literature of qin dynasty

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Qin Dynasty

By: History.com Editors

Updated: June 16, 2023 | Original: December 21, 2017

The Qin Dynasty established the first empire in China, starting with efforts in 230 B.C., during which the Qin leaders engulfed six Zhou Dynasty states. Their reign over Imperial China existed only briefly—from 221 to 206 B.C.—but the Qin Dynasty had a lasting cultural impact on the dynasties that followed.

Capital of Qin Dynasty

The Qin (pronounced “chin”) region was located in modern-day Shaanxi province, north of the Zhou Dynasty territory—Qin served as a barrier between it and the less civilized states north of it. The capital of the Qin Dynasty was Xianyang, which was extensively enlarged after Qin dominance was established.

Qin itself had been considered a backwards, barbarian state by the ruling Zhou Dynasty. This distinction had to do with its slow pace in embracing Chinese culture, for instance, lagging behind the Zhou in doing away with human sacrifice.

The ruling class of Qin nonetheless believed themselves to be legitimate heirs to the Zhou states, and through the centuries they strengthened their diplomatic and political standing through a variety of means, including strategic marriages.

It was during the rule of Duke Xiao from 361 to 338 B.C. that the groundwork was laid for conquest, primarily through the work of Shang Yang, an administrator from the state of Wey who was appointed Chancellor.

Shang Yang was a vigorous reformer, systematically reworking the social order of Qin society, eventually creating a massive, complex bureaucratic state and advocating for the unification of Chinese states.

Among Shang Yang’s innovations was a successful system to expand the army beyond the nobility, giving land as a reward to peasants who enlisted. This helped create a massive infantry that was less expensive to maintain than the traditional chariot forces.

Following Duke Xiao’s death, Shang Yang was charged with treason by the old aristocrats in the state. He attempted to fight and create his own territory but was defeated and executed in 338 B.C. with five chariots pulling him apart for spectators in a market. But Shang Yang’s ideas had already laid the foundation for the Qin Empire.

The state of Qin began to expand into the regions surrounding it. When the states of Shu and Ba went to war in 316 B.C., both begged for Qin’s help.

Qin responded by conquering each of them and, over the next 40 years, relocating thousands of families there, and continuing their expansionist efforts into other regions.

Ying Zheng is considered the first emperor of China. The son of King Zhuangxiang of Qin and a concubine, Ying Zheng took the throne at the age of 13, following his father’s death in 247 B.C. after three years on the throne.

Qin Shi Huang

As the ruler of Qin, Ying Zheng took the name Qin Shi Huang Di (“first emperor of Qin”), which brings together the words for “Mythical Ruler” and “God.”

Qin Shi Huang began a militarily-driven expansionist policy. In 229 B.C., the Qin seized Zhao territory and continued until they seized all five Zhou states to create a unified Chinese empire in 221 B.C.

Advised by the sorcerer Lu Sheng, Qin Shi Huang traveled in secrecy through a system of tunnels and lived in secret locations to facilitate communing with immortals. Citizens were discouraged from using the emperor’s personal name in documents, and anyone who revealed his location would face execution.

Qin Unification

Qin Shi Huang worked quickly to unify his conquered people across a vast territory that was home to several different cultures and languages.

One of the most important outcomes of the Qin conquest was the standardization of non-alphabetic written script across all of China, replacing the previous regional scripts. This script was simplified to allow faster writing, useful for record keeping.

The new script enabled parts of the empire that did not speak the same language to communicate together, and led to the founding of an imperial academy to oversee all texts. As part of the academic effort, older philosophical texts were confiscated and restricted (though not destroyed, as accounts during the Han Dynasty would later claim).

The Qin also standardized weights and measures, casting bronze models for measurements and sending them to local governments, who would then impose them on merchants to simplify trade and commerce across the empire. In conjunction with this, bronze coins were created to standardize money across the regions.

With these Qin advances, for the first time in their history, the various warring states in China were unified. The name China, in fact, is derived from the word Qin (which was written as Ch'in in earlier Western texts).

Great Wall of China

The Qin empire is known for its engineering marvels, including a complex system of over 4,000 miles of road and one superhighway, the Qinzhidao or “Straight Road ,” which ran for about 500 miles along the Ziwu Mountain range and is the pathway on which materials for the Great Wall of China were transported.

The empire’s borders were marked on the north by border walls that were connected, and these were expanded into the beginnings of the Great Wall.

Overseen by the Qin road builder Meng Tian, 300,000 workers were brought to work on the construction of the Great Wall, and on the service roads required to transport supplies.

Qin Shi Huang's Monuments

Qin Shi Huang was noted for audacious marvels of art and architecture meant to celebrate the glory of his new dynasty.

Each time Qin made a new conquest, a replica of that state’s ruling palace was constructed across from Qin Shi Huang’s Palace along the Wei River, then linked by covered walkways and populated by singing girls brought in from the conquered states.

Weapons from Qin conquests were collected and melted down, to be used for the casting of giant statues in the capital city Xianyang.

Qin Shi Huang Tomb

For his most brash creation, Qin Shi Huang sent 700,000 workers to create an underground complex at the foot of the Lishan Mountains to serve as his tomb. It now stands as one of the seven wonders of the world.

Designed as an underground city from which Qin Shi Huang would rule in the afterlife, the complex includes temples, huge chambers and halls, administrative buildings, bronze sculptures, animal burial grounds, a replica of the imperial armory, terracotta statues of acrobats and government officials, a fish pond and a river.

Terracotta Army

Less than a mile away, outside the eastern gate of the underground city, Qin Shi Huang developed an army of life-size statues—almost 8,000 terracotta warriors and 600 terracotta horses, plus chariots, stables and other artifacts.

This vast complex of terracotta statuary, weapons and other treasures—including the tomb of Qin Shi Huang himself—is now famous as the Terracotta Army .

Excavation of the tomb of Qin Shi Huang has been delayed due to high levels of toxic mercury at the site—it’s believed that the emperor had the liquid mercury installed in the tomb to mimic rivers and lakes.

Death of Qin Shi Huang

Qin Shi Huang died in 210 B.C. while touring eastern China. Officials traveling with him wanted to keep it secret, so to disguise the stench of his corpse, filled up 10 carts with fish to travel with his body.

They also forged a letter from Qin Shi Huang, sent to crown prince Fu Su, ordering him to commit suicide, which he did, allowing the officials to establish Qin Shi Huang’s younger son as the new emperor.

End of the Qin Dynasty

In two years time, most of the empire had revolted against the new emperor, creating a constant atmosphere of rebellion and retaliation. Warlord Xiang Yu in quick succession defeated the Qin army in battle, executed the emperor, destroyed the capital and split up the empire into 18 states.

Liu Bang, who was given the Han River Valley to rule, quickly rose up against other local kings and then waged a three-year revolt against Xiang Yu. In 202 B.C., Xiang Yu committed suicide, and Liu Bang assumed the title of emperor of the Han Dynasty, adopting many of the Qin dynasty institutions and traditions.

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The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han. Mark Edward Lewis . Early China: A Social and Cultural History. Li Feng . Emperor Qin’s Tomb. National Geographic . Qin Dynasty. World History Encyclopedia .

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23.4: The Qin Dynasty

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The Qin Dynasty

The Qin Dynasty (221-206 BCE), though short-lived, is remembered for its military strength and its unification of China.

Learning Objectives

Describe the establishment of the first imperial dynasty of China and the architecture, literature, weaponry, and sculpture it produced

Key Takeaways

• In the mid and late 3rd century BCE, the Qin accomplished a series of swift conquests, eventually gaining control over the whole of China and creating a unified nation.
• During its reign , the Qin Dynasty achieved increased trade, improved agriculture, and revolutionary developments in military tactics, transportation, and weaponry, such as the sword and crossbow.
• The Dynasty is known for several impressive feats in architecture, sculpture, and other art, such as the beginnings of the Great Wall of China, the construction of the Terracotta Army, and the standardization of the writing system.
• Qin Shihuang : The self-proclaimed first Emperor of the Qin Dynasty.
• Warring States Period : A period in ancient China following the Spring and Autumn period and concluding with the victory of the state of Qin in 221 BCE, creating a unified China under the Qin Dynasty.
• legalism : A philosophy of focusing on the text of written law to the exclusion of the intent of law, elevating strict adherence to law over justice, mercy, grace and common sense.

History: The Qin Dynasty

The Qin Dynasty was the first imperial dynasty of China, lasting only 15 years from 221 to 206 BCE. The strength of the Qin state was greatly increased by the legalist reforms of Shang Yang in the 4 th century BCE, during the Warring States Period . Legalism is a philosophy of focusing on the text of written law to the exclusion of the intent of law, elevating strict adherence to law over justice, mercy, grace, and common sense. In the mid and late 3rd century BCE, the Qin accomplished a series of swift conquests, first ending the powerless Zhou Dynasty and eventually destroying the remaining six of the major states, thus gaining control over the whole of China. This resulted in the first-ever unified China.

Map of the Qin Empire, 210 BCE : The territories marked with red dots show the approximate extent of Qin political control at the death of Qin Shi Huang in 210 BCE.

Accomplishments of the Qin Dynasty

During its reign over China, the Qin Dynasty achieved increased trade, improved agriculture, and revolutionary developments in military tactics, transportation, and weaponry. Qin Shihuang , the self-proclaimed first Emperor of the Qin Dynasty, made vast improvements to the military, which used the most advanced weaponry of its time. The sword was invented during the previous Warring States Period, first made of bronze and later of iron. The crossbow had been introduced in the 5th century BCE and was more powerful and accurate than the composite bows used earlier; it could also be rendered ineffective by removing two pins, which prevented enemies from capturing a working crossbow.

Picture of Qin Dynasty Arcuballista Bolts shown with Regular Handheld Crossbow Bolts, 5th-3rd century B.C. : The crossbow was introduced in the 5th century BC and was more powerful and accurate than the composite bows used earlier.

