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The Ultimate Guide to Medical Writing Articles

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Medical writing plays a crucial role in the field of healthcare. It involves the creation of various types of written content that communicate scientific information to both medical professionals and the general public. This guide aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the basics of medical writing, as well as practical tips for developing your skills and overcoming common challenges in this specialized area.

Understanding the basics of medical writing

Medical writing is a niche discipline that requires a combination of scientific knowledge, language proficiency, and effective communication skills. In healthcare, accurate and well-structured written content is essential for disseminating research findings, educating healthcare professionals, and providing patient information.

Medical writing has a rich history dating back to ancient civilizations where healers and physicians documented their medical knowledge on papyrus scrolls and clay tablets. Over the centuries, the field has evolved to encompass a wide range of genres, including research articles, regulatory documents, patient education materials, and marketing content. Today, medical writers play a vital role in translating complex scientific information into accessible and informative content for various stakeholders in the healthcare industry.

The importance of medical writing in healthcare

Medical writing plays a crucial role in ensuring that scientific research is effectively communicated to the relevant audience. It bridges the gap between complex scientific information and its understanding by healthcare professionals, policymakers, and the general public. By accurately summarizing and presenting research findings, medical writers contribute to the advancement of medical knowledge and help to improve patient care.

Furthermore, medical writing is not limited to traditional print media but has expanded into digital platforms, including websites, social media, and online forums. This shift towards digital communication has opened up new opportunities for medical writers to engage with a global audience, facilitate discussions on healthcare topics, and address emerging health issues in real-time.

Key principles of effective medical writing

Effective medical writing involves adhering to certain principles that contribute to clear and concise communication. Firstly, it is important to understand the audience and tailor the content accordingly. This includes using appropriate language, tone, and level of detail. Secondly, medical writers must ensure accuracy by carefully reviewing scientific data and verifying information from reliable sources. Finally, a logical and well-structured approach should be adopted to present the information in a cohesive and engaging manner.

Moreover, medical writers often collaborate with multidisciplinary teams comprising researchers, healthcare professionals, editors, and graphic designers to produce comprehensive and visually appealing content. This collaborative approach not only enhances the quality of the final output but also ensures that the information is presented in a format that is accessible and engaging to a diverse audience.

Developing your medical writing skills

Enhancing your skills in medical writing requires a commitment to continuous learning and improvement. There are several areas that aspiring medical writers can focus on to develop their expertise.

Medical writing is a specialised field that demands precision and accuracy. It is not just about putting words on paper; it is about effectively communicating complex medical information to a diverse audience. As a medical writer, you must have a keen eye for detail and a deep understanding of the subject matter to ensure that your content is informative and trustworthy.

Enhancing your scientific knowledge

Medical writing often involves discussing complex medical concepts and research findings. Therefore, it is crucial to have a solid understanding of scientific principles and terminology. Keeping up to date with the latest research and medical advancements will enable you to confidently write about various medical topics and ensure accuracy in your content.

Furthermore, delving into the intricacies of medical research methodologies and data analysis techniques can enhance your credibility as a medical writer. Understanding how studies are conducted and results are interpreted will empower you to critically evaluate and effectively communicate scientific information in your writing.

Improving your writing style for medical articles

In addition to scientific knowledge, medical writers need to develop their writing skills to effectively convey information. This includes honing your ability to write clearly, concisely, and cohesively. A strong command of grammar, punctuation, and sentence structure is essential for creating well-written and professional medical articles.

Moreover, mastering the art of storytelling in medical writing can captivate readers and make complex information more accessible and engaging. By incorporating narrative elements into your articles, you can create a compelling narrative that resonates with your audience and enhances the overall readability of your work.

The process of writing a medical article

Writing a medical article involves a systematic approach that ensures the production of high-quality and informative content.

When embarking on the journey of writing a medical article, it is essential to delve deep into the realm of healthcare knowledge and expertise. The process requires a keen eye for detail and a dedication to accuracy, as the information presented can have a profound impact on medical practices and patient care.

Choosing a relevant medical topic

The first step in writing a medical article is selecting a topic that is both relevant and interesting. Consider the target audience and identify areas within healthcare that require further exploration or have significant research gaps. By choosing a topic that resonates with your audience, you are more likely to capture their attention and provide valuable insights.

Delving into the vast landscape of medical topics can be akin to navigating a complex maze of knowledge and discovery. It requires a blend of passion for the subject matter and a critical analysis of the current trends and developments in the field of medicine.

Conducting thorough medical research

Once the topic is chosen, the next step is to conduct extensive research to gather relevant information and data. This involves reviewing scientific literature, analyzing research studies, and consulting reputable sources. Thorough research ensures that your content is evidence-based and provides accurate and up-to-date information.

Researching for a medical article is akin to being a detective, piecing together fragments of information to unveil a comprehensive picture of the topic at hand. It involves sifting through a myriad of studies, deciphering complex medical jargon, and synthesizing disparate findings into a cohesive narrative that educates and informs.

Structuring your medical article effectively

An important aspect of medical writing is organizing the content in a logical and coherent manner. Creating an outline or a framework can help you structure your article and ensure a smooth flow of information. Divide your article into sections, use headings and subheadings to clearly delineate different topics, and provide sufficient supporting evidence to strengthen your arguments.

The art of structuring a medical article lies in the ability to present information in a clear and concise manner, allowing readers to navigate through complex medical concepts with ease. By creating a well-defined structure, writers can guide their audience through a seamless journey of discovery, ensuring that key points are highlighted and insights are effectively communicated.

Overcoming common challenges in medical writing

Medical writing can present various challenges due to the complexity of the subject matter and the requirement for accuracy and precision.

Medical writing is not just about conveying information; it is about translating complex medical concepts into language that is accessible and understandable to a wide audience. This requires a deep understanding of both the subject matter and the target audience. Writers must strike a balance between technical accuracy and readability, ensuring that the content is both informative and engaging.

Dealing with complex medical terminologies

Medical writing often involves the use of technical terms and jargon that may be unfamiliar to the general audience. When faced with complex terminology, it is essential to simplify and explain these terms in a way that can be easily understood by your readers. Provide definitions or context to ensure clarity without sacrificing accuracy.

Moreover, it is important to consider the cultural and linguistic backgrounds of your audience when explaining medical terminologies. Tailoring your language to suit the knowledge level of your readers can enhance comprehension and make the information more relatable.

Ensuring accuracy and precision in your writing

Accuracy is of utmost importance in medical writing. Misinterpretation or misrepresentation of scientific information can have serious consequences. Therefore, it is crucial to thoroughly fact-check and cross-reference your content to ensure accuracy. Additionally, precision in language and detailed explanations can help clarify complex concepts and reduce the risk of miscommunication.

Furthermore, seeking feedback from subject matter experts can help validate the accuracy of your content. Collaborating with professionals in the field can provide valuable insights and ensure that your writing is both scientifically sound and well-informed.

The role of ethics in medical writing

Ethical considerations are paramount in medical writing. As a medical writer, it is important to uphold the highest ethical standards to protect the interests of both patients and the scientific community.

Avoiding plagiarism in medical writing

Plagiarism is a serious offense in medical writing. All sources of information, whether from published studies or other authors, must be properly cited and referenced. Plagiarism not only undermines the credibility of your work but also violates the principles of academic integrity. Familiarize yourself with the guidelines for referencing and citation styles relevant to medical writing.

Respecting patient confidentiality in your articles

Confidentiality plays a vital role in medical writing, especially when discussing case studies or patient-specific information. Ensure that all patient data is anonymized and that appropriate consent has been obtained. Respecting patient privacy and confidentiality is essential to maintain trust and uphold ethical standards.

This guide provides a comprehensive overview of medical writing, from understanding its importance to developing your skills and navigating common challenges. By following the key principles discussed and adopting an ethical approach to your writing, you can produce impactful and valuable medical articles that contribute to the advancement of healthcare knowledge and patient care.

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Medical Writing

A Guide for Clinicians, Educators, and Researchers

• © 2018
• Latest edition
• Robert B. Taylor 0

Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, USA

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• A comprehensive and accessible guide to writing for all medical professions across all specialties
• Specific guidelines for review articles, case reports, books and book chapters, grant proposals, research proposals, and clinical study reports
• Fully updated to include coverage of open access journal, peer review fraud, parachute studies, sharing clinical data, and more.

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Table of contents (12 chapters)

Front matter, getting started in medical writing.

Robert B. Taylor

Basic Writing Skills

Medical writing: getting started and getting finished, technical issues in medical writing, what’s special about medical writing, how to write a review article, case reports, editorials, letters to the editor, book reviews, and other publication models, writing book chapters and books, how to write a research protocol, how to write a grant proposal, how to write a report of a research study, getting your writing published, back matter.

