnecessary words and phrases, delivering a concise version of your content.

Lastly, we paraphrased the same content in Shorten Mode.  It generated the following output:

“ The match was hard. I finished after three hours of intense struggle. ”

Paraphraser Statistics

The ‘Statistics’ feature offers insights into text complexity and readability. It aids writers in adjusting their style to the desired tone and audience. Premium subscribers unlock tonality analysis, which assesses reader perceptions to enhance persuasive writing.

I have used the same content as the previous one in the “Fluency” mode. It has generated the following statistics.

The Statistics of the generated content are based on the following aspects:

• Average words in a sentence
• Average Syllables in a word
• Readability
• Sentence Count
• Character Count
• Percent Change
• Longest Unchanged Words

Paraphraser Settings

The “Settings” feature in the Paraphraser tool provides options to control how you want your content to be paraphrased and how you want the results to be displayed on the interface. In terms of paraphrasing the content, you choose the following:

• Paraphrase quotations
• Use contractions
• Prefer active voice

Under the Interface options, you can select the following:

• Use yellow highlight
• Show tooltips
• Show legend
• Show changed words
• Show structural changes
• Show the longest unchanged words

Overall, these settings do seem to give users more control and help them identify changes to their content much easier.

Paraphraser Compare Modes

Compare Modes is a valuable feature exclusively available to premium users, offering a comprehensive view of how a sentence is transformed across different modes within the platform. This feature enables users to evaluate and choose the most suitable rendition for their content by comparing various paraphrased versions. To access Compare Modes, locate and click on the dedicated icon in the settings bar on the right side of the page.

Once activated, Compare Modes opens a sidebar on the right-hand side of the screen, displaying the original sentence before paraphrasing and the results generated by all available modes simultaneously. The system defaults to the effect produced by the Mode in which the sentence was paraphrased. You can easily click the “Select” button next to the desired text to select your preferred sentence, seamlessly replacing the paraphrased sentence in your results. Additionally, you can further modify individual sentence results by clicking on circular arrow icons or making copies of them with a simple click on the copy icon. This powerful feature empowers users to fine-tune their content according to their specific needs and preferences, streamlining the content creation process.

Paraphraser History

By accessing the history feature, you can go through all the previous content you have modified. In my case, I checked my history, and it showed the last text paraphrased. It also shares the date and time when the content was modified.

The “Tone” feature in QuillBot AI paraphraser allows users to control and tailor the emotional and stylistic tone of their paraphrased content. With this feature, users can choose from various preset tones, such as casual , unfriendly , wordy , complex , and unclear . It ensures that the paraphrased text aligns perfectly with the desired style and intent. Whether you need your content to sound professional and academic or friendly and conversational, the Tone feature empowers you to achieve the right mood for your writing.

Paraphrasing for Different Languages

Quillbot AI supports 23 different languages for paraphrasing purposes. Not only does this make the tool more accessible, but it also comes in handy for making tweaks to the content generator by Quillbot’s translator tool.

2. The Grammar Checker

Quillbot AI offers a user-friendly and free Grammar-checking feature that doesn’t require signing up. When you paste your text into Quillbot’s editor, it identifies and highlights grammatical errors, including punctuation and spelling. With a convenient Fix All Errors option, you can swiftly correct multiple issues simultaneously. This Grammar Checker enhances writing precision and consistency. It quickly pinpoints potential errors in red, simplifying the editing process. This real-time underlining and instant correction feature saves writers time and improves productivity.

For instance, here is an example sentence I added to the grammar checker text input area:

“ Manchester United signed Sofyan Amrabat on a season-long loan move from Fiorentina. The Morocco midfielder has been desperate to join Erik ten Hag’s team since getting linked to the Red Devils in June. However, Manchester United’s plans differed on Deadline Day as they wanted to sign Fulham’s Joao Palhinha instead. ”

After copy-pasting the text into the Grammar Check, it will detect all the potential errors within the content. By putting your cursor on the underlined words, it will show you the errors individually.

Once you remove all the errors, it will provide you with the correct grammatical content. It will generate the following content.