The Dynasty is also known for many impressive feats in architecture, sculpture, and other art, such as the beginnings of the Great Wall of China, the construction of the Terracotta Army, and the standardization of the writing system.

Decline of the Dynasty

Despite its military strength, however, the Dynasty did not last long. When Qin Shihuang died in 210 BCE, his son was placed on the throne by two of the previous emperor’s advisers, who attempted to influence and control the administration of the entire dynasty through him. The advisers fought among themselves, however, which resulted in both their deaths and that of the second Qin emperor. Popular revolt broke out a few years later, and the weakened empire soon fell to a Chu lieutenant, who went on to found the Han Dynasty. Despite its rapid end, the Qin Dynasty influenced future Chinese empires, particularly the Han, and the European name for China is thought to be derived from it.

Architecture of the Qin Dynasty

Qin architecture is characterized by defensive structures and elements that conveyed authority and power, as exemplified by the early beginnings of the Great Wall.

Examine the characteristics of architecture created under the Qin Dynasty

• Architecture from the previous Warring States Period had several definitive aspects which carried into the Qin Dynasty .
• City walls used for defense were made longer, and secondary walls were often built to separate the different districts.
• Versatility in federal structures was emphasized to create a sense of authority and absolute power, conveyed by architectural elements such as high towers, pillar gates, terraces, and high buildings.
• Qin Shihuang , the self-proclaimed first Emperor, is responsible for the initial construction of what later became the Great Wall of China, which he built along the northern border to protect his empire against the Mongols .
• Great Wall of China : A series of fortifications made of stone, brick, tamped earth, wood, and other materials, generally built along an east-to-west line across the historical northern borders of China to protect the Chinese states and empires against the raids and invasions of the nomadic groups of the Eurasian Steppe.

The Qin Dynasty was the first imperial dynasty of China, lasting from 221 to 206 BCE. The Dynasty followed the Warring States Period and resulted in the unification of China, ending 15 years later with the introduction of the Han Dynasty.

Architecture from the Warring States Period had several definitive aspects which carried into the Qin Dynasty. City walls used for defense were made longer, and secondary walls were often built to separate the different districts. Versatility in federal structures was emphasized to create a sense of authority and absolute power, conveyed by architectural elements such as high towers, pillar gates, terraces, and high buildings.

The Beginnings of the Great Wall

During its reign over China, the Qin sought to create an imperial state unified by highly structured political power and a stable economy able to support a large military. The Qin central government minimized the role of aristocrats and landowners to have direct administrative control over the peasantry, who comprised the overwhelming majority of the population and thus made up a large labor force. This allowed for the construction of ambitious projects such as the wall on the northern border now known as the Great Wall of China.

Qin Shihuang, the first self-proclaimed emperor of the Qin Dynasty, developed plans to fortify the northern border against the nomadic Mongols. The result was the initial construction of what later became the Great Wall of China, built by joining and strengthening the walls made by the feudal lords. These were expanded and rebuilt multiple times by later dynasties, also in response to threats from the north.

The Great Wall of China at Jinshanling : The initial construction of what would become the Great Wall of China began under Qin Shihuang during the Qin Dynasty.

Literature of the Qin Dynasty

Under the Qin Dynasty, a standardized system of Chinese writing was created. This unified Chinese culture for thousands of years.

Discuss the goals of literature produced during the Qin Dynasty

• Prime Minister Li Si standardized the writing system across the whole country. This unified Chinese culture for thousands of years.
• Li Si is credited with creating the “lesser-seal” style of calligraphy , also known as small seal script. This served as a basis for the modern Chinese writing system and is still used in cards, posters, and advertising today.
• In 221 BC, Qin Shihuang , the first Qin emperor, conquered all of the Chinese states and governed with a single philosophy known as legalism . This encouraged severe punishments, particularly when the emperor was disobeyed.
• An attempt to purge all traces of the old dynasties and their philosophies led to the infamous burning of books and burying of scholars incident in 213 BCE.
• In an attempt to consolidate power, Qin Shihuang ordered the burning of all books on non-legalist philosophical viewpoints and intellectual subjects; scholars who refused to submit their books were executed.
• logographic : A writing system based on characters that represent a word or phrase, such as Chinese characters, Japanese kanji, and some Egyptian hieroglyphs.
• legalism : A philosophy focusing on the text of written law to the exclusion of the intent of law, elevating strict adherence to law over justice, mercy, grace, and common sense.

Li Si and the Standardization of Writing

The written language of the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BCE) was logographic like that of the Zhu; each written character represented a word or phrase, as opposed to letters as in the English alphabet. As one of his most influential achievements, prime minister Li Si of the Qin Dynasty standardized the writing system to be of uniform size and shape across the whole country. This had a unifying effect on Chinese culture that lasted thousands of years. Li Si is also credited with creating the “lesser-seal” style of calligraphy, also known as small seal script. This served as a basis for the modern Chinese writing system and is still used in cards, posters, and advertising today.

Before the Qin conquest of the last six of the Warring States of Zhou China, local styles of characters evolved independently for centuries, producing what are called the “Scripts of the Six States” or “Great Seal Script”. Under one unified government however, the diversity was deemed undesirable as it hindered timely communication, trade, taxation, and transportation. In addition, independent scripts could express dissenting political ideas.

As a result, coaches, roads, currency, laws, weights, measures, and writing were systematically unified under the Qin. Characters different than those found in Qin were discarded, and Li Si’s small seal characters became the standard for all regions within the empire. This policy came into effect around 220 BCE, the year after Qin’s unification of the Chinese states, and was introduced by Li Si and two ministers.

Small Seal Script : Small seal script is an archaic form of Chinese calligraphy standardized and promulgated as a national standard by Li Si, prime minister under the Qin Dynasty.

The Burning of Books

One of the more drastic measures to eradicate the old schools of thought during the Qin Dynasty was the infamous burning of books and burying of scholars incident. This decree, passed in 213 BCE, almost single-handedly gave the Qin Dynasty a bad reputation in history. In an attempt to consolidate power, Qin Shihuang ordered the burning of all books on non-legalist philosophical viewpoints and intellectual subjects. All scholars who refused to submit their books were executed. As a result, only texts considered productive by the legalists (largely discussing pragmatic subjects such as agriculture, divination, and medicine) were preserved.

A Consolidation of Power

During the previous Warring States period, the Hundred Schools of Thought comprised many philosophies proposed by Chinese scholars, including Confucianism . In 221 BC, Qin Shihuang, the first Qin emperor, conquered all of the Chinese states and governed with a single philosophy known as legalism. This encouraged severe punishments, particularly when the emperor was disobeyed. Individuals’ rights were devalued when they conflicted with the government’s or the ruler’s wishes, and merchants and scholars were considered unproductive and fit for elimination. During the dynasty, Confucianism—along with all other non-legalist philosophies—was suppressed by the First Emperor.

Killing the Scholars and Burning the Books (18th century Chinese painting) : In 213 BCE, Qin Shihuang ordered the burning of all books on non-legalist philosophical viewpoints and intellectual subjects. All scholars who refused to submit their books were executed.

Sculpture of the Qin Dynasty

The Qin Dynasty is perhaps best known for the impressive Terracotta Army, built to protect Qin Shihuang in the afterlife.

Evaluate the sculpture of the Qin Dynasty

• The Qin, under the leadership of emperor Qin Shihuang , accomplished a series of swift conquests and gained control over all of China, unifying it as a country for the first time.
• The Qin made many advancements in sculpture during their short reign, building on techniques practiced by the previous Zhou Dynasty .
• The most famous example of sculpture under the Qin Dynasty was a project commissioned during Qin Shihuang’s rule known as the Terracotta Army, intended to protect the emperor after his death.
• The Terracotta Army consists of more than 7,000 life-size terracotta figures of warriors and horses, buried with Qin Shihuang after his death in 210–209 BCE.
• Originally, the figures were painted with bright pigments of pink, red, green, blue, black, brown, white, and lilac; however, much of the color coating flaked off or faded.
• The figures were constructed in several poses, including standing infantry, kneeling archers, and charioteers with horses.
• terracotta : A type of earthenware, clay-based unglazed or glazed ceramic, in which the fired body is porous.

The Qin Dynasty was the first imperial dynasty of China, lasting from 221 to 206 BCE. The Dynasty followed the Warring States Period and ended after only 15 years with the Han Dynasty. The Qin, under the leadership of its first self-proclaimed emperor Qin Shihuang, accomplished a series of swift conquests, first ending the powerless Zhou Dynasty and eventually destroying the remaining six of the major states and gaining control of all of China. Under the Qin, it was unified as a country for the first time. The Qin made many advancements in sculpture during their short reign, building on techniques practiced by the previous Zhou Dynasty.

The Terracotta Army

The most famous example of sculpture under the Qin Dynasty was a project commissioned during Qin Shihuang’s rule known as the Terracotta Army, intended to protect the emperor after his death. The Terracotta Army was inconspicuous due to its underground location and thus not discovered until 1974. The “army” of sculptures consists of more than 7,000 life-size terracotta figures of warriors and horses that were buried with Qin Shihuang after his death in 210–209 BCE. The three pits containing the Terracotta Army were estimated in 2007 to hold more than 8,000 soldiers, 130 chariots with 520 horses, and 150 cavalry horses, the majority of which remained buried in the pits nearby Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum . Non-military terracotta figures were found in other pits, including officials, acrobats, strongmen, and musicians.

Style of the Figures

The figures were painted in bright pigments before they were placed in the vault , and the original colors of pink, red, green, blue, black, brown, white, and lilac were visible when the pieces were first unearthed. However, exposure to air has caused the pigments to fade and flake off, revealing their natural terracotta color. The figures were constructed in several poses, including standing infantry, kneeling archers, and charioteers with horses. They vary in height according to their roles, with the generals tallest, and each figure’s head appears to be unique, with a variety of facial features, expressions, and hair styles. Along with the colored lacquer finish, the individual facial features would have given the figures a realistic feel.