• medical writing
• peer review
• grant proposal
• medical language

About this book

This book is a clear and comprehensive guide that assists readers in translating observations, ideas, and research into articles, reports, or book chapters ready for publication. For both researchers and practicing physicians, skills in medical writing are essential. Dr. Robert B. Taylor, a distinguished leader in academic medicine, uses a clear, conversational style throughout this book to emphasize the professional and personal enrichment that writing can bring. The text includes in depth instructions for writing and publishing: review articles, case reports, editorials and letters to the editor, book reviews, book chapters, reference books, research protocols, grant proposals, and research reports. This third edition is additionally fully updated to include the intricacies of medical writing and publishing today, with new coverage of: open access, pay to publish and predatory journals, peer review fraud, publication bias, parachute studies, public domain images, and phantom authors. Loaded with practical information, tips to help achieve publication, and real world examples,  Medical Writing  can improve skills for clinicians, educators, and researchers, whether they are new to writing or seasoned authors.

Authors and Affiliations

Oregon health & science university, portland, usa, about the author.

Robert B. Taylor, M.D.

Department of Family Medicine

Oregon Health & Science University School of Medicine

Portland, Oregon, USA

Bibliographic Information

Book Title : Medical Writing

Book Subtitle : A Guide for Clinicians, Educators, and Researchers

Authors : Robert B. Taylor

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70126-4

Publisher : Springer Cham

eBook Packages : Medicine , Medicine (R0)

Copyright Information : Springer International Publishing AG 2018

Softcover ISBN : 978-3-319-70125-7 Published: 09 January 2018

eBook ISBN : 978-3-319-70126-4 Published: 13 December 2017

Edition Number : 3

Number of Pages : XVI, 420

Number of Illustrations : 8 b/w illustrations

Topics : General Practice / Family Medicine , Primary Care Medicine , Medicine/Public Health, general

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Ultimate Guide to Becoming a Medical Writer

Medical writing is an esteemed profession. Every day, medical writers are detailing, documenting, and sharing news and research that is improving health outcomes and saving lives. Their roles and opportunities are always evolving, whether they’re crafting peer-reviewed articles reporting on clinical trials, marketing cutting-edge devices, educating health care professionals or even the general public about new treatments, or writing grant proposals to fund innovative research.

This guide provides information and resources on what medical writers do, the companies they work for, and what you need to know to embark on this growing, rewarding—and lucrative—career.

What Is Medical Writing?

Medical writing involves the development and production of print or digital documents that deal specifically with medicine or health care. The profession of medical writing calls for knowledge in both writing and science, combining a writer’s creative talent with the rigor and detail of research and the scientific process. 

With the constant advancement and innovation in medicine and health care, the need to communicate about research findings, products, devices, and services is growing. Medical writers are increasingly in demand to convey new information to health care professionals as well as the general public.

Depending on their position and the scope of their duties, medical writers are involved in communicating scientific and clinical data to many audiences, from doctors and nurses to insurance adjusters and patients. They work in a variety of formats, including traditional print publications to electronic publications, multimedia presentations, videos, podcasts, website content, and social media sites.

Medical writers often work with doctors, scientists, and other subject matter experts (SMEs) to create documents that describe research results, product use, and other medical information. They also ensure that documents comply with regulatory, publication, or other guidelines in terms of content, format, and structure. 

Medical writers are also key players in developing applications for mobile devices that are used in multiple ways, such as

• Disease management
• Continuing education and training
• Medical reference and information-gathering
• Practice management and monitoring

Medical communicators may be writers, editors , health care journalists, supervisors, project managers, media relations specialists, educators, and more. At their core, they are exceptionally skilled at gathering, organizing, interpreting, evaluating, and presenting often complex information to health care professionals, a public audience, or industry professionals such as hospital purchasers, manufacturers and users of medical devices, pharmaceutical sales representatives, members of the insurance industry, and public policy officials. For each of these audiences, the language, documents, and deliverables are distinct.  For beginning to mid-level medical communicators who want to enhance and fine-tune their medical editing skills, AMWA provides a Certificate in Medical Editing .  

What Are Examples of Medical Communication Jobs?

Medical communication positions in writing and editing vary greatly across industries, companies, organizations, and other entities. 

In addition to the title of medical writer, medical communicators may be known as scientific writers, technical writers, regulatory writers , promotional writers, health care marketers, health care journalists, or communication specialists. Both medical writers and medical editors may work for pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies, medical communication agencies, medical education companies, health care professionals associations, academic institutions, medical and health care book publishers, trade publications, and more. 

What Do Medical Writers Write?

The expertise and contributions of medical writers and editors can be found throughout the medical community. Examples of their work include

• Abstracts for medical journals and medical conferences
• Advertisements for pharmaceuticals, devices, and other products
• Advisory board summaries
• Continuing medical education materials
• Decision aids for patients
• Grant proposals
• Health care policy documents
• Health education materials
• Magazine and newspaper articles
• Medical and health care books
• Medical and scientific journal articles
• Marketing materials
• Poster presentations for medical conferences
• Regulatory documents, including FDA submissions
• Sales training
• Slide presentations for medical conferences
• White papers

Who Hires Medical Writers?

Right now, there is tremendous growth in the medical industry. Pharmaceutical companies are developing drugs more quickly, and new medical devices and diagnostic tools are being released every day. With this comes the increased need to meet regulatory and insurance requirements and to relay medical and consumer information. All of this results in greater opportunities for medical writers and communicators. 

Medical writers can find positions with a variety of employers, reaching a multitude of audiences with different communication needs and styles. These may include

• Associations and professional health care societies
• Authors or investigators
• Biotechnology companies
• Clinical or contract research organizations   (CROs)
• Communications, marketing, or advertising agencies
• Government agencies
• Health care organizations or providers
• Medical book publishers
• Medical device companies
• Medical education companies
• Medical schools or universities
• News outlets   for health/medical news
• Peer-reviewed medical journals
• Pharmaceutical companies
• Trade journals   for health care professionals

AMWA members can access a current list of available openings on   AMWA Jobs Online . (Not a member?   Join here. )

How Much Do Medical Writers Make?

Medical writer salaries vary from city to city and region to region. Compensation also depends on the writer’s experience, the type of employer, and the type of work.

Sites such as Salary.com , PayScale.com , and Glassdoor.com indicate that a salary range for a junior-level or beginning medical writer is $52,000 to $80,000 annually and a salary range for a junior-level or beginning medical editor as $57,000 to $75,000 annually.

The AMWA Medical Communication Compensation Report provides an in-depth analysis of medical communication salary data by experience level, degree, industry categories, and much more.

Join our professional community of skilled medical communicators.

What Does It Take to Be a Medical Writer?

While medical writers come from all educational and professional backgrounds, they do share some traits.  Medical writers have an interest and flair for both science and writing. They also have a clear understanding of medical concepts and ideas and are able to present data and its interpretation in a way the target audience will understand.

Although it’s not required, many medical communicators hold an advanced degree. Some have a medical or science degree (eg, PhD, PharmD, MD) or experience in academic settings or as bench scientists, pharmacists, physicians, or other health care professionals. Others have an MFA or a PhD in communications or English.

Certificates and certifications are additional credentials that demonstrate your knowledge and proficiency in the medical communication field. Many are described in this guide.

How Do I Become a Medical Writer?

Medical communication can be a flexible, rewarding, and well-paying career in a growing field of both full-time and freelance opportunities. To get started, follow these steps. 

1. Determine a focus

Based on the wide range of companies and organizations that employ medical communicators, the field is generally divided into different writing settings and specializations, each requiring specific technical writing skills or knowledge of medical terminology and practices. In this step, it’s important to focus on an area you’re most interested in and that best matches your skill set.

• Continuing education for healthcare professionals
• Health communication
• Marketing/Advertising/PR
• Patient education
• Publications for professional audiences (non-peer reviewed)
• Regulatory writing
• Sales training (biotech or pharma industry)
• Scientific publications (peer-reviewed journals)

2. Assess your knowledge and skills

Medical communicators come to the field from a variety of different disciplines. Those with a medical or science background commonly need refreshers in writing and editing mechanics, whereas medical terminology and statistics are typically more difficult for those with a writing or communications background. No matter what your training has been, you should take an inventory of your essential skills .

Basic Grammar and Usage

• Parts of speech and grammatical principles form the foundation of writing in every discipline. Can you identify a dangling modifier or notice the lack of a pronoun referent?

Sentence Structure

• Even if you know grammar, you may need a refresher on achieving emphasis and organizing your sentences for clarity. Do you know the difference between an independent and a dependent clause? Do you understand parallel structure?

Punctuation

• A single misplaced comma can create a very different meaning, which can have serious implications in medical writing. Are all your commas in the right places? What about your semicolons?

Medical Terminology

• It’s not enough to know medical terms. You gain more insight into medical vocabulary by learning about the prefixes, combining forms, and suffixes that make up all your favorite medical words. Do you know the rules for eponyms? Do you know the difference between an acronym and an initialism?