“ Manchester United signed Sofyan Amrabat on a season-long loan deal from Fiorentina. The Morocco midfielder has been desperate to join Erik ten Hag’s team since getting linked to the Red Devils in June. However, Manchester United’s plans were different on Deadline Day, as they wanted to sign Fulham’s Joao Palhinha instead. ”

Furthermore, it seamlessly integrates with Quillbot’s Paraphrase tool, offering a comprehensive writing experience without needing an account. Its grammar-checking feature is valuable for writers seeking error-free, professional content.

3. Summarizer

Quillbot AI provides a Summarizer tool that condenses lengthy texts or articles into concise summaries, making it invaluable for students, researchers, and professionals.

Users can choose between Short and Long summarization options to control the level of detail. The Short summarization offers a brief overview, ideal for quickly grasping the central ideas or skimming through multiple articles. In contrast, the Long outline provides a more comprehensive summary, suitable for in-depth analysis or a deeper understanding of the text.

Quillbot AI’s Summarizer utilizes natural language processing to extract critical information while preserving the original context. It offers two summarization types: Key Sentences and Paragraph modes.

For instance, I added a block of content to the summarizer text input area. Using the Key Sentences feature, the tool has created five articulate points that summarize the content.

Changing the Summary Length can increase or decrease the depth of those points.

Selecting the Paragraph mode will provide a summary of the content in paragraph form.

Like the Key Sentences mode, the length of the summary can be changed by adjusting the Summary Length .

This feature streamlines research, study, and content review processes, enhancing productivity and comprehension for users across various fields.

4. Citation Generator

QuillBot’s Citation Generator is a valuable tool that simplifies the often complex process of citing sources in academic and professional writing. It allows users to choose from various citation styles and formats, ensuring compliance with specific guidelines and educational requirements. This feature dramatically reduces the potential headache associated with accurate source attribution.

It supports common APA, MLA, and Chicago styles, covering reference types like books and websites. With an intuitive interface, it swiftly generates in-text and complete citations, labeled and exportable to Microsoft Word. By automating this process, QuillBot’s Citation Generator saves users time and ensures proper crediting of sources, benefiting those involved in research and academic writing projects.

5. QuillBot Plagiarism Checker

Quillbot AI provides a plagiarism checker, which is a premium feature. It eliminates the need for external tools to verify content originality. Premium users can paste their content into the checker, receiving results within minutes, indicating if the content is unique or plagiarized. Premium members can scan up to 20 pages per month with this tool, making it suitable for various types of content, including research papers.

Its plagiarism checker stands out by accommodating research paper plagiarism checks, scanning up to 20 pages (approximately 5000 words) monthly. Consequently, it proves to be a valuable resource for essayists and academic writers, ensuring the integrity of their work.

Plagiarism detection is based on identical words , minor changes , paraphrased words , and omitted words .

6. The Translator

QuillBot AI provides its users with a Translation feature, allowing them to translate text into over 30 languages, making research and writing accessible across language barriers. It offers ad-free translation of up to 5,000 characters at once, includes integrated writing tools, and provides quick and accurate translations. The best part is that it’s free, enhancing convenience and accessibility for writers and researchers.

As a test, I added a block of content in the German language. The translator automatically detected it as German.

Then all you need to do is select the language you want it translated to on the right and click the Translate button.

7. Quillbot Extensions

The tool offers three convenient extensions and applications to enhance your writing experience across different platforms.

QuillBot Chrome Extension

The QuillBot Google Chrome extension is a valuable tool for online writing. It seamlessly integrates with your web browsing, allowing you to check grammar, paraphrase, and summarize online documents (Google Docs), emails, and social media posts. Moreover, it ensures your writing is polished and error-free across the internet.

QuillBot for Word

If you’re working offline in Microsoft Word, this extension empowers you to access the full capabilities of QuillBot. It assists you in crafting high-quality documents, reports, and essays, ensuring your writing is clear and concise, even when you’re not connected to the internet.

QuillBot for macOS

For Mac users, QuillBot offers a browser-free desktop application. This standalone tool simplifies the writing process, providing a smooth and efficient writing experience on your macOS device. Moreover, it’s perfect for those who prefer a dedicated desktop application for their writing needs.

QuillBot AI Pricing and Plans Review

QuillBot AI provides three different pricing options to suit different needs and budgets.

The Basic (Free) Plan allows you to experiment with the tool before attaining its subscription. With it, you can paraphrase 125 words. It provides Standard and Fluency modes with limited use of the Synonym Slider. Moreover, you can summarize up to 1,200 words through the Summarizer mode.