The Terracotta Army : The Terracotta Army consists of more than 7,000 life-size terracotta figures of warriors and horses, buried with the first Emperor of Qin in 210 BCE.

Construction

The terracotta army figures were manufactured in workshops by government laborers and local craftsmen using local materials. Heads, arms, legs, and torsos were created separately and then assembled. Eight face molds were most likely used, with clay added after assembly to provide individual facial features. It is believed that the legs were made using the same process used for terracotta drainage pipes. This would classify the process as assembly line production, with specific parts manufactured and assembled after being fired, as opposed to being crafted from one solid piece and subsequently fired. In those times of tight imperial control, each workshop was required to inscribe its name on items produced to ensure quality control.

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Art of Asia

Course: art of asia   >   unit 2, qin dynasty (c. 221–206 b.c.e.), an introduction.

• The Tomb of the First Emperor
• The Terracotta Warriors
• Terracotta Warriors from the mausoleum of the first Qin emperor of China

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Qin dynasty (c. 221–206 B.C.E.), an introduction

Jar (hu), Qin dynasty, 221 B.C.-206, ceramic, China, 34.3 high x 25.6 x 22.6 cm (Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.:  Long-term loan from the Smithsonian American Art Museum ; gift of John Gellatly, 1929.8.328, LTS1985.1.328.1)

Map of the Qin Empire (underlying map © Google)

At the end of the Warring States period (475–221 B.C.E.), the state of Qin conquered all other states and established the Qin dynasty (221–206 B.C.E.). It was China’s first unified state whose power was centralized instead of spread among different kingdoms in the north and south. Although it lasted only about fifteen years, the Qin dynasty greatly influenced the next two thousand years of Chinese history.

The first emperor of Qin, known as Qin Shihuangdi (literally “First Emperor,” 259–210 B.C.E.), instituted a central and systematic bureaucracy. He divided the state into provinces and prefectures governed by appointed officials. This administrative structure has served as a model for government in China to the present day. Shihuangdi sought to standardize numerous aspects of Chinese life, including weights and measures, coinage, and the writing system. These standards would last for centuries after the fall of his short-lived dynasty. He also ordered many construction projects. He expanded the network of roads and canals throughout the country. The first Great Wall (not the one that exists today) was built during his reign.

Mausoleum of Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi, Overview Image of Pit 1 (photo: mararie, CC BY-SA 2.0)

Despite the many accomplishments of the Qin dynasty, Shihuangdi was considered a severe ruler. He was intolerant of any threats to his rule and established harsh laws to maintain his control. He had his chief advisor burn all books that were not written on subjects he considered useful (useful subjects included agriculture and medicine) and reportedly buried hundreds of scholars alive.

Mausoleum of Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi, Warriors (photo: scottgunn, CC BY-NC 2.0)

The Qin dynasty is one of the best-known periods in Chinese history in the West because of the 1974 discovery of thousands of life-size terracotta warriors. They were part of the vast army guarding the tomb of Qin Shihuangdi. These figures were modeled after general categories of soldiers, such as archers and infantrymen, but possessed some individual characteristics as well. The warriors reflect Shihuangdi’s reliance on the military to create and maintain a unified China and indicate his desire to retain a protective army in the afterlife.

Following the death of Qin Shihuangdi, the Qin dynasty collapsed into chaos. In 206 B.C.E., China was reunited under the rule of the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 C.E.).

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Historical Archaeology (Qin and Han)

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Historical Archaeology (Qin and Han) by Robert E. Murowchick LAST REVIEWED: 28 August 2018 LAST MODIFIED: 28 August 2018 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199920082-0158

The Qin and Han empires (221 BCE to 220 CE ) represent one of the most momentous periods of early China as it moved from an evolving mosaic of contending states and cultures to a relatively unified imperial state. Political, ritual, social, and economic changes put in place during these four centuries would greatly influence the dynasties that followed. During the Warring States period ( c . 475–221 BCE ), the major states of the North China Plain and central China vied for supremacy. The northwestern state of Qin eventually dominated the region and succeeded in bringing the first unification of China in 221 BCE under the First Emperor, Qin Shihuangdi. With the Han conquest of Qin only a decade later, a four century long period of imperial unity was brought to much of China that extended Han control into neighboring tributary states in the northeast, south, and southwest, and established rich and complex military and economic interactions with much of Asia. This early imperial period is well known through abundant traditional literary and historical sources, the details of which can be found in the comprehensive Historical Overviews . However, these texts record only a small part of life and society during the Qin and Han periods. Archaeology, first introduced in China in the 1910s and 1920s, and dramatically expanded since the 1970s, has yielded an increasingly rich array of material evidence of exceptional diversity and quantity—it is estimated that more than ten thousand Han dynasty tombs have been excavated, not to mention residential, production, and other sites. These new finds have dramatically improved our understanding of the Qin and Han periods, including its urban centers, ritual and mortuary practices, military prowess, details of workshop organization and labor, interactions with neighboring cultures, and the exquisite refinements in a range of arts, crafts, industries, and scientific/technological endeavors that took shape during this pivotal period. Finally, note that the terms “Qin” and “Han” have both cultural and chronological meaning, and archaeological materials from “non-Chinese” cultures with which the Qin and Han empires came into contact represent some of the most exciting aspects of recent archaeological scholarship.

Field archaeology in China has expanded dramatically since the 1970s, including much new fieldwork on the Qin and Han periods. There are many excellent overviews of the key archaeological discoveries, published both in English and in Chinese, that have added greatly to our understanding of early imperial China. Two authoritative volumes ( Li 1985 and Wang 1982 ) were written by eminent Chinese scholars and translated by K. C. Chang for Yale’s Early Chinese Civilization Series . Their titles are a bit misleading in that both works really focus on the archaeological remains of these cultures and do not provide detailed cultural or historical discussions of Qin or Han (which can be found instead in some of the Historical Overviews ). The archaeological data they do present is comprehensive as befits the expertise of their authors: Li Xueqin 李学勤, director of the Department of Pre-Qin History in the Institute of History, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences and of the Institute of Sinology at Tsinghua University, is renowned for his wide-ranging research on China’s ancient history, archaeology, epigraphy and paleography, and Wang Zhongshu 王仲殊 (b. 1925–d. 2015) was one of China’s most senior archaeologists of the Han period and former director of the Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. A more readable overview of Han art, archaeology, and society is Pirazzoli-t’Serstevens 1982 . Readers will need to supplement all three of these volumes, however, with more recent publications that reflect key discoveries since the early 1980s. Liu 2013 and Liu 2015 fill this need perfectly, with excellent contributed essays and an abundance of recent color photographs of the most important work at the First Emperor of Qin’s mausoleum complex and other sites. Yang 2004 is also a terrific place to start, with excellent photos and clear and concise presentations of the most important Qin and Han sites. For those who can read Chinese, there are more than a dozen excellent volumes on Qin and Han archaeology, among them Wang and Liang 2001 and Zhao and Gao 2002 . Pines, et al. 2013 reflects the vibrant scholarly debate about how interpretations of new archaeological data contradict or support traditional historical understandings of Qin and Han history and society, and whether Qin unification represents a rupture from or a continuation of many aspects of eastern Zhou society that preceded it.

Li, Xueqin. Eastern Zhou and Qin Civilizations . Translated by K. C. Chang. New Haven, CT, and London: Yale University Press, 1985.

Comprehensive survey of archaeological discoveries from the 8th to 3rd centuries BCE . Especially useful are chapter 14 to understand Qin’s predynastic foundations, and chapter 15 for its archaeological details both fabulous and mundane, rather than just selected “treasures” (see Oxford Bibliographies article in Chinese Studies “ The Terracotta Warriors ”). Li’s inclusion of divergent opinions reflects the dynamism of modern Chinese archaeology. Black-and-white illustrations have captions that are both too brief and unsourced.

Liu, Yang, ed. China’s Terracotta Warriors: The First Emperor’s Legacy . Minneapolis: Minneapolis Institute of Art, 2013.

Superb catalogue for the Qin exhibition at the Minneapolis Institute of Arts (2012–2013) and the Asian Art Museum of San Francisco (2013), with up-to-date discussion and photos of recent finds. Includes key recent archaeological work at the First Emperor’s vast mausoleum complex beyond the well-known terracotta army formations.

Liu, Yang, ed. Beyond the First Emperor’s Mausoleum: New Perspectives on Qin Art . Minneapolis: Minneapolis Institute of Arts, 2015.

Selection of scholarly papers presented in October 2012 at the Minneapolis Institute of Arts for its symposium, “China’s Terracotta Warriors: The First Emperor’s Legacy.” Focuses on recent archaeological discoveries and our changing understanding of Qin culture and Qin empire. An excellent complement to Pines, et al. 2013 .

Pines, Yuri, Gideon Shelach, Lothar von Falkenhausen, and Robin D. S. Yates, eds. Birth of an Empire: The State of Qin, Revisited . New Perspectives on Chinese Culture and Society. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2013.

Stimulating presentation of papers presented at a 2008 conference at the Institute for Advanced Study, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, reflects the varying interpretations of recent archeological finds and how those are generating interesting and sometimes controversial reassessments of the history and impact of the pre-Qin and Qin periods. The many authors included here often differ considerably in their interpretations of the data, while the editors’ essays provide structure with useful essays on the larger thematic issues.

Pirazzoli-t’Serstevens, Michèle. The Han Dynasty . Translated from the French by Janet Seligman. New York: Rizzoli International, 1982.