Professional Ethics

• Every profession has a code of ethics, and medical communication is no different. Make sure you know the steps to ethical decision-making and the ethical principles to uphold.
• If you’re working with medical research, it’s essential to have a basic understanding of statistics. Can you describe the difference between mean, median, and mode? Can you define a hazard ratio?

Tables and Graphs

• Tables and graphs are essential tools for communicating complex information. Do you know what kind of graph to use for continuous data? Are your table column headings doing their job?

If you need to fill gaps in your knowledge, AMWA offers a variety of educational activities , including the AMWA Essential Skills Certificate Program , which addresses all of these topics.

3. Explore resources

As you explore the medical writing profession, the next step is to become aware of the resources available to you. AMWA offers many opportunities to support new medical communicators and a wealth of professional development resources to help throughout an evolving career. The following are some examples.

• AMWA Online Learning activity: A Career in Medical Communication: Steps to Success
• AMWA Career Services : Jobs Online ,  Freelance Directory
• Live   webinars
• AMWA Essential Skills Certificate Program
• Comprehensive Guide to Medical Editing
• Medical Editing Checklist
• How to Identify Predatory Publishers eBook

Other resources include a number of recommended books on medical writing , listed in the "Medical Writer Resources" section below.

Although there are plenty of opportunities in medical communication, it is important to recognize that it can be a difficult field to break into.   Networking   is a crucial part of gaining success as a medical writer.

Throughout your career, but especially at the start, it’s important to connect with other medical communicators in your local area as well as   across the country .

Networking   is an excellent way to connect with other medical communicators. Not only does it provide informal learning opportunities, but some experts say that 70% to 80% of people found their current position through networking.   Others say it’s closer to 85%. Whether you are using LinkedIn ,   Facebook ,   Twitter , community boards, or conference attendance , it is important to seek out ways to stay connected.

Take the leap!

New and experienced medical writers are finding ways to advance in a solid career and contribute to positive health outcomes through the power of communication. With a greater understanding of the role of the medical communicator and the available opportunities, people with a passion for writing and science can excel in this interesting and ever-changing field.

Medical Writer Resources

Books about medical writing.

• The Accidental Medical Writer . Brian G. Bass and Cynthia L. Kryder. Booklocker.com, Inc, 2008.
• Essentials of Writing Biomedical Research Papers . 2nd ed. Mimi Zeiger. McGraw-Hill, 2000.
• Health Literacy from A to Z: Practical Ways to Communicate Your Health Message . Helen Osborne. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 2005.
• How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper, 8th ed .   Barbara Gastel and Robert A. Day. Greenwood, 2016.
• Targeted Regulatory Writing Techniques: Clinical Documents for Drugs and Biologics . Linda Fossati Wood and MaryAnn Foote, eds. Birkhauser, 2009.

Style Guides

• AMA Manual of Style
• Associated Press Stylebook 
• Chicago Manual of Style
• American Psychological Association Style
• Scientific Style and Format: The CSE Manual for Authors, Editors, and Publishers

Publication Ethics

• Code of Conduct and Best Practice Guidelines for Journal Editors   (Committee on Publication Ethics)
• White Paper on Publication Ethics  (Council of Science Editors)
• Recommendations for the Conduct, Reporting, Editing, and Publication of Scholarly Work in Medical Journals   (International Committee of Medical Journal Editors)
• Good Publication Practice Guidelines - GPP3   (International Society for Medical Publication Professionals)

Professional Associations & Societies

• American Medical Writers Association
• Association of Health Care Journalists
• Board of Editors in the Life Sciences
• Council of Science Editors
• Drug Information Association
• Editorial Freelancers Association
• International Society for Medical Publication Professionals
• National Association of Science Writers
• Regulatory Affairs Professionals Society
• Society for Health Communication
• Society for Technical Communication

Medical Communication Programs – Universities, Colleges, Associations

This list is not comprehensive and was last updated on 11/23/2022.

Graduate Programs in Medical/Health Communication/Writing/Journalism

• Master of Science in Health Communication (Online)
• Master of Science: Science & Medical Journalism
• Carnegie Mellon University  - Master of Arts: Professional Writing
• Johns Hopkins University  - Master of Arts: Science-Medical Writing
• New York University  - Master of Arts / Master of Science: Health and Environmental Reporting
• Texas A&M University  - Master of Science: Science and Technology Journalism
• Towson University  - Master of Science: Professional Writing
• University of Houston-Downtown  - Master of Science: Technical Communication
• University of Illinois  - Master of Science: Health Communication
• University of Minnesota  - Professional Master of Arts: Health Communication
• University of North Carolina  - Master of Arts: Medical Science & Journalism

Undergraduate Programs in Medical/Health Communication/Writing/Journalism

• Juniata College  - Degree in Health Communication
• Missouri State University  - Bachelor of Arts / Bachelor of Science: Science/Professional Writing
• University of Minnesota   - Bachelor of Arts: Technical Writing and Communication 

Tracks or Minors in Medical Communication

• Ferris State University  - Bachelor of Science: Journalism and Technical Communication
• University of Tennessee at Knoxville  - Science Communication Program  

Degree Programs in Regulatory Affairs

• George Washington University -  Dual Degree: BSHS/MSHS in Clinical Operations & Healthcare Management
• University of Washington School of Pharmacy -  Master of Science in Biomedical Regulatory Affair s  

University Certificate Programs

• Harvard Medical School - Effective Writing for Health Care
• UC San Diego Extension - Medical Writing Certificate
• University of Chicago Graham School of General Studies -  Medical Writing and Editing Certificate

AMWA acknowledges the contributions of Lori Alexander, MPTW, ELS, MWC, Lori De Milto, MJ, and Cyndy Kryder, MS, MWC in the development of this AMWA resource. 

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Medical Journalism

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Introduction

Medical writing is an interdisciplinary field that applies knowledge of both rhetoric and science to enhance reader understanding of medical phenomena. There are many different audiences in medical writing, which accompany its wide spectrum of subspecialties. The audience of a medical journalist, for example, is different from the audience of a grant writer. Nevertheless, nearly all medical writers share a like-minded value: to articulate medical information to their readers in the most effective ways possible.

Medical writing is different from other types of professional writing because it incorporates knowledge, methods, and terminology from a variety of fields. For instance, biostatistics, journalism, medicine, English, public health, and pharmacy are fields that most medical writers tend to consult regularly.

Medical journalism, a subspecialty of medical writing, is important because it helps connect the scientific community with the general public. Newspapers and magazines like the Los Angeles Times and Scientific American are well-known for publishing public-oriented articles on science and medicine.

Goals of Medical Journalism

• To accurately represent the research of scientists and clinicians
• To entertain readers by providing unique perception and insight
• To articulate complex, scientific material to more public-oriented communities

Elements of Medical Journalism

Representing the research of scientists and clinicians is a major responsibility, and it is important to never make assumptions about material you may not understand. Most scholarly journals like Nature and the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) will provide an e-mail address for author correspondence within their articles. This is a wonderful opportunity to ask questions, obtain quotes, and to clarify information with the author.

Translation

Translating primary literature is one of the most challenging aspects of medical journalism. You must capture the perception of the scientist(s) and create a reader-centered article simultaneously. When writing your article, be sure to address the highlights of the study; it is not always necessary to reference every step of the experimental procedure. Nevertheless, you should read the entire journal article carefully. This will help you evaluate the information and ask potential interviewees (e.g., scientists) more specific questions. The following examples show how a medical journalist might revise technical information for general purpose reading.

Desensitization (converse of secondary sensitization) is distinguished from habituation (converse of primary sensitization) by the explicit expression of memory rebound and recovery effects in the post-stimulation response.

"In the study, Poon and his colleagues use two types of nonassociative learning called habituation and desensitization to promote a better patient-ventilator interaction. Habituation refers to a person's decrease in responsiveness to a repeated stimulus. In terms of the fireworks example, you may learn to successfully "block out" or become more accustomed to the loud, recurring noises over time. On the other hand, desensitization is a person's diminished response to a second stimulus as a result of the first stimulus. For instance, if you became more accustomed to the loud fireworks through repeated sounds, your ability to hear other noises might have decreased, too."

Importantly, we showed that the application of PEEP momentarily dampened the entrainment but this adverse effect was gradually buffered by respiratory adaptation via nonassociative learning.

"Habituation enables the natural breathing rhythm of the patient to adapt to the rhythm of the ventilator. Similar to the fireworks example, the patient becomes more accustomed to a single type of stimulus: the breaths delivered by the ventilator. Desensitization works by combating the static signal produced by PEEP and continuous lung inflation. The patient, therefore, becomes less affected by changing pressures (second stimulus) as a result of their ability to naturally adapt to the ventilator-delivered breaths."

Overviews of Sample Articles

To show you how a medical writer translates technical information from a scholarly context to readers in the general public, we have included in this resource an original publication and its corresponding journalistic article. An article on a medical researcher is also included as an example of how to report a conference presentation on technical information to the general public. Links for these articles are listed below in the All Sections in Medical Writing box.