The premium version of QuillBot AI allows unlimited words for the Parphraser, more writing style modes, and up to 6,000 words in the Summarizer. It also provides access to Plagiarism Checker, Paraphraser History, and Compare Modes.

You have the choice of three different payment plans for premium. The Annual Plan costs $8.33 monthly, with $99.95 billed every 12 months. The Semi-Annual Plan costs $13.33 monthly, with $79.95 billed every six months. The Monthly Plan costs $19.95 per month. By subscribing to either of these premium subscriptions, you can paraphrase unlimited words in Paraphraser. The Summarizer will allow you to summarize up to 6,000 words, and you can fully use the Synonym Slider.

Pros and Cons of QuillBot AI

As we delve deeper into our comprehensive review of QuillBot AI, it becomes imperative to assess the advantages and disadvantages of this sophisticated language processing tool. While this tool boasts various features and capabilities, no technology is without its strengths and weaknesses.

Pros of Using QuillBot AI

• A free plan is available, and there’s no need to sign up.
• There is a refund policy in place.
• Extensions for Microsoft Word, Google Chrome, and macOS are readily available.
• You can access a free Language Translator.
• The option to upgrade makes it very affordable to access additional features.
• An app for content summarization is available for free.
• Additionally, there is a free Grammar Checker app provided.

Cons of Using QuillBot AI

• Only two writing modes are available for free.
• OpenAI GPT AI writing is unavailable.
• There is no AI content detection feature.
• Manual intervention is usually required.
• Both free and paid plans have character limitations in place

How QuillBot Compares to Other Similar Tools

QuillBot AI offers valuable features for text enhancement, including effective paraphrasing and translation. Its free plan is a budget-friendly option, making it accessible to a broad audience. When compared to Grammarly , QuillBot outshines Grammarly’s ability to rephrase content. However, Quillbot’s grammar-checking capabilities fall short of Grammarly’s robust editing features.

Tools like Copy.ai and Rytr AI may offer more comprehensive solutions for advanced AI content generation than QuillBot. These alternatives excel in generating content from scratch, making them suitable for various writing needs.

Regarding accessibility, QuillBot stands out with extensions for Microsoft Word, Google Chrome, and macOS. This enhances its usability and integration into daily writing tasks. It also eliminates the language barrier, whereas Grammarly, Copy.ai, and Rytr AI primarily focus on English.

Ultimately, choosing these tools depends on your specific requirements and budget. QuillBot is a reliable option for text enhancement, while other tools may be better suited for advanced AI content generation and comprehensive grammar checking.

Should You Use QuillBot? (The Verdict)

QuillBot AI offers undeniable value as an AI writing assistant for various teams and individuals. Need an alternative version of your original article? QuillBot can generate a new and improved version swiftly. It is handy for optimizing blog posts and other content, outperforming many free and paid AI rewriter tools . Its ability to paraphrase content significantly reduces plagiarism risks for academic assignments and research papers. Although some detectors, like Originality.ai , may still recognize QuillBot paraphrased content in some cases. No AI content generator is 100% human. That said, thanks to its versatility and proficiency, QuillBot is a worthwhile asset for writers, students, and content creators.

Looking for more? Check out our list of top AI writing tools . And for all aspiring writers, check out these AI story generators . You can also explore more of the best overall AI tools you can use to boost your productivity in various  ways .

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Here are some common questions that may help you decide if QuillBot is right for you.

What is QuillBot?

Can quillbot be detected, how much does quillbot premium cost, how can quillbot be used as a paraphrasing tool, how can quillbot be used as a summarizer.

Get Started With QuillBot AI!

Explore plans, pricing and features. Click here to get started. 👇

Explore plans, pricing and features here. 👇

By fahad hamid.

Fahad enjoys writing about a diverse range of topics, from business and marketing to design. Alongside this, he balances his love for tennis, showing skill both on the page and on the court.

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Where did you get that annual price? I would love to get it. When I visited the site the price was twice as much ($99.95) if I paid the full year in advance.

Hi, Carlos. The pricing must have changed since writing the post. I have updated the article. Thanks for bringing it to our attention.

Carlos – for me, it’s showing as: USD Annual Save 58% $4.17 USD per month $49.95 billed every 12 months

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