Also published as The Han Civilisation of China (Oxford: Phaidon, 1982). A narrative of the Han empire, from the Qin legacy to diverse topics including state resources, taxation, and the military; the distribution of wealth, and the role of different social classes. In-depth coverage includes the tombs at Mawangdui and Han religious beliefs, technological achievements, Han interaction with the Xiongnu to its north and with the tribes of southwest China. Also covered are aspects of urban and court life, as are Han legacies in science, technology, and art.

Wang Xueli 王学理 and Liang Yun 梁云. Qin wenhua (秦文化). Beijing: Wenwu Chubanshe, 2001.

A readable, popular presentation of Qin history and archaeology. Key discoveries organized by decade help the reader to understand the evolving interests and priorities in historical and archaeological research against the changing political and social background of modern China. No English abstract.

Wang, Zhongshu. Han Civilization . Translated by K. C. Chang and collaborators. New Haven, CT, and London: Yale University Press, 1982.

Presents a wealth of detailed information about Han history and archaeology, from the spectacular to the mundane, based on lectures Wang presented in the United States in 1979 (originally published as Wang Zhongshu 王仲殊, Han dai kaoguxue gaishuo 汉代考古学概说 [Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1984]). Ample black-and-white illustrations, although much better images of many objects are available elsewhere. Photo captions are unfortunately brief and unsourced.

Yang, Xiaoneng, ed. New Perspectives on China’s Past: Chinese Archaeology in the Twentieth Century . 2 vols. New Haven, CT, and Kansas City: Yale University Press in association with Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, 2004.

A sweeping and visually stunning presentation of archaeological discoveries in China. Richard Barnhart’s essay exploring possible cultural and artistic connections between the Qin empire and the classical world is fascinating. Particularly useful are entries on the predynastic Qin capital site of Yongcheng 雍城 (677–383 BCE ) and the tombs of the Dukes of Qin at Fengxiang 鳳翔, as well as concise coverage of the most important sites from the Qin and Han periods.

Zhao Huacheng 赵化成 and Gao Chongwen 高崇文. Qin Han kaogu 秦汉考古. Beijing: Wenwu Chubanshe, 2002.

Readable volume presents all the major archaeological discoveries of the Qin and Han capital cities, imperial and elite tombs (and, usefully, a discussion of medium and small Han tombs from various parts of China), specific artifact categories (Han sculpture and decorated tomb bricks, wall paintings, silk paintings, bronzes, lacquer, and textiles), and newly discovered Qin and Han texts on cloth, wood, and bamboo from the border regions.

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Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

Qin dynasty (221–206 b.c.).

Department of Asian Art , The Metropolitan Museum of Art

October 2000

Previously a minor state in the northwest, Qin had seized the territories of small states on its south and west borders by the mid-third century B.C., pursuing a harsh policy aimed at the consolidation and maintenance of power. Soon thereafter, Ying Zheng (259–210 B.C.), who would reunite China , came to the Qin throne as a boy of nine. He captured the remaining six of the “warring states,” expanding his rule eastward and as far south as the Yangzi River, and proclaimed himself First Emperor of the Qin, or Qin Shihuangdi. Qin, pronounced chin , is the source of the Western name China.

Throughout his rule, Qin Shihuang continued to extend the empire, eventually reaching as far south as Vietnam. His vast empire was divided into commanderies and prefectures administered jointly by civil and military officials under the direction of a huge central bureaucracy. This administrative structure served as a model for government in China until the collapse of the Qing dynasty in 1911. Qin Shihuang also standardized the Chinese script, currency, and system of measurements, and expanded the network of roads and canals. He is credited with building the Great Wall of China by uniting several preexisting defensive walls on the northern frontier; and reviled for a state-sponsored burning of Confucian works and other classics in 213 B.C.

Excavations begun in 1974 brought to light over 7,000 lifesize terracotta figures from the vast army guarding the tomb of Qin Shihuang, one of the most spectacular archaeological discoveries in Mainland China. Although his tomb chamber has not yet been unearthed, historical records describe it as a microcosm of his realm, with constellations painted on the ceiling and running rivers made of mercury.

Department of Asian Art. “Qin Dynasty (221–206 B.C.).” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/qind/hd_qind.htm (October 2000)

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• Han Dynasty (206 B.C.–220 A.D.)
• Shang and Zhou Dynasties: The Bronze Age of China
• Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)
• Music and Art of China
• Neolithic Period in China
• Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127)
• Period of the Northern and Southern Dynasties (386–581)
• The Qing Dynasty (1644–1911): Painting
• Southern Song Dynasty (1127–1279)
• Tang Dynasty (618–907)
• Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368)
• China, 1000 B.C.–1 A.D.
• Qin Dynasty (ca. 206 B.C.)
• Archaeology
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• Qing Dynasty
• Sculpture in the Round
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The History of Chinese Literature

Writing in China dates back to the hieroglyphs that were used in the Shang Dynasty of 1700 – 1050 BC. Chinese literature is a vast subject that spans thousands of years. One of the interesting things about Chinese literature is that much of the serious literature was composed using a formal written language that is called Classical Chinese .

The best literature of the Yuan Dynasty era and the four novels that are considered the greatest classics are important exceptions.

However, even during the Qing Dynasty of two hundred years ago, most writers composed in a literary stream that extended back about 2,400 years. They studied very ancient writings in more or less the original written language. This large breadth of time with so many writers living in the various eras and countries makes Chinese literature complex.

Chinese literary works include fiction , philosophical and religious works, poetry, and scientific writings . The dynastic eras frame the history of Chinese literature and are examined one by one.

The grammar of the written Classical Language is different than the spoken languages of the past two thousand years.

This written language was used by people of many different ethnic groups and countries during the Zhou, Qin and Han eras spanning 1050 BC to 220 AD. After the Han Dynasty, the written language evolved as the spoken languages changed, but most writers still based their compositions on Classical Chinese.

However, this written language wasn't the vernacular language even two thousand years ago. The empires and groups of kingdoms of all these eras were composed of people speaking many different native languages . If Europe had a literary history like China's, it would be as if most European writers until the 20th century always tried to write in ancient Classical Greek that became a dead language more than two millennia ago.

Shang Dynasty (about 1700-1050 BC) — Development of Chinese Writing

The first dynasty for which there is historical record and archaeological evidence is the Shang Dynasty. It was a small empire in northern central China. No documents from that country survive, but there are archaeological finds of hieroglyphic writing on bronze wares and oracle bones. The hieroglyphic writing system later evolved into ideographic and partly-phonetic Chinese characters.

Zhou Dynasty (1045-255 BC) — Basic Philosophical and Religious Literature

The Zhou Dynasty was contemporaneous with the Shang Dynasty, and then they conquered the Shang Dynasty. Their dynasty lasted for about 800 years, but for most of the time, their original territory was broken up into dozens of competing kingdoms, and these finally coalesced into several big and warring kingdoms by the end of the Zhou era.

The great literary works of philosophy and religion that became the basis for Chinese religious and social belief stem from what is called the Spring and Autumn Period (770-476) and the Warring States Period (475-221). Taoism, Confucian literature , and other prominent religious and philosophical schools all emerged during these two periods.

The Chinese call this simultaneous emergence of religions and philosophies the "One Hundred Schools of Thought." Perhaps so many philosophers could write simultaneously because they lived in small kingdoms that supported them.

In Chinese history, the dominant rulers generally squelch or discourage philosophical expression that contradict their own, so when there were several small powers, different schools of thought could survive in the land at the same time.

The major literary achievements of the Confucian Classics, early Taoist writings, and other important prose works originated in the late Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period of the Zhou Dynasty era. These literary works deeply shaped Chinese philosophy and religion .

Confucius is said to have edited a history of the Spring and Autumn Period called the Spring and Autumn Annals (春秋) that shapes Chinese thinking about its history.

There were hundreds of philosophers and writers who wrote conflicting documents, and there was discussion and communication. What we know of the literature of this period was mainly preserved after the Qin Dynasty's book burning and from a few recent archeological finds of records.

Probably most of the philosophical and religious works of that time were destroyed. If there were great fictional books created, they have been lost. So the main contributions of this period to Chinese literature were the prose works of the Confucian Classics and the Taoist writings, and preserved poems and songs.

Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC) — Literary Disaster and Legalism

At the end of the Zhou Dynasty era that is called the Warring States Period, of the surviving few big states in the land, the Qin Dynasty became the most powerful.

The Qin Dynasty had big armies and conquered the others. Once the Qin emperor had control, he wanted to keep it, and they squelched any opposition to his authority. In the conquered territories, there were teachers of many different doctrines and religions . A big philosophical and religious school then was called Mohism. They were particularly attacked by the Qin Dynasty, and little is known about it.

An early form of Buddhism was also established in China at that time, but their temples and literature were destroyed and even less is known about them. The emperor wanted to reduce the One Hundred Schools of Thought to one that he approved. He ordered the destruction of most books all over the empire . He even killed many Confucian philosophers and teachers . He allowed books on scientific subjects like medicine or agriculture to survive. So the "Book Burning and Burial of Scholars" was a literary disaster.

On the other hand, the Qin Dynasty standardized the written Classical Language . It is said that a minister of the Qin emperor named Li Si introduced a writing system that later developed into modern Chinese writing. Standardization was meant to help control the society. The standardized writing system also helped people all over the country to communicate more clearly.

The Qin Emperor favored a philosophical school that was called Legalism (法家). This philosophy of course justified the strong control of the emperor and maintained that everyone should obey him. It is thought that Li Si taught that human nature was naturally selfish and that a strong emperor government with strict laws was needed for social order .

Li Si's writings on politics and law and his propagation of this school much influenced the political thinking in the Han Dynasty and later eras. Legalism texts and the standardization of writing were the Qin Dynasty era's literary contributions.