"Under Pressure"

Researchers from the Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology learned that nonassociative learning, a natural capability of the human body, promotes a better patient-ventilator interaction. This research article appeared in the September 12, 2007, issue of PLoS ONE, an open-access journal from the Public Library of Science.

"Langer Speaks at MIT"

This article features coverage of Dr. Robert Langer's presentation at the 2007 Whitehead Institute Symposium at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. At the symposium, Dr. Langer discussed his role in advancing the field of tissue engineering.

Additional Resources

JAMA & Archives Journals. AMA manual of style: A guide for authors and editors, 10th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2007.

Blum D, Knudson M, Henig RM, eds. A field guide for science writers . 2nd ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2006.

Taylor RB. The clinician's guide to medical writing . New York, NY: Springer; 2005.

1. Poon CS, Young DL. Nonassociative learning as gated neural integrator and differentiator in stimulus-response pathways. Behav Brain Funct. 2006;2(29). doi:10.1186/1744-9081-2-29.

2. MacDonald SM, Song G, Poon CS. Nonassociative learning promotes respiratory entrainment to mechanical ventilation. PLoS ONE. 2007;2(9):e865. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000865.

The original articles included in this resource are protected by a Creative Commons license: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/

The Sheridan Libraries

• Science and Medical Writing
• Sheridan Libraries
• Books/E-Books/Encyclopedias
• News and Newspapers
• Data and Statistics
• Writing and Editing Guides & Resources
• Books On Scientific Writing
• Citing Sources
• Other Research Guides of Interest
• Evaluating Information This link opens in a new window

Resources in Science and Medical Writing

• Key Databases
• Other Databases & Internet Sites
• Finding Experts
• PubMed PubMed lists journal articles back to 1947. It indexes about 5,400 journals and covers the areas of medicine, nursing, dentistry, veterinary medicine, health care systems, preclinical sciences, and related areas.
• Scopus Scopus is a comprehensive scientific, medical, technical and social science database. Scopus also allows for citation searching back to 1996.
• Web of Science Web of Science actually lets you search science, engineering, medicine, social sciences, arts, and humanities journals for articles on a topic. You can also do citation searching back to 1900.
• Science Database ProQuest Science Database is a definitive resource for students studying both the applied and general sciences. Whether you’re researching the effects of global warming or interested in the latest scandal surrounding genetically modified food, ProQuest Science Journals™ will guide you directly to the information you need.
• JSTOR JSTOR is an archive of important scholarly journals, spanning many disciplines. The most recent 3-5 years are not included.
• History of Science and Technology
• Nexis Uni Contains the full text of hundreds of publications, including law journals, wire services, country economic reports, government publications, magazines, newspapers, news digests, and industry-specific newsletters and periodicals.
• PsycINFO This database contains more than one million citations and summaries of journal articles, book chapters, books, dissertations and technical reports, all in the field of psychology. It also includes information about the psychological aspects of related disciplines such as medicine, psychiatry, nursing, sociology, education, pharmacology, physiology, linguistics, anthropology, business and law. Journal coverage, which spans from 1887 to present, includes international material selected from more than 1,700 periodicals in over 35 languages.
• Academic Search Ultimate Academic Search Ultimate is a scholarly, full text database designed for academic institutions. The database includes full text as well as images, for nearly every academic field of study.
• Science.gov searches over 38 databases and 1,950 selected websites, offering 200 million pages of authoritative U.S. government science information, including research and development results
• USA.Gov Official Website for Government Information. Below are relevant selected agencies.

Legislative information from the Library of Congress. Bill summaries, floor activity, committee reports, treaties

• JHU Experts Research Profiles (Pure Elsevier - Formally SciVal) This research tool (which uses the Elsevier PURE model) identifies biomedical experts and their publications by areas of expertise. Designed to facilitate faculty research and project collaboration, the information is based on the published output indexed in the PubMed database.

How to Interview an Expert Without Looking Like an Idiot - This is really, really good!

Columbia Journalism Review - The Art of the Interview  There are some great tips in here, but this is geared towards journalists, rather than researchers.

Watch the video below for examples of good and bad interviews and the top ten tips for a good research interview. Remember to take notes, and audio record so that you can pull direct quotes and accurately summarize when needed.

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• URL: https://guides.library.jhu.edu/science-medical-writing

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Home » Articles » Career » Here’s a Quick Way to Get into Medical Writing

Here’s a Quick Way to Get into Medical Writing

Medical writing for healthcare professionals and those with a scientific background can be a lucrative area of work. Learn how to become a medical writer and start earning extra income outside of patient care while improving it at the same time.

• Last Updated: February 16, 2023
• Reading Time: 18 minutes

1. How to Become a Medical Writer 2. Getting Started 3. Types of Medical Communication 4. Scientific Communications 5. Health Communications 6. Types of Medical Writing 7. Regulatory Medical Writing 8. Promotional Medical Writing 9. Continuing Medical Education

Bonus Content:

Compile a Portfolio

Get a Website

Get Involved in Your Profession & Industry

Don't Call it Networking…

Consider Medical Writing Courses

Get the Right Medical Writing Tools

How to Become a Medical Writer

Depending on your experience with this topic, it may surprise you to learn that not all medical writers have any sort of medical degree. Furthermore, not all clinicians who write identify as ‘medical writers.’

When I first published this article in 2018, I made a few inaccurate assumptions. I assumed you were a healthcare professional from the United States, either early to mid career or approaching retirement. Now, I was spot on with some of you (you know who you are) but I soon learned that entry-level medical writing is a far-reaching interest, globally and otherwise.

I think we can agree that it takes a certain type of person to be a writer.  Or to be an anything, really.

Your having earned a medical degree does not inherently confer you the skills, nor interest or obligation, to write about medicine. On a similar note, obtaining a medical degree is not a pre-requisite to medical writing. It may open more doors, but a lack thereof won't necessarily close them.

So for those rare combinations of healer and poet , there is a world of opportunity awaiting you.  

If you aspire for technical, scientific, or even poetic greatness (or even mediocrity), this post will give you an overview of what you'll need to know before starting this journey in medical writing.

Individuals new to any field, particularly a subspecialty like medical writing, usually want to learn a few major concepts before applying for a medical writing job .

Commonly Asked Questions About Medical Writing:

• How do I get into medical writing?
• Where can I find medical writing opportunities?
• How do I choose a medical topic on which to write?

A word of warning : this is a long article. You may not finish it in one sitting, and that's okay.

It is also fairly link-heavy, which is because we've tried to include as many helpful resources as possible.

Bookmark it so you can easily return and find the resources you want.

Subscribe to Modern MedEd

Getting Started as a Medical Writer

When I was a fledgling clinician fresh out of medical training, I fell into medical writing both by accident and necessity . I experienced (and to an extent, still experience) the same barriers, concerns, and doubt that many brand-new or aspiring medical writers face.

Here's to hoping this post helps you overcome those challenges.

We'll first get down to the basics here. We’ll start by exploring what may feel like the single biggest and most basic question about medical writing.

What is medical writing, exactly?

Of course, this opens a veritable Pandora's box of less-than-obvious answers.

What is Medical Writing, Exactly?

Before we even get to medical writing, let's take it a step back. In the broadest sense, we can create three categories of medical communications ; medical writing, health writing, and scientific communications.

The distinction may seem arbitrary, and depending on who you ask, it is.

Admittedly, this classification is subjective, and like all language and communication, ever-evolving, changing; its meaning influenced by myriad outside factors. Or is it, ‘ a myriad of ‘ outside factors? See what I mean .

In any case, we’ll do our best to explain the differences here.

Online Medical Writing Courses

We'll make references to some online courses we think are helpful for learning the actual skills needed in this line of work.

If you decide you want to take more than one course, we recommend signing up for Coursera Plus , as it'll get you access to more than 3,000 courses, specializations, and professional certificate programs.

You won't need all 3,000 courses, it'll just feel like you do. We've narrowed down our 10 favorite medical writing courses online for simplicity already.

The normal price is $399 per year and comes with a 14-day money-back guarantee. Keep your receipts for when you get a good CPA. I know you don't think you need one now, but you will!

Scientific Communications

Scientific communications mostly involves academic publications, science journalism, and other forms of technical writing.

It can be medical, but it is more than that. Scientific writing covers engineering, basic science, social science, industry research, and more.

It goes both ways. Medical writing, at times, may not feel like science writing . This is often unpaid, such as submitting a manuscript for peer-review to a major academic journal.

Where Science Writers Work

Acknowledging the absolute shortcoming these sections are destined to become, let's give it a shot. Here's a brief list of companies/industries/verticals that produce scientific or technical content and immediately come to mind.

Someone has to write all that. And get paid for it.

• Medical market research survey companies
• Many major medical journals
• Certain medical apps

Spend some time going through the products, especially the technical and medical content of the companies that interest you.