Han Dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD) — Scientific and Historical Texts

A former peasant leader overthrew the Qin Empire. The Han Dynasty era lasted for 400 years. At the beginning of the era, Confucianism was revived . Confucian texts were rewritten and republished. Confucianism was mixed with the Legalism philosophy of Li Si. The resulting ideology was the official ideology of the Han Dynasty and influenced political thinking afterwards. The era's major contributions were historical texts and scientific works.

Sima Qian wrote Historical Records that is a major history concerning the overall history of China from before the Shang Dynasty until the Han Dynasty. The book's prose was considered a model for writers in succeeding dynastic eras. Another important historical text concerned the Han Dynasty itself.

Some scientific texts were also thought to be important for their times, thought it doesn't seem that the information was widely known or well known afterwards.

The Han Dynasty era was one of the two main hotspot eras for scientific and technical advance. But printing wasn't available for wide publication of the information . During the Eastern Han Dynasty towards the end of the Han era, the influence of the philosophy of the Confucian Classics that hindered scientific progress was waning. So people were more free to pursue invention.

Cai Lun (50–121) of the imperial court is said to be the first person in the world to create writing paper , and this was important for written communication at the end of the empire. Finery forges were used in steel making. Two or three mathematical texts showing advanced mathematics for the times were written.

The Han Empire disintegrated into warring kingdoms similar to what happened during the Warring States Period before the Qin Dynasty. For several hundred years, dynasties and kingdoms rose and fell in various places, and the next big and long-lasting dynastic empire is called the Tang Dynasty.

Tang Dynasty (618-907) — Early Woodblock Printing and Poetry

The Tang Dynasty had a big empire that benefited from trade with the west along the Silk Road , battled with the Tibetan Empire, and experienced the growing influence of organized Buddhist religions. This era's main contribution to Chinese literature was in the poetry of Dufu, Li Bai and many other poets. Dufu and Li Bai are often thought of as China's greatest poets.

Li Bai (701–762) was one of the greatest romantic poets of ancient China. He wrote at least a thousand poems on a variety of subjects from political matters to natural scenery.

Du Fu (712-770 AD) also wrote more than a thousand poems. He is thought of as one of the greatest realist poets of China. His poems reflect the hard realities of war, dying people living next to rich rulers, and primitive rural life. He was an official in the Tang capital of Chang An, and he was captured when the capital was attacked. He took refuge in Chengdu that is a city in Sichuan Province. It is thought that he lived in a simple hut where he wrote many of his best realist poems. Perhaps more than 1,400 of his poems survive, and his poetry is still read and appreciated by modern Chinese people.

Song Dynasty (960-1279) — Early Woodblock Printing, Travel Literature, Poetry, Scientific Texts and the Neo-Confucian Classics

The next dynasty is called the Song Dynasty. It was weaker than the Tang Dynasty, but the imperial government officials made remarkable scientific and technical advances .

Military technology greatly advanced. They traded little with the west due to the presence of warring Muslim states on the old trade routes. There wasn't territorial expansion, but the empire was continuously attacked by nomadic tribes and countries around them. Their northern territory was invaded, and they were forced to move their capital to southern China.

So the era is divided into two eras called the Northern Song (960-1127) and Southern Song (1127-1279) eras.

One of the era's technological accomplishments was the invention of movable type about the turn of 2nd millennia during the Northern Song period. This helped to spread knowledge since printed material could be published more quickly and cheaply .

Travel literature in which authors wrote about their trips and about various destinations became popular perhaps because the texts could be cheaply bought. The Confucian Classics were codified and used as test material for the entrance examination into the elite bureaucracy, advanced scientific texts and atlases were published, and important poems were written.

The Confucian Classics were important in China's history because from the Song Dynasty onwards, they were the texts people needed to know in order to pass an examination for the bureaucracy of China.

These Confucian Classics were the Five Classics that were thought to have been penned by Confucius and the Four Books that were thought to contain Confucius-related material but were compiled during the Southern Song era. The Four Books and Five Classics (四書五經) were basically memorized by those who did the best on the exams.

In this way, Confucianism, as codified during the Song era, became the dominant political philosophy of the several empires until modern times .

Since the bureaucrats all studied the same works on social behavior and philosophy, this promoted unity and the normalization of behavior throughout each empire and during dynastic changes. The scholar-bureaucrats had a common base of understanding, and they passed on these ideas to the people under them. Those who passed the difficult exams were highly respected even if they didn't receive a ruling post. High education in this system was thought to produce nobility .

The Five Classics and Four Books were written in the written Classical Language.

The Five Classics include : The Book of Changes , The Classic of Poetry , The Record of Rites that was a recreation of the original Classic of Rites of Confucius that was lost in the Qin book purge, The Classic of History , and The Spring and Autumn Annals that was mainly a historical record of Confucius' native state of Lu.

The Four Books include : The Analects of Confucius that is a book of pithy sayings attributed to Confucius and recorded by his disciples; Mencius that is a collection of political dialogues attributed to Mencius; The Doctrine of the Mean ; and The Great Learning that is a book about education, self-cultivation and the Dao. For foreigners who want a taste of this Confucian philosophy, reading the Analects of Confucius is a good introduction since the statements are usually simple and like common sense.

Another period of scientific progress and technical invention was the Song era . Song technicians seemed to have made a lot of advancements in mechanical engineering. They made advanced contraptions out of gears, pulleys and wheels. These were used to make big clocks, a mechanical odometer on animal drawn carts that marked land distance by making noise after traveling a certain distance, and other advanced instruments. The Song technicians also invented many uses gunpowder including rockets, explosives and big guns.

The imperial court officials did remarkable scientific research in many areas of mechanics and science. Shen Kuo (1031–1095) and Su Song (1020–1101) both wrote scientific treatises about their research and about different fields.

Shen is said to have discovered the concepts of true north and magnetic declination towards the North Pole. He also described the magnetic needle compass . If Chinese sailors knew about this work, they could have sailed long distances more accurately. This knowledge would predate European discovery. He did advanced astronomical research for his time.

Su Song wrote a treatise called the Bencao Tujing with information on medicine, botany and zoology. He also was the author of a large celestial atlas of five different star maps, and he also made land atlases. Su Song was famous for his hydraulic-powered astronomical clock tower. Su's clock tower is said to have had an endless power-transmitting chain drive that he described in a text on clock design and astronomy that was published in 1092. If this is so, it may be the first time such a device was used in the world. When the Southern Song Empire was conquered by the Mongols, these inventions and the astronomical knowledge may have been forgotten.

Another contribution to the literature of China was the poetry of the Song era. A Southern Song poet named Lu is thought to have written almost 10,000 poems. Su Tungpo is regarded as a great poet of the Northern Song era. Here is a stanza he wrote:

The moon rounds the red mansion Stoops to silk-pad doors Shines upon the sleepless Bearing no grudge Why does the moon tend to be full when people are apart?

Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368) — Drama and Great Fictional Novels

The Mongols were nomadic people who herded cattle north of the Tang Empire and wandered over a large area fighting on horseback. They believed that they might be able to conquer the world. They easily conquered Persia far to the west.

It was a big empire with high technology , a big population and a big army . Then they decided to try to conquer all the countries around them.

They attacked the Tang Dynasty, the Dali Kingdom in Yunnan, and much of Asia, and they formed the biggest empire in the history of the earth until then. They conquered Russia, a part of eastern Europe and a part of the Middle East.

In China, the Mongols established the very rich Yuan Dynasty. In their camps, the Mongols were entertained by shadow puppet plays in which a lamp cast the shadows of little figurines and puppets on a screen or sheet. In the Yuan Dynasty, puppet drama continued to entertain the rich dynastic courts in vernacular language.

Dramatic operatic theaters with human actors speaking in vernacular language was a favorite form of entertainment as well, and some of China's best dramatic scripts were written then. Also two of the four novels that are generally considered China's best literary classics were written in vernacular language then.

So though the Yuan Empire wasn't ruled by Chinese, it was an era of some historically renowned dramatic playwrights and novelists who wrote in vernacular language.

It is thought that the operatic style of the shadow puppet dramas that entertained the courts influenced the development of the operatic theater style of the Yuan Dynasty.

The Yuan rulers were fabulously wealthy according to historical accounts. They had a vast empire and control of trade in Eurasia. For the royal courts or the rich people, refined music, sound effects and talented singers were employed for shadow plays.

The Yuan "Zaju" style of opera was similar to their shadow plays. Perhaps the playwrights adopted the plots and the features. There were exciting plots, elaborate costumes, refined music and singing, action, and dance that the Mongols enjoyed. The music of the Zaju operas was called Yuan Qu (元曲 Yuan Music). The language used wasn't the Classical Language but the vernacular language , so that the theater might be enjoyed by everyone. After the Yuan Dynasty, the operatic style developed into the Painted Faces style of Chinese opera that was popular until modern times.

Guan Hanqing is regarded as one of the best playwrights of the times. He wrote Midsummer Snow that was one of the most popular drama pieces. It is a tragedy about an unjustly accused woman who received justice after her death.

The Romance of the Western Chamber was written by Wang Shifu. It is considered one of the best romantic dramas ever written in China.

Novels were another outstanding achievement of the Yuan era. The novelists influenced the future development of the genre. Two novels are still widely read now and are generally considered two of the four greatest novels in Chinese literature. These are Water Margin and The Romance of the Three Kingdoms .

The Romance of the Three Kingdoms was written in vernacular language by Luo Guan Zhong. It is historical fiction about the end of the Han Dynasty and the Three Kingdoms Period. The Three Kingdoms Period was between the Han and Tang eras. Special emphasis is laid on the two famous historical rulers Liu Bei and Cao Cao who were antagonists. It is a long novel with 800,000 words.

Water Margin is about the lives and ideals of a group of characters who fought against the corrupt Northern Song Dynasty that the Mongols conquered. It is said it was written in vernacular language by Shi Nai An, but scholars debate about the authorship. Many scholars think that the first 70 chapters were written by Shi Nai An and that the last 30 chapters were written by Luo Guan Zhong who was also the author of The Romance of the Three Kingdoms .

Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) — Novels

The Chinese rebelled against the Mongols, and the Ming Dynasty era began about 1368. The Mongols and the Ming government still sometimes fought. Because of this and the presence of Muslim countries in between, trade with the west was reduced to the pre-Yuan level.

The Ming initially were interested in exploration, and Muslims whose ancestors arrived during the Yuan Dynasty and who were familiar with seagoing trade were employed to make long voyages to the Indian Ocean, the Middle East and perhaps Africa. Then they became isolationist.

It is interesting that a book that is one of the four great classics called Journey to the West about a monk going to India was written during this time of isolation. Maybe the thought of travel to the lands in the west was appealing then. Novels were the era's main contribution.

The Journey to the West is based on the historical journey of a Buddhist to India during the Tang era to learn Buddhist teachings and bring back scriptures and information. In 1629, Xuanzang (602 - 664) left Chang'an in 629 and arrived back in Chang'an in 646. Mythical tales about this journey including the character of an intelligent monkey began to be circulated long before the book was written. The author drew on known tales.

Journey to the West is thought to have been published anonymously by Wu Cheng'en in the 16th century though scholars have doubt about the authorship. The trend in that era was for people to write in Classical Chinese and imitate the literature of the Tang Dynasty and Han Dynasty.

However, this book was written in the vernacular . Perhaps because there was a lack of accurate geographical knowledge available to the author, much of the geographical landscape of the story is inaccurate. However, the "Flaming Mountains" that are near Turpan in Xinjiang are mentioned. Perhaps the author meant to poke fun at Chinese religion because a monkey is said to have defeated a whole army led by Taoist gods, and only the Buddha's intervention stopped the monkey.

The book describes India as a land of gross sin and immorality, and the monk was commissioned by Buddha to help India. The characters in the book are well known to Chinese children , and they often appear in martial arts movies and cartoons.

Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) — Novels and Pre-modern Literature

The Manchus invaded the Ming Empire from the north and established the last dynasty called the Qing Dynasty. The Manchus were not Chinese, but they retained the Neo-Confucian governing system of the Song and Ming eras.

The Qing Dynasty came under increasing attack from both internal rebellions and foreign countries. In the 19th century, foreign literature and the West became better known. In the middle of this era, the last of China's four great classic novels was written called Dream of the Red Chamber (红楼梦); and near the end of the era, modernistic literature developed.

The Dream of the Red Chamber also has an uncertain authorship. Like the other three great classic novels, it was written in a vernacular language – the Mandarin language that was the language of the Qing capital. It is probably mostly composed by Cao Xueqin (about 1715-1763) in the middle 1700s, and the first printing of the book was in the late 1700s.

It is thought that Cao did not live to see the first printing. It is thought that another person or other people contributed the ending of the story since the original ending of the story was lost. The book has a lot of textual problems, and there are different versions. In a preface to a printed version in 1792, two editors claimed to have put together an ending based on the author's working manuscripts that they had bought from a street vendor.

At the end of the Qing Dynasty era, the dynastic rulers came under increasing pressure both from foreign attacks and internal rebellions. Educated Chinese had easier access to foreign literature , and they were more influenced by Western culture. Students started to travel abroad to study , and schools built by missionaries educated tens of thousands of students. There was a general sense of crisis, and intellectuals started translating foreign works on science, politics, and literature. These were popular, and the culture started to change. Some writers produced fiction more like Western fiction .

Modern Era (1912-present) — Westernized Literature

Sun Yat-sen led a revolution that marked the end of Chinese dynasties in which a clan rules an empire. Of course, the big change of Chinese society that happened with the change of government led to a change in literature.

It became westernized, and the Classical Language wasn't used. The national government wanted women to have more of an equal status in society, and women writers and scholars were taken more seriously. There was a lot of politically oriented literature printed . Scholars had access to foreign literature, and many students studied abroad.

Until about 1923, there was a New Culture Movement. Writers generally wanted to lead the way in transforming China into a modern industrialized country and replacing Confucian life-style with a westernized one.

Under the national government, there was some freedom of expression, and lots of views and styles of literature were popular. China came under attack from Japan. After the Communist victory, only literature approved by the government was allowed.

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The Legacy of the Qin Dynasty

How China's First Emperor Still Influences the Nation Today

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The Qin Dynasty, pronounced like chin , emerged in 221 BCE. Qin Shihuang, the king of the Qin state at the time, conquered the many feudal territories vying for influence during the bloody Warring States period. He then united them all under one rule, thus putting an end to the notoriously violent chapter in Chinese history that lasted for 200 years.

Qin Shihuang was only 38 years old when he came into power. He created the title "Emperor" ( 皇帝,    huángdì ) for himself, and thus is known as the first emperor of China.

While his dynasty only lasted 15 years, the shortest dynastic rule in Chinese history, the impact of the Qin Emperor on China cannot be understated. Although highly controversial, Qin Dynasty policies were very influential in uniting China and maintaining power.

The Qin Emperor was famously obsessed with immortality and even spent years trying to find an elixir to eternal life. Though he ultimately died, it would seem that Qin’s quest to live forever was ultimately granted – his practices and policies were carried into the subsequent Han Dynasty and continue to flourish in present-day China. 

Here are just a few remnants of Qin’s legacy. 

Central Rule

The dynasty adhered to Legalist principles, which is a Chinese philosophy that followed strict compliance with the rule of law. This belief allowed Qin to rule the population from a centralized power structure and proved to be a very effective way to govern.

Such a policy, however, did not allow for dissent. Anyone who protested Qin's power was quickly and brutally silenced or killed off. 

Written Script 

Qin instituted a uniform written language. Before then, different regions in China had different languages, dialects, and writing systems. Imposing a universal written language allowed for better communication and implementation of policies.

For example, a singular script allowed scholars to share information with a greater number of people. It also led to the sharing of culture that was previously only experienced by a few. Additionally, a single language allowed later dynasties to communicate with nomadic tribes and pass along information on how to negotiate or fight with them.

The construction of roads allowed for greater connections between provinces and major cities. The dynasty also standardized the length of axles in carts so that they could all ride on the newly-built roads.

Weights and Measures

The dynasty standardized all weights and measures, which led to more efficient commerce. This conversion also allowed subsequent dynasties to develop a taxation system.

In another effort to unify the empire, the Qin Dynasty standardized the Chinese currency. Doing so led to greater commerce across more regions. 

The Great Wall

The Qin Dynasty was responsible for the construction of the Great Wall of China . The Great Wall marked national boundaries and acted as a defensive infrastructure to protect against invading nomadic tribes from the north. However, later dynasties were more expansionist and built beyond Qin’s original wall.

Today, the Great Wall of China is easily one of China's most iconic pieces of architecture.

Terracotta Warriors 

Another architectural feat that draws tourists to China is the enormous tomb in present-day Xian filled with terracotta warriors . This is also a part of Qin Shihuang's legacy.

When Qin Shihuang died, he was buried in a tomb accompanied by an army of hundreds of thousands of terracotta soldiers that were supposed to protect him in his afterlife. The tomb was uncovered by farmers digging for a well in 1974. 

Strong Personality

One other lasting impact of the Qin Dynasty is the influence of a leader’s personality in China. Qin Shihuang’s relied on his top-down method of ruling, and, on the whole, people conformed to his rule because of the power of his personality. Many subjects followed Qin because he showed them something larger than their local kingdoms--a visionary idea of a cohesive nation-state.

While this is a very effective way to rule, once the leader dies, so can his dynasty. After Qin Shihuang’s death in 210 BCE, his son, and later his grandson, took power, but both were short-lived. The Qin Dynasty came to a close in 206 BCE, just four years after Qin Shihuang’s death.

Almost immediately following his death, the same warring states that he unified sprang up again and China was again under numerous leaders until it was unified under the Han Dynasty. The Han would last over 400 years, but much of its practices were started in the Qin Dynasty.

Similarities in charismatic cult personalities can be seen in subsequent leaders in Chinese history, such as Chairman Mao Zedong. In fact, Mao actually likened himself to Emperor Qin. 

Representation in Pop Culture

Qin was popularized in Eastern and Western media in Chinese Director Zhang Yimou’s 2002 film Hero. While some criticized the movie for advocating totalitarianism, movie-goers went to see it in droves.

A hit in China and Hong Kong , when it opened to North American audiences in 2004, it was the number one movie and grossed $18 million in its opening weekend – a rarity for a foreign film.

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Qin Dynasty: A Monumental Era in Chinese History

• April 1, 2024
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The Qin Dynasty was a very important time in ancient Chinese history . 

It existed from 221 BC to 206 BC. The Qin Dynasty came after the Zhou Dynasty (1046 BCE – 256 BCE).

By understanding the Qin dynasty’s history, we can appreciate its relationship with dynasties that came before and after, such as:

• Xia Dynasty (夏朝) (c. 2070 – c. 1600 BCE)
• Shang Dynasty (商朝) (c. 1600 – c. 1046 BCE)
• Zhou Dynasty (周朝) (c. 1046 – 256 BCE)
• Han Dynasty (漢朝) (206 BCE – 220 CE)
• Jin Dynasty (晉朝) (265 – 420 CE)
• Sui Dynasty (隋朝) (581 – 618 CE)
• Tang Dynasty (唐朝) (618 – 907 CE)
• Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (五代十國) (907 – 960 CE)
• Song Dynasty (宋朝) (960 – 1279 CE)
• Yuan Dynasty (元朝) (1271 – 1368 CE)

Summary of the Qin Dynasty

• Period: 221 BCE to 206 BCE (short-lived but impactful)
• Founder and Emperor: Qin Shi Huang (First Emperor of Qin)
• Land Mass: Unified much of warring states into the first large Chinese empire
• Centralized government with appointed officials
• Standardized weights, measures, currency, and writing system (lasting impact)
• Early Great Wall sections connected to form a barrier against northern nomads
• Grand Canal connecting major rivers (important for trade)
• Massive network of roads
• Technological advancements in weapons, agriculture, and construction
• First unified empire in China, setting the stage for future dynasties
• Established a centralized bureaucratic system that influenced later governments
• Standardized systems like writing and currency are still felt today
• Ambitious infrastructure projects laid groundwork for future transportation networks
• Legalist philosophy emphasized harsh laws and order to maintain power.
• Brutality towards rivals and those who opposed the emperor.
• Massive forced labor projects for infrastructure.
• Book burning and suppression of dissent.
• The “Qin” in “Qin Dynasty” is the root of the Western word “China”.
• The dynasty’s legacy is complex, with both achievements in unification and infrastructure, alongside ruthless methods.