It doesn't have to be one of these, and a frustrating amount may be inaccessible to you depending on your background, degree type, etc.

Health Writing (patient facing materials)

The idea of health writing generally refers to the articles, educational material, and other content authored by individuals or corporations that is subsequently directed at patients or consumers.

Some clinicians have made successful businesses out of blogging to a lay audience by writing about the health issues about which they are passionate. Blogging is not easy work, but if you have what it takes, it can be a nice source of income for a good (consistent) writer.

If you don't think you have what it takes, you can always learn .

Like any of these entries, there is potential for a variety of work arrangements, including freelance, employed, or even volunteer.

Where Health Writers Work

Here's another brief list of entities that immediately come to mind when thinking of the business need to produce patient education materials.

• VisualDx (clinical & patient edu)
• Merck Manual (Patient Version)
• Up To Date (patient version)

Spend some time going through the products, especially the technical and medical content that you'd expect to meet a patient.

Don't limit yourself to these companies, there are many more out there to consider.

Also, try not to be discouraged when you face the challenge of economically prohibitive paywalls that a new business owner in the pre-revenue phase can't justify.

Medical Writing

Ladies and gentlemen, the main event.

Medical writing , in a sense, lives directly across from health writing and is related to scientific communications. Medical writing is a part of scientific communications, health writing, and some other categories.

Often technical in nature, medical writing commonly serves business to business (B2B) needs. Like medical communications, we can subdivide medical writing into three major subgroups. Being somewhat amorphous, you'll find other taxonomies of medcomms of a different nature out in the wild if you look.

Within the medical writing world, and the three sub-specialties we'll discuss consider are regulatory writing , promotional writing , and medical education .

Here is a brief overview of each one, with links to more resources. Remember, this is just the tip of the iceberg and not a one-size-fits-all categorization. 

1. Regulatory Medical Writing

Regulatory medical writers work with contract research organizations, biotech firms, pharmaceutical or medical device companies, and government agencies. They are often scientists, clinicians, or attorneys because of the high-stakes technical nature of the documents they produce.

Regulatory medical writers communicate important information to government agencies, heads of compliance departments, and other stakeholders.

Examples of their work include summarizing complex scientific and statistical data for FDA reviewers of a new drug application (NDA) .

The work regulatory medical writers perform is vital to companies going through the inordinately expensive process of drug or device discovery , development , and commercialization . This means that failure to follow specific processes, omission of, or inaccurately relayed information can cost the would-be manufacturer a pretty penny.

By ensuring these submissions are timely and correct, regulatory medical writers pay for their often generous salaries themselves many times over. Likewise, learning the basics of healthcare compliance could pay for itself several times over by launching your career as a regulatory medical writer.

Regulatory Medical Writing Skills & Background

A clinical, scientific , or legal background doesn't hurt. However, this is not an absolute requirement for all regulatory roles.

In the day of the internet, there are many courses designed to help you learn the basics if you are interested. Like all things on the internet, do your own research on the educator before paying for any of them.

Some reputable organizations, like  the American Medical Writers Association , offer their own courses. Their regulatory writing course will run you $300 if you are a member and is $400 for non-members. 

Because of the inherent difficulty and high financial stakes of this work, it can be quite lucrative for those who can prove their value. For those who are serious about getting into this field, here is a more detailed book . Fair warning: these books aren't cheap.

2. Promotional Medical Writing

Promotional medical writing, sometimes called Promotional MedEd, is educational material made for a specific brand or product. It's essentially ‘ content marketing ’ for the healthcare industry.

Though the amount of nuance I missed with that statement shows how little experience I have in this particular area.

Before you turn your nose up at the ‘promotional' and ‘marketing' part, we should establish that marketing is not synonymous with lying.

In fact, we should recognize and accept the importance of this work.

Many of us dread interacting with the ‘used-car' salesperson-type who tries to rip-off unsuspecting folks with every sale. Even worse, imagine becoming that ‘used-car' salesperson person. After all, we clinicians aren't supposed to sell out or push commercial interests, right?

But that's not what this is about. As customers, patients, or readers, what we really dread is our feeling like we were duped. And as clinicians, most of us just don't have it in us to to that to others. However, we do have it in us to influence patients to commit to the medical treatments that help them the most. This is what's known as a transferable skill.

Promotional Medical Writing Skills & Background

It's true there may have been a time when more unscrupulous players lurked in the promotional MedEd world. Today, however, promotional medical writing is highly regulated and has given its image a well-deserved makeover. 

If you are still not convinced, that's all the more reason to give it another look. Good, honest clinicians in this line of work will never go out of style.

Promotional medical writing can involve creating and reviewing sales training materials, drug monographs, advertising copy, or other products designed to move the reader to action. To be a good promotional medical writer, it doesn't hurt to have  good copywriting skills or a background in public relations . 

3. Continuing Medical Education

Medical education includes most of the writing that clinicians are accustomed to seeing. You find your continuing medical education (CME) companies, board-review programs, medical app developers , disease monographs, CME conference organizers , and other educational writing opportunities in this space.

The information intends to educate readers without hinting of bias for or against any specific brand or product. Just the facts, man. For a good example, check out any of the CME on this website. The vast majority here is independent medical education that never takes industry money.

Clinicians with an interest in teaching can write for their favorite CME companies, look for a  medical podcast to join , or become a coach or tutor to students. MedSchool Insiders comes to mind.

You can also act as a subject matter expert for the writers who are not experts themselves in your medical field.

Not sure where to look to get started with CME writing?

Hey, here's a list of every CME provider in existence. A lot of them need item writers literally all the time. 

A side note on item writing (board-style clinical vignettes), there is a very structured way to approach it, and it's all documented in the NBME Item Writing Guidelines already.

CME Medical Writing Skills & Background

Medical education is our specialty here. It's a reasonably attainable way for clinicians to get into medical writing for a number of reasons.

First, we show up with the experience and knowledge needed to do the job. That means the barriers to entry are low for us. 

Further, clinicians tend to want to learn from their colleagues who have the battlefield experience. For example, a page about concussions has more credibility when you know the author has practical experience in that area.

It also helps if you can relay information in an engaging, dynamic style. Even better if you can keep an audience awake . Read more about writing for medical education in our first article about non-clinical careers .

There is also more to medical writing than only, well, ‘writing.’ The written word is the lifeblood of our communications; however, that's not the only way we learn from each other. Transcripts of interviews, video scripting, CME podcasting, all starts with words on paper. Or a screen. Either works.

Successful writers of medical education copy may want to get a handle on the basics of curriculum development first.

Steps to Become a Medical Writer

To be a good writer, medical or otherwise, you'll first have to build two good habits.

You probably have the first point down pretty well, seeing as you've made it all the way here. The second step is where people struggle. Here are a few ways to overcome this perceived barrier even if you have no experience as a medical writer. 

1. Compile a Portfolio

A portfolio is one of the most important assets you will have as a medical writer. It's a collection of your best work that demonstrates to potential clients and employers that you are the right choice for them.

If you've never written anything before, can you blame clients when they are hesitant to hire you? Would you hire a home builder who had never built a home before?

On the other hand, if you never had the chance to have any of your writing published, how can you have a portfolio?

This is a common question we get, so we have an answer for you. Our best advice is to write an article, post, or medical education case that can be self-published or added to your portfolio without the formal ‘publishing' process. The key is to have something worthwhile to show off. For writing platform inspiration, check out our ‘featured media' tab at the bottom of the sidebar.

2. You Need Your Own Website

Learning how to start a website.

A good way to get your foot in the door, even if you don't yet have clients, is to start your own platform where your work can be published.

As a medical writer, it's never a bad idea to have a web presence to get noticed. Having a blog on your website is a tried-and-true technique that can generate traffic and additional income. You don't have to learn to become a web developer (and marketer, and tax attorney, and…).

Either start with a simple content management system like Wix, WordPress, or hire someone to do the basic setup and make sure you can access the word processor.

If the budget is tight (been there), you can learn to build your own medical writer website with a reasonable amount of effort.

There are some uniquely technical skills required, however, which can be a challenge to some of us coming from the clinical world.

If you are like me and plan to overanalyze the entire process, then…you're in good company? I mean eventually, you'll start hearing the same information over and over from any reputable source. Really takes you back to the days of learning medicine from a firehose.

That said, there is no shortage of both free and paid online courses that will teach you how to build a website correctly if you want to learn.

Technotes: Website Hosting and Logistics

Websites can't survive without a host.

For website hosting and a few other basic services, we started with Bluehost . Probably because every WordPress blog out there makes money recommending them. Technically, we do too (affiliate)..

Their services normally start at for $7.99 per month. However, if you sign up here , you'll save almost 50% and pay just $3.95 a month. We'll also get a few dollars for your trouble. If you plan to have a low-traffic, predictable bandwidth usage website, you'll be fine. 

Upgrading is a little pricey, so we've actually moved to a different host. We have since moved over to DreamHost as our needs from basic start-up website to a more interactive address on the internet.

A website has been one of the best investments in my business I think I ever could have made.

Once you're signed up, most hosting companies have education, resources, and support to get your website up and running ASAP. If you have no prior experience building websites, you can learn the basics of web design from places like Coursera .

I've noticed medical  writers commonly recommend using www.yourname.com or some variation for your medical writing website domain name.

I am not a fan of this approach, because I worry it can inhibit brand-building if that becomes neessary (it is for us). I'm sure there are good reasons for that approach.

Check to see if the name you want is available with this nifty tool from Bluehost below.

3. Contribute to Your Industry

If you aren't ready to start your own website, you can always find existing platforms to pitch your work.  

We publish work from outside contributors occasionally. Other sites directed at healthcare professionals, including Clinician Today  and Doximity are great places to get started. You can find several of our articles on these platforms.

You can even start writing on Medium , LinkedIn , or other free platforms, as we have, too.

4. Just Don't Call it 'Networking'

It's a truism that people do business with those they know, like, and trust.  It's also a truism that nobody likes networking. Words matter to a writer, so call it something else and maybe hate it less.

Get to know, like, and trust your colleagues in a professional environment, even if you are otherwise half-way across the world. Remote collaboration is a part of a medical writer's skillset.

Consider joining professional medical writing organizations and introtucing yourself to your fellow members. 

The American Medical Writers Association (AMWA) has a professional forum for medical writers to share and learn from one another, as well as a host of other benefits for their paying members. 

Join here . 

As an AMWA member, you can become eligible to earn a Medical Writer – Certified credential.

That'll take some time, but new members can start with the essential skills kit for free. We have a similar listing of medical writing resources , no membership required.

5. Take Online Medical Writing Courses

To further develop your skills and expertise, you can find a variety of medical writing courses online . The benefit is they are all self-paced and give you exactly what you need based on your stage in the process. 

They are generally inexpensive, but several courses can add up. However, even taking three or four courses will end up paying for themselves with your first medical writing project. 

Here's an overview of freelance medical writing on Udemy. The cost is normally $29.99, but it goes on sale from time to time.

For help getting started developing scientific writing skills, this ridiculously affordable course from Stanford is a must. You can get the full course, plus a certificate of completion, for only $79.

And if that's not enough for you,  Coursera has hundreds of additional courses in the life sciences, professional development , entrepreneurship , and more practical skills from top-rated universities at prices that can only be described as ‘stupidly affordable.'

6. Get Familliar with Medical Writing Tools

We'll discuss this more in a future article, but the right equipment is key to performing any job well. 

You don't go into the operating room with cut-rate instruments, nor do you start a clinic without a reliable, high-quality stethoscope .

Likewise, you wouldn't start a medical writing project without the right hardware, which starts with your computer. You don't want to skimp on the memory and storage, either. For Windows users, I can't tell you how much I love the Microsoft Surface Book 2 with Intel Core i7, 16GB RAM, and 512GB SSD storage. It was born in 2017 and is still a workhorse.

For Mac fans, the Apple MacBook Pro is the way to go. 

Don't forget a good voice to text dictation product (software and hardware) like Nuance and Dragon with Medical Practice Edition. I also hear that Microsoft Word or Google Docs does a decent job at a lower cost.

Where to Develop Medical Writing Skills

As we mentioned, you probably already have what it takes to get off and running. However, some people prefer to  develop a game plan or learn more fundamental skills before jumping in.

Most medical writers, at a minimum, need a passing familiarity with AMA style , good writing skills , and an ability to focus on the details.

One tactic could be to search online job boards for ‘medical writer' positions in your area. Once you get a feel for the commonly desired skills and qualifications, spend some time developing those strengths. 

For example, to get writing experience, you have to write. Why not  make a side hustle  out of it and spin that into a new role? 

Some clinicians choose to broaden their education with affordable, self-paced online  courses .  True beginners often say getting a background in scientific writing is immensely beneficial when starting their search for a high-paying medical writing role.

More Resources

Visit our medical writing archives for some useful books and offers for those who are new to medical writing.

For those wondering if this can be a viable career, here's a  link to a book that shows you just how lucrative even freelance medical writing can be. 

The author, Emma Nichols , is well-known in the medical writing world. She teaches other scientists and clinicians how to make a living from freelance medical writing after finding success herself.

She offers a six-week freelance medical writing course for anywhere from $195 to $2,495. Unfortunately, it is frequently booked solid and we hear you'll be lucky to even get on the wait-list. 

You can also sign up for this primo-level medical writing course from Stanford for free , or choose the option with a certificate of completion for just $79.

Further Reading

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Guest Essay

In Medicine, the Morally Unthinkable Too Easily Comes to Seem Normal

By Carl Elliott

Dr. Elliott teaches medical ethics at the University of Minnesota. He is the author of the forthcoming book “The Occasional Human Sacrifice: Medical Experimentation and the Price of Saying No,” from which this essay is adapted.

Here is the way I remember it: The year is 1985, and a few medical students are gathered around an operating table where an anesthetized woman has been prepared for surgery. The attending physician, a gynecologist, asks the group: “Has everyone felt a cervix? Here’s your chance.” One after another, we take turns inserting two gloved fingers into the unconscious woman’s vagina.

Had the woman consented to a pelvic exam? Did she understand that when the lights went dim she would be treated like a clinical practice dummy, her genitalia palpated by a succession of untrained hands? I don’t know. Like most medical students, I just did as I was told.

Last month the Department of Health and Human Services issued new guidance requiring written informed consent for pelvic exams and other intimate procedures performed under anesthesia. Much of the force behind the new requirement came from distressed medical students who saw these pelvic exams as wrong and summoned the courage to speak out.

Whether the guidance will actually change clinical practice I don’t know. Medical traditions are notoriously difficult to uproot, and academic medicine does not easily tolerate ethical dissent. I doubt the medical profession can be trusted to reform itself.

What is it that leads a rare individual to say no to practices that are deceptive, exploitative or harmful when everyone else thinks they are fine? For a long time I assumed that saying no was mainly an issue of moral courage. The relevant question was: If you are a witness to wrongdoing, will you be brave enough to speak out?

But then I started talking to insiders who had blown the whistle on abusive medical research. Soon I realized that I had overlooked the importance of moral perception. Before you decide to speak out about wrongdoing, you have to recognize it for what it is.

This is not as simple as it seems. Part of what makes medical training so unsettling is how often you are thrust into situations in which you don’t really know how to behave. Nothing in your life up to that point has prepared you to dissect a cadaver, perform a rectal exam or deliver a baby. Never before have you seen a psychotic patient involuntarily sedated and strapped to a bed or a brain-dead body wheeled out of a hospital room to have its organs harvested for transplantation. Your initial reaction is often a combination of revulsion, anxiety and self-consciousness.

To embark on a career in medicine is like moving to a foreign country where you do not understand the customs, rituals, manners or language. Your main concern on arrival is how to fit in and avoid causing offense. This is true even if the local customs seem backward or cruel. What’s more, this particular country has an authoritarian government and a rigid status hierarchy where dissent is not just discouraged but also punished. Living happily in this country requires convincing yourself that whatever discomfort you feel comes from your own ignorance and lack of experience. Over time, you learn how to assimilate. You may even come to laugh at how naïve you were when you first arrived.

A rare few people hang onto that discomfort and learn from it. When Michael Wilkins and William Bronston started working at the Willowbrook State School in Staten Island as young doctors in the early 1970s, they found thousands of mentally disabled children condemned to the most horrific conditions imaginable: naked children rocking and moaning on concrete floors in puddles of their own urine; an overpowering stench of illness and filth; a research unit where children were deliberately infected with hepatitis A and B.

“It was truly an American concentration camp,” Dr. Bronston told me. Yet when he and Dr. Wilkins tried to enlist Willowbrook doctors and nurses to reform the institution, they were met with indifference or hostility. It seemed as if no one else on the medical staff could see what they saw. It was only when Dr. Wilkins went to a reporter and showed the world what was happening behind the Willowbrook walls that anything began to change.

When I asked Dr. Bronston how it was possible for doctors and nurses to work at Willowbrook without seeing it as a crime scene, he told me it began with the way the institution was structured and organized. “Medically secured, medically managed, doctor-validated,” he said. Medical professionals just accommodated themselves to the status quo. “You get with the program because that’s what you’re being hired to do,” he said.

One of the great mysteries of human behavior is how institutions create social worlds where unthinkable practices come to seem normal. This is as true of academic medical centers as it is of prisons and military units. When we are told about a horrific medical research scandal, we assume that we would see it just as the whistle-blower Peter Buxtun saw the Tuskegee syphilis study : an abuse so shocking that only a sociopath could fail to perceive it.