The Qin Dynasty was significant because it was the first dynasty to unify China into one country with a single emperor ruling over all the lands and people. 

Before the Qin, China was divided into many smaller kingdoms that often fought each other. The Qin Dynasty brought all these warring kingdoms together under one powerful central government.

Under the Qin, China became an empire for the first time, and the Qin emperor had supreme authority over a vast empire stretching across ancient China , most of what is now modern China.

The first and most famous Qin emperor was Qin Shi Huang . He laid the foundations for a unified Chinese state and implemented many important reforms that shaped the future of China’s government, culture, and society for centuries to come. 

That is why the Qin Dynasty marks such a pivotal turning point in Chinese civilization as the inaugural imperial dynasty.

Rise of the Qin State

The Qin state originally started as just one of many smaller kingdoms during the Zhou Dynasty. The Zhou was a very long period of feudal rule where noble families governed their own lands.

The area controlled by the Qin was located in the western part of the Zhou territory. It began as a minor feudal state, but over time, the Qin rulers expanded their lands and built up military strength.

Under ambitious rulers like Duke Xiao and King Zhuangxiang, the Qin kingdom gradually conquered neighboring lands through warfare. Duke Xiao especially focused on training a big, powerful army. King Zhuangxiang then used this army to defeat and take over lands from other Zhou states around them.

Through a long series of territorial conquests over several decades, the once tiny Qin state grew larger and larger. It eventually swallowed up many of its rival kingdoms in the warring period near the end of the Zhou Dynasty .

Finally, a man named Qin Shi Huangdi completed the conquest and unification of the remaining states. He was a direct descendant of the earlier Qin rulers. 

In 221 BC, after winning the battles, Qin Shi Huangdi declared himself the first emperor of the Qin Dynasty, ruling over a unified China for the first time.

Qin Shi Huangdi’s Reign (221 BC – 210 BC)

After defeating all the other kingdoms, Qin Shi Huangdi became the first emperor to rule over a united China in 221 BC. This marked the start of the Qin Dynasty.

As the new supreme leader, he worked to solidify his control over the vast empire. He created a strong centralized government system where all power flowed from him at the top. 

He fired the old nobles who used to rule lands on their own. Instead, he appointed new governors and officials who answered directly to him. 

He also established a clear hierarchy and set of laws that applied uniformly across the empire.

To help manage the large territory, Qin Shi Huangdi divided his empire into 36 administrative provinces called commanderies. Each commandery had counties inside it for local governance.

The emperor pushed for standardization across his realm. He ordered the use of the same units for weights, measures, Chinese writing system, and even cart track widths everywhere.

During his reign, huge construction projects demonstrated the Qin’s might. Most famous was the expansion of connected fortification walls into the Great Wall of China along the northern frontier. 

Other grand endeavors included a massive national road system and his own colossal mausoleum, which housed the Terracotta Army .

Achievements and Innovations of the Qin Dynasty

The Qin Dynasty introduced many important changes to how China was governed and society was organized. These reforms helped unite the empire under a strong central authority.

One major achievement was creating the first centralized administrative system, where the emperor appointed officials to govern at the provincial and county levels, replacing the old feudal rulers. 

A clear bureaucracy with ranked civil servants managed affairs across the large territory.

Also, impressive infrastructure projects enabled tighter control and integration, and an extensive network of roads and canals was built to improve transportation and communication between regions. This facilitated troop movements, trade, and tax collection.

The Qin regime standardized many aspects of daily life to unify the population. 

• A uniform written script replaced diverse local scripts. 
• Standard units of measurement, including for length, volume, and weight, were mandated across the realm. 
• Even cart track widths had to conform.
• A new standardized currency system of copper coins with inscribed values circulated throughout the empire too, replacing the different coinages previously used.

Perhaps the most famous Qin innovation was the life-size Terracotta Army – thousands of detailed terracotta warrior statues built to guard Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi in the afterlife.

This incredible archaeological find demonstrated the incredible power and artistic achievements of the short-lived but transformative Qin Dynasty.

Legalist Reforms During The Qui Dynasty

The philosophy of Legalism heavily influenced the policies and laws of the Qin Dynasty. 

Legalism promoted the idea that a ruler must enforce strict laws through harsh punishment to maintain order in society.

Under Legalist thought, citizens had no rights and fully obeyed the emperor’s commands out of fear of penalty. The Qin rulers implemented a legal code with severe penalties like mutilation or execution for even minor crimes.

The Qin Empire abolished the old feudal system where noble families controlled certain lands and people. 

Instead, the state redistributed lands to commoners and soldiers to work as farmers. This stripped power from the hereditary aristocracy.

To strengthen central control, the Qin standardized many aspects of daily life across the vast empire. They mandated using the same units for weights and measures everywhere to regulate trade and taxes, and a uniform written script replaced the various local scripts.

The goal was to break down regional differences and create a more unified populace that followed the same official cultural norms set by the imperial center. 

Also, standardizing currencies, laws, language, and administrative practices made it easier to exert authority over all territories.

Overall, the strict Legalist reforms of the Qin aimed to consolidate power, stamp out dissent, and reshape society into an obedient workforce under the absolute rule of the emperor. This totalitarian system came at a major cost to individual freedoms.

Cultural Impact of The Qui Dynasty

The Qin Dynasty had a major influence on Chinese culture and society that lasted long after its relatively brief rule from 221-206 BC. Many of its policies and practices fundamentally shaped the development of China.

Under the Legalist philosophy, the Qin rulers sought to eliminate ideas that could threaten imperial authority. 

They burned books and persecuted Confucian scholars whose teachings promoted individual free thought. This anti-intellectual campaign aimed to enforce obedience to Qin law.

However, the Qin promoted standardizing the written Chinese script used across the empire. 

While the harsh Qin created resentment, many of its pragmatic standardizations and monumental feats profoundly impacted the nation’s future identity, technological development, and record-keeping traditions.

Decline and Fall of the Qin Dynasty

Despite its powerful start, the Qin Dynasty faced major challenges that led to its rapid downfall after only about 15 years of rule.

One key problem was the harsh legal system and totalitarian policies that angered many people. 

• The draconian laws punished even minor offenses with cruel mutilations or executions. 
• This bred widespread fear and resentment among the population.
• Forced labor drafts to construct the Emperor’s grand projects like the Great Wall further fueled opposition. 
• Peasants had to abandon their farms and families for years of backbreaking work on these massive building sites.

Additionally, the Qin’s costly military campaigns to expand the empire drained the treasury. Higher taxes alienated both commoners and landed aristocrats had their powers stripped off.

These grievances boiled over into revolts across multiple provinces. Major uprisings erupted as rebels rallied popular support against Qin authority seen as oppressive and tyrannical.

Unable to quash the widespread unrest, the dynasty’s control disintegrated rapidly after the death of the harsh first emperor in 210 BC. His inept successors could not maintain dominance.

By 206 BC, Qin’s capital was captured by rebel forces, bringing an end to the dynasty. However, the legacy of its centralized imperial system continued under the Han Dynasty which replaced Qin rule.

Legacy of the Qin Dynasty

While the Qin Dynasty only ruled briefly, its impact on Chinese civilization was enormous and long-lasting. 

It set the foundations for how future dynasties would govern the unified empire.

The Qin established the model of centralized imperial rule with a powerful bureaucracy and hierarchy of officials appointed by the emperor. This system replaced the old feudal order where nobles had regional authority.

Many of the Qin’s standardizations like a uniform writing script, law code, measurement units, currency, and road networks continued under later regimes. These helped unify administration across the vast territories.

After the Qin’s collapse, the Han Dynasty took over and retained many of the central governing practices and philosophies begun under Qin rule. However, Hans blended Legalist ideas with the moral guidance of Confucianism .

The famous Terracotta Army and remnants of grand construction projects like fortifications of the Great Wall provide archaeological evidence of the Qin’s incredible mobilization of labor and resources.

In conclusion, historically, the Qin Dynasty has been viewed as both an impressive force for political unity and cultural integration, but also a harsh regime that ruled through fear and totalitarian methods.

Debates continue around whether the benefits of standardization and imperial order outweighed the suffering and loss of life caused by extremely strict laws and campaigns like book burnings against dissenting ideas.

Key Takeaways:

• First Imperial Dynasty: The Qin Dynasty was the first imperial dynasty to unite China under a powerful centralized government and single emperor, marking a pivotal shift from the feudal states of earlier periods.
• Legalist Reforms: The Qin rulers implemented Legalist philosophies through harsh penal codes, strict laws, abolition of feudalism, standardization of scripts/measures, and absolute obedience to imperial authority.
• Monumental Projects: Qin Shi Huangdi marshaled immense labor forces for monumental construction projects like the Great Wall, national roads, his mausoleum with the famed Terracotta Army, and the centralized bureaucracy itself.
• Cultural Integration: While short-lived, the Qin Dynasty enforced cultural unity through standardized administrative systems, language, and other norms that shaped Chinese identity for millennia.
• Oppression and Rebellion: Ultimately, the Qin’s totalitarian control, forced labor on grand projects, costly militarism, and draconian punishments led to widescale resentment, revolts, and the dynasty’s rapid collapse after just 15 years.