Yet it rarely happens this way. It took Mr. Buxtun seven years to convince others to see the abuses for what they were. It has taken other whistle-blowers even longer. Even when the outside world condemns a practice, medical institutions typically insist that the outsiders don’t really understand.

According to Irving Janis, a Yale psychologist who popularized the notion of groupthink, the forces of social conformity are especially powerful in organizations that are driven by a deep sense of moral purpose. If the aims of the organization are righteous, its members feel, it is wrong to put barriers in the way.

This observation helps explain why academic medicine not only defends researchers accused of wrongdoing but also sometimes rewards them. Many of the researchers responsible for the most notorious abuses in recent medical history — the Tuskegee syphilis study, the Willowbrook hepatitis studies, the Cincinnati radiation studies , the Holmesburg prison studies — were celebrated with professional accolades even after the abuses were first called out.

The culture of medicine is notoriously resistant to change. During the 1970s, it was thought that the solution to medical misconduct was formal education in ethics. Major academic medical centers began establishing bioethics centers and programs throughout the 1980s and ’90s, and today virtually every medical school in the country requires ethics training.

Yet it is debatable whether that training has had any effect. Many of the most egregious ethical abuses in recent decades have taken place in medical centers with prominent bioethics programs, such as the University of Pennsylvania , Duke University , Columbia University and Johns Hopkins University , as well as my own institution, the University of Minnesota .

One could be forgiven for concluding that the only way the culture of medicine will change is if changes are forced on it from the outside — by oversight bodies, legislators or litigators. For example, many states have responded to the controversy over pelvic exams by passing laws banning the practice unless the patient has explicitly given consent.

You may find it hard to understand how pelvic exams on unconscious women without their consent could seem like anything but a terrible invasion. Yet a central aim of medical training is to transform your sensibility. You are taught to steel yourself against your natural emotional reactions to death and disfigurement; to set aside your customary views about privacy and shame; to see the human body as a thing to be examined, tested and studied.

One danger of this transformation is that you will see your colleagues and superiors do horrible things and be afraid to speak up. But the more subtle danger is that you will no longer see what they are doing as horrible. You will just think: This is the way it is done.

Carl Elliott ( @FearLoathingBTX ) teaches medical ethics at the University of Minnesota. He is the author of the forthcoming book “The Occasional Human Sacrifice: Medical Experimentation and the Price of Saying No,” from which this essay is adapted.

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NCBI Bookshelf. A service of the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health.

StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan-.

StatPearls [Internet].

How to write and publish a scientific manuscript.

Martin R. Huecker ; Jacob Shreffler .

Affiliations

Last Update: October 31, 2022 .

• Definition/Introduction

A clinician should continuously strive to increase knowledge by reviewing and critiquing papers, thoughtfully considering how to integrate new data into practice. This is the essence of evidence-based medicine (EBM). [1]  When new clinical queries arise, one should seek answers in the published literature. The ability to read a scientific or medical manuscript remains vitally important throughout the career of a clinician.

When gaps exist in the literature, clinicians should consider conducting their own research into these questions. Though typically performed by academic doctors or physician-scientists, medical research is open to all clinicians in both informal and formal methods. Anyone who treats patients can collect data on outcomes to assess the quality of care delivered (quality improvement is research). [2]  Though beyond the scope of this chapter, instruction for clinicians on how to conduct research and contribute to medical science is provided by many resources. [3] [4] [5]

Additionally, a clinician who integrates a new practice can study effects on patient outcomes, retro- or prospectively. Continuous practice improvement need not be shared with the larger population of treating providers, but dissemination to the entire scientific community allows widespread adoption, criticism, or further testing for replication of findings.

• Issues of Concern

Clinicians who seek to conduct retrospective chart reviews, prospective studies, or even randomized, controlled clinical trials should access the many resources to ensure quality methodology. [5] Once you have followed the appropriate steps to conduct a study (Table 1), you should complete the process by writing a manuscript to describe your findings and share it with other clinicians and researchers. Other resources detail the steps in undertaking writing a review article, but this StatPearls chapter will focus on Writing a Scientific Manuscript for original research. See also the StatPearls chapter for the different types of research manuscripts. [6]

• Clinical Significance

Steps to Conducting Research

• Develop a research question
• Perform a literature search
• Identify a gap in the literature
• Design a study protocol (including personnel)
• Submit to an institutional review board for approval
• Collect, responsibly store, and then analyze data
• Write a manuscript to interpret and describe your research.

After conducting a quality investigation or a study, one should put together an abstract and manuscript to share results. Researchers can write an abstract in a short amount of time, though the abstract will evolve as the full manuscript moves to completion. Many published and presented abstracts do not reach full manuscript publication. [7] [8]  Although journals and conferences do often publish abstracts, studies with important results should be published in full manuscript form to ensure dissemination and allow attempts at replication. [9]

IRB protocols, study design, and data collection and aggregation require a team effort. Those involved in the research should discuss who will contribute to the full manuscript (i.e., qualify as an author) and thus the planned order of authorship to reduce complications at the time of manuscript submission. The author, who devotes the most effort to the paper, is typically the first and corresponding author. In contrast, the last author is often the most senior member of the team, often the principal investigator of the study. All individuals listed as authors should contribute to the manuscript and overall project in some fashion. [10]

The Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) checklist is perhaps the most valuable tool in the process of preparing your manuscript for submission [11] . 

Original research manuscripts have the following sections (in chronologic order): [11]

Title and Abstract

Introduction (Background and Objectives)

Methods (Design, Setting, Participants, Variables, Statistics)

Results (Participants, Descriptives, Outcomes, Subgroups)

Tables and Figures     

Discussion (Key findings, Limitations, Interpretations)

Conflict of Interest (COI), Author affiliations, Acknowledgments, Funding

Individuals involved in the IRB submission (prior to data collection) can write the introduction and methods of the manuscript before and during the process of data collection and analysis. This head start on writing makes the full manuscript composition task less formidable. The content of the introduction and methods should be well known to the study group prior to data collection and analysis. The introduction should be organized into a “problem/gap/hook” order: what problem does this study address, the precise gap in the literature, and the objectives of this study (in addressing the gap). [12]  The methods should provide enough detail such that readers who would like to replicate the study could do so.

Once data is collected and analyzed, authors can write an abstract to organize major themes of the research, understanding that the abstract will undergo edits once the manuscript is complete. Similarly, the title can change with revisions, as authors determine the most salient trends in the data. Most readers will only read the title +/- abstract. Thus these are the most important sections of the paper. The title should be concise and should directly describe the results of the trial– this correlates with more citations. The abstract must convey the crucial findings of the paper, ideally divided into sections for easier reading (unless the desired journal does not allow this). [13]

With the larger picture in mind, authors should create tables and figures that visually convey the themes of the data analysis. Working with statisticians or data experts, authors should devote a great deal of time to this component of the manuscript. Some general concepts: [14]

• Only include tables/figures that you believe are necessary.
• Make sure tables/figures are of high quality, simple, clear, with concise captions.
• Do not repeat language in results that appear in tables/figures, i.e., the tables/figures should stand alone.
• Consider how the figure will look in grayscale (in case the journal if not in color)

As with the abstract and title, the tables and figures will likely undergo further edits prior to the completion of the manuscript. The abstract and tables/figures should intuitively evolve together to convey the ‘story’ of the research project.

At this point, refer back to the introduction and methods composed during data collection. Make revisions as necessary to reflect the overall narrative of the project. Ensure you have adhered to the originally determined objectives or hypotheses. 

Next, focus on the results and discussion. The results should contain only objective data with no interpretation of significance. Describe salient results than do not already receive explanations within the figures and tables. The discussion section begins with a lead paragraph highlighting the most important findings from the study. Then the discussion interprets the current results in light of prior published literature. Ensure citation of keystone papers on this topic, including new papers that have been published since embarking on the current project. Frame your results, describing how this study adds to the literature. The discussion section usually includes study limitations. Attempt to anticipate criticisms of the methodology, the results, the organization of the manuscript itself, and the (ability to draw) conclusions. A stronger limitations section preempts journal reviewer feedback, potentially simplifying the revision/resubmission process.

The conclusion section should be concise, conveying the main take-home points from your study. You can make recommendations for current clinical practice and for future research endeavors. Finally, consider using citation management software such as Endnote or Mendeley. Though initially cumbersome, these software platforms drastically improve revision efforts and allow for easy reference reformatting.  All authors should review the manuscript multiple times, potentially sharing with other uninvolved colleagues for objective feedback. Consider who should receive acknowledgment for supporting the project and prepare to disclose conflicts of interest and funding.

Although authors should have an initial idea of which journal to submit to, once the manuscript is near completion, this decision will be more straightforward. Journal rankings are beyond the scope of this StatPearls chapter. Still, generally, one should devise a list of the journals within a specialty in order of highest to lowest impact factor (some sites categorize into tiers). High-quality prospective research and clinical trials have a higher likelihood of acceptance into the more prestigious journals within a specialty or to the high-quality general science or medicine journals. Although many journals have an option for open access publication, and numerous legitimate, open access journals now exist, beware of ‘predatory journals’ that charge a fee to publish and may not be indexed in Pubmed or other databases. [12]

Journals have diverse guidelines for formatting and submission, and the manuscript submission process can be tedious. Prior to submission, review Bordage’s paper on reasons for manuscript rejection. [15]  Most journals require a title page and cover letter, the latter of which represents an opportunity to lobby for your paper’s importance. When (not if) you experience manuscript rejections, take reviewer comments and recommendations seriously. Use this valuable feedback for resubmission to the original journal (when invited) or for subsequent submission to other journals. When submitting a requested revision, compose a point by point response to the reviewers and attach a new manuscript with tracked changes. Attempt to resubmit manuscripts as promptly as possible, keeping your work in the hands of journals (allowing you to work on other research). [14]

• Nursing, Allied Health, and Interprofessional Team Interventions

The above logistic steps will differ for review articles, case reports, editorials, and other types of submissions. [16]  However, the organization, precise methods, and adherence to journal guidelines remain important. See work by Provenzale on principles to increase the likelihood of acceptance for original and revised manuscripts. After submission, revision, resubmission, and proofing, you may experience the fulfillment of an official publication. Academics should promote their scientific work, enhancing the dissemination of research to the wider scientific community. [17] [18] [17] [19]

• Review Questions
• Access free multiple choice questions on this topic.
• Comment on this article.

Disclosure: Martin Huecker declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Jacob Shreffler declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

This book is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ ), which permits others to distribute the work, provided that the article is not altered or used commercially. You are not required to obtain permission to distribute this article, provided that you credit the author and journal.

• Cite this Page Huecker MR, Shreffler J. How To Write And Publish A Scientific Manuscript. [Updated 2022 Oct 31]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan-.

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Updated USPSTF Recommendations for Preexposure Prophylaxis—New Choices, New Obstacles

• 1 Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
• Editorial New USPSTF Guidelines for HIV Preexposure Prophylaxis Albert Y. Liu, MD, MPH; Hyman M. Scott, MD, MPH; Susan P. Buchbinder, MD JAMA
• Editorial PrEParing for the End of the HIV Epidemic Roger J. Bedimo, MD; Tomasz Jodlowski, PharmD JAMA Network Open
• US Preventive Services Task Force USPSTF Recommendation: Preexposure Prophylaxis to Prevent Acquisition of HIV US Preventive Services Task Force; Michael J. Barry, MD; Wanda K. Nicholson, MD, MPH, MBA; Michael Silverstein, MD, MPH; David Chelmow, MD; Tumaini Rucker Coker, MD, MBA; Esa M. Davis, MD, MPH; Katrina E. Donahue, MD, MPH; Carlos Roberto Jaén, MD, PhD, MS; Marti Kubik, PhD, RN; Li Li, MD, PhD, MPH; Gbenga Ogedegbe, MD, MPH; Goutham Rao, MD; John M. Ruiz, PhD; James J. Stevermer, MD, MSPH; Joel Tsevat, MD, MPH; Sandra Millon Underwood, PhD, RN; John B. Wong, MD JAMA
• US Preventive Services Task Force USPSTF Review: Preexposure Prophylaxis for the Prevention of HIV Roger Chou, MD; Hunter Spencer, DO; Christina Bougatsos, MPH; Ian Blazina, MPH; Azrah Ahmed, BA; Shelley Selph, MD, MPH JAMA
• JAMA Patient Page Preventing HIV With PrEP US Preventive Services Task Force JAMA

In the US, HIV diagnoses have decreased by 8% from 2017 to 2021, in part due to an increased uptake of preexposure prophylaxis (PrEP), a highly effective and safe biomedical intervention to prevent HIV acquisition. 1 Despite these encouraging data, considerable racial, ethnic, and regional disparities in new HIV diagnoses and PrEP use persist in the US and, paradoxically, are worsening as PrEP options and access increase. 2 While young (ages 13-34 years), Black, Latino, gay, bisexual, and other adolescents and men who have sex with men (MSM) living in the southern US carry the highest burden of new HIV diagnoses in the nation, 1 PrEP coverage in each of these demographic categories is lower than the national average of 30%. 3 For example, Black and Latino gay and bisexual men accounted for 37% and 30% of new HIV diagnoses, respectively, among MSM in 2021, 1 but only 11% and 21% of Black and Latino PrEP-eligible individuals were prescribed PrEP, compared with 78% of their White counterparts. 3

• Editorial New USPSTF Guidelines for HIV Preexposure Prophylaxis JAMA
• Editorial PrEParing for the End of the HIV Epidemic JAMA Network Open

Read More About

Cantos VD , Kelley CF , del Rio C. Updated USPSTF Recommendations for Preexposure Prophylaxis—New Choices, New Obstacles. JAMA Intern Med. 2023;183(10):1054–1056. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2023.3929

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Ascension hospitals facing widespread cyberattack. Here's what we know so far

Ascension confirmed Wednesday that some of its hospitals across the United States were facing disruptions from a possible cyberattack .

In a statement posted to its website, Ascension said that “select technology systems” were affected by what it called a “ cyber security event ,” though the non-profit health system didn’t elaborate on the exact nature of the attack.

Here is what we know about the Ascension hospital cyberattack .

Ascension hospital cyberattack: Ascension Sacred Heart Hospital facing disruptions after cyberattack

When did the Ascension cyberattack happen?

Ascension confirmed to the News Journal that it had detected “unusual activity on select technology network systems” early Wednesday afternoon. Ascension Florida spokesperson Gary Nevolis told the News Journal in a written statement that the health system responded immediately.

How many people are affected by the Ascension cyberattack?

Ascension is still investigating the impact of the cyberattack. News reports from Wisconsin, Texas, Oklahoma, Indiana and Michigan have confirmed similar disruptions.

Employees report to the News Journal that charting, scheduling and prescription writing systems are down.

Ascension has not released many details other than a short statement on its website just after 2:30 p.m. Wednesday.

Was there a data breach in the Ascension cyberattack?

Ascension is not yet aware if the attack resulted in a data breach. In its statement, Ascension said it would notify and support anyone impacted.

What is happening to Ascension patients?

Ambulances are diverting new patients to other hospitals. Escambia County spokesperson Davis Wood confirmed to the News Journal that Escambia County EMS is "on a bypass" for Sacred Heart and is currently transporting patients to other area hospitals.

"Access to some systems have been interrupted as this process continues. Our care teams are trained for these kinds of disruptions and have initiated procedures to ensure patient care delivery continues to be safe and as minimally impacted as possible.”

How many Ascension hospitals are there in Florida?

• Ascension Sacred Heart Pensacola, 5151 N. Ninth Ave., Pensacola, FL
• Ascension Sacred Heart Hospital Emerald Coast, 2300 Mack Bayou Loop #11, Santa Rosa Beach, FL
• Ascension Sacred Heart Bay, 615 Bonita Ave. A, Panama City, FL
• Ascension Sacred Heart Hospital Gulf, 3801 U.S. 98, Port St. Joe, FL
• Ascension St. Vincent’s Clay County, 1670 St. Vincents Way, Middleburg, FL
• Ascension St. Vincent’s St. Johns County, 205 Trinity Way, St. Johns, FL
• Ascension St. Vincent’s Southside Hospital, 4201 Belfort Road, Jacksonville, FL
• Ascension St. Vincent’s Riverside Hospital, 1 Shircliff Way, Jacksonville, FL

How many Ascension hospitals are there in the US?

Ascension employs approximately 134,000 associates, has 35,000 affiliated providers and 140 hospitals that serve communities in 19 states and the District of Columbia.

Ascension full statement

"On Wednesday, May 8, we detected unusual activity on select technology network systems, which we now believe is due to a cyber security event. At this time we continue to investigate the situation. We responded immediately, initiated our investigation and activated our remediation efforts. Access to some systems have been interrupted as this process continues.

Our care teams are trained for these kinds of disruptions and have initiated procedures to ensure patient care delivery continues to be safe and as minimally impacted as possible. There has been a disruption to clinical operations, and we continue to assess the impact and duration of the disruption.

We have engaged Mandiant, a third party expert, to assist in the investigation and remediation process, and we have notified the appropriate authorities. Together, we are working to fully investigate what information, if any, may have been affected by the situation. Should we determine that any sensitive information was affected, we will notify and support those individuals in accordance with all relevant regulatory and legal guidelines.

Out of an abundance of caution we are recommending that business partners temporarily suspend the connection to the Ascension environment. We will inform partners when it is appropriate to reconnect into our environment.

This is an ongoing situation and we will provide updates as we learn more."

Who is Madiant?

Ascension said it had hired cybersecurity firm Madiant to assist in the investigation and response to the incident.

Madiant is a subsidiary of Google that the tech giant bought in 2022.