Here are a few intriguing posts that you should read👇:

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• Sui Dynasty: The Rise and Fall of an Empire
• The Xia Dynasty: Unraveling the Ancient Chinese Civilization
• Shang Dynasty: A Window into Ancient Chinese Civilization
• Qin Shi Huang’s Tomb: The Enigmatic Mausoleum 
• Great Wall of China: A Wall Through Time
• Han Dynasty: The Rise and Fall of an Empire
• How tall are the Terracotta Warriors?
• Terracotta Warriors of China (The Mystery)
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Jin Dynasty: A Tale of Triumph and Turmoil

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FAQs on Qin Dynasty: A Monumental Era in Chinese History

Who was qin shi huangdi and what were his major accomplishments.

Qin Shi Huangdi was the title of the first emperor of the Qin Dynasty who ruled from 221-210 BC. He conquered the warring states to unify China under one centralized empire. Major achievements included standardizing the writing system, weights, measures and legal codes across his realm. He oversaw huge construction efforts like expanding the Great Wall, a national road network, and his famous Terracotta Army.

What is the Terracotta Army and why is it important?

The Terracotta Army is a collection of thousands of sculpted, life-size terracotta warrior figures buried with Qin Shi Huangdi to protect him in the afterlife. This amazing archaeological find revealed advanced artistry and insight into ancient Chinese funerary beliefs. It demonstrated the incredible labor force and resources the Qin Dynasty could marshal.

What philosophical school of thought influenced Qin governance?

Legalism was the dominant philosophy adopted by the Qin rulers. It promoted strict enforcement of clearly written laws and harsh penalties to maintain social order, control the population, and ensure obedience to the emperor’s authority. The Qin’s notoriously harsh penal code stemmed from Legalist thought.

How did the Qin Dynasty centralize administration?

The Qin abolished the old feudal nobility and divided the empire into provinces called commanderies governed by appointed officials and civil servants loyal to the emperor. This established a hierarchical bureaucracy that replaced diffuse noble powers with a unitary chain of command under imperial control.

What were some key standardizations of the Qin era?

Major standardizations included a uniform writing script, consistent units of weight/measurement, and a single currency of copper coins used empire-wide. The Qin also mandated conformity in areas like cart track widths to facilitate trade/transport. These integrated diverse local practices into unified national norms.

Why did the Qin Dynasty fall so quickly after its rise?

Despite efficient centralization, the Qin’s strict Legalist policies and draconian punishments for minor offenses led to widespread fear, anger, and rebellion among the populace. Conscripted labor on grand construction projects and costly military campaigns also drained resources. Uprisings erupted across many provinces after the death of Qin Shi Huangdi.

What was the historical legacy of the Qin Dynasty?

While short-lived, the Qin Dynasty had a profound impact by first unifying China into a centralized empire with standardized institutions and infrastructure. Its governmental model of bureaucratic administration directly influenced the systems adopted by the succeeding Han and future dynasties for over two millennia. It set the tone for imperial China.

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History buff Abdiel .O brings captivating stories of famous figures to life. Growing up in Indiana, his fascination with history, literature, and the arts blossomed into an English Language/Literature degree.

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Poetic Drama in the Yuan Dynasty

• First Online: 27 October 2023

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• Li Fang 3  

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In Study on the Opera in the Song and Yuan Dynasties (Song Yuan Xi Qu Kao) , Wang Guowei wrote, “Each dynasty has its own literature: lisao in the State of Chu, fu in the Han Dynasty, parallel verses in the Six Dynasties, poetry in the Tang Dynasty, ci in the Song Dynasty and opera in the Yuan Dynasty. All of the them were representative literature in a dynasty and could not be reproduced by later generations”.

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Fang, L. (2024). Poetic Drama in the Yuan Dynasty. In: Liu, Y. (eds) Concise Reader of Chinese Literature History. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5814-6_25

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Vietnam & SE Asia

Primary sources with dbqs—china, 4000 - 1000 bce, ancestral rites and divination.

• Oracle Bone Inscriptions of the Late Shang Dynasty [PDF]

• Oracle Bone Inscriptions of the Late Shang Dynasty: On Warfare [PDF]

Women: Childbearing

• Oracle Bone Inscriptions of the Late Shang Dynasty: On Childbearing [PDF]

1000 BCE - 300 CE

Confucianism.

Confucius/Kong Fuzi/Kong Qiu, 551-479 BCE • Selections from the Confucian Analects [PDF] • Selections from the Confucian Analects: On Humaneness [PDF] • Selections from the Confucian Analects: On Confucius as Teacher and Person [PDF]

Mencius/Mengzi/Meng Ke, 4th Century BCE • Selections from the Mencius: On Human Nature [PDF]

Xunzi/Xun Qing/Xun Kang, ca. 310-ca. 219 BCE • Selections from the Xunzi: "Human Nature Is Evil" [PDF] • Selections from the Xunzi: "Encouraging Learning" [PDF] • Selections from the Xunzi: "A Discussion of Rites" [PDF]

Laozi, ca. 3rd Century BCE • Selections from the Laozi (Daodejing) [PDF]

Zhuangzi/Zhuang Zhou, ca. 360-280 BCE • Selections from the Zhuangzi: Chapter 3, "The Secret of Caring for Life" [PDF]

Zhou Dynasty Government: Confucius, Mencius, Laozi

ca. 600 BCE • Selection from the Classic of Odes: King Wen (Ode 235) [PDF]

Confucius/Kong Fuzi/Kong Qiu, 551-479 BCE • Selections from the Confucian Analects: On Government [PDF]

Lord Shang/Gongsun Yang/Shang Yang, d. 338 BCE • Selection from the Book of Lord Shang: "Making Orders Strict" [PDF]

Mencius/Mengzi/Meng Ke, 4th Century BCE • Selections from the Mencius: On the Duty of Ministers to Reprove a Ruler [PDF]

Laozi, ca. 3rd Century BCE • Selections from the Laozi (Daodejing): On Government [PDF]

Qin Dynasty Government: The Legalist Philosophers Han Fei and Li Si

Han Fei, d. 233 BCE • Selection from the Han Feizi: Chapter 49, "The Five Vermin" [PDF]

Li Si, d. 208 BCE • Memorial on Annexation of Feudal States and Memorial on the Burning of Books, by Li Si (as recorded by Sima Qian) [PDF]

Han Dynasty Government

Court of Emperor Zhao, 81 BCE • A Record of the Debate on Salt and Iron [PDF]

Dong Zhongshu, ca. 195-ca. 105 BCE • From Luxuriant Gems of the Spring and Autumn Annals: "The Responsibilities of Rulership," by Dong Zhongshu [PDF]

Warfare: Zhou Period

Confucius/Kong Fuzi/Kong Qiu, 551-479 BCE • Selections from the Confucian Analects: On War [PDF]

Sunzi/Sun Wu, Eastern Zhou Period (770-221 BCE) • Selections from the Sunzi: Art of War [PDF]

Agriculture, Han Period

Han Emperor Wen, r. 180-157 BCE • Edict of Emperor Wen on the Primacy of Agriculture [PDF] • Memorial on the Encouragement of Agriculture, by Chao Cuo [PDF]

Women and Family

Confucius/Kong Fuzi/Kong Qiu, 551-479 BCE • Selections from the Confucian Analects: On Women and Servants [PDF] • Selections from the Confucian Analects: On Filial Piety [PDF]

Western Han Period, 206 BCE-8 CE • Selections from The Classic of Filiality (Xiaojing) [PDF]

Ban Zhao, ca. 48-ca. 116 CE • Admonitions for Women [PDF]

Literature: The Classic of Odes (Book of Songs); Poetry from the State of Chu

Eastern Zhou, ca. 771 to 256 BCE • Selection from the Classic of Odes: I Beg of You, Chung Tzu (Ode 8) [PDF] • Selections from the Classic of Odes: "Quince" and "Big Rat" [PDF]

State of Chu, reign of King Huai, 328 to 299 BCE • "Encountering Sorrow" (Li Sao), by Qu Yuan [PDF]

Literature: Sima Qian

Sima Qian, 145?-85? BCE, whose father Sima Tan (d. 110 BCE) was Grand Historian at court of Han Emperor Wu (r. 141-87 BCE) • Sima Qian's Letter to Ren An [PDF]

Buddhism in China

Lotus Sutra , composed after 483 BCE • Selection from the Lotus Sutra: "The Daughter of the Dragon King" [PDF] • Selection from the Lotus Sutra: "The Buddha Preaches the One Great Vehicle" [PDF]

Mouzi, latter years of the Eastern Han (ca. 220 CE) • Selections from Mouzi's Disposing of Error (Lihuo Lun) [PDF] >

Lotus Sutra , composed after 483 BCE • Selection from the Lotus Sutra: "The Daughter of the Dragon King" [PDF]

Northern and Southern Dynasties Period, 317-589 CE • The Ballad of Mulan (Ode of Mulan) [PDF]

Literature: "A Song of Seven Sorrows"; "Peach Blossom Spring"

Wang Can, 177-217 CE • "A Song of Seven Sorrows" and "With the Army V," by Wang Can [PDF]

Tao Qian, 376-427 CE • "Peach Blossom Spring," by Tao Qian [PDF]

Buddhism in China: The Chan (Zen) School of Buddhism

Huineng, 638-713, Sixth Patriarch of the Chan (Zen) school • The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch [PDF] Linji Yixuan, d. 867, founder of the Linji (Rinzai) school • Seeing into One's Own Nature [PDF]

Buddhism in China: Reactions of Confucianists and Daoists to the influence of Buddhism during this period

Han Yu, 768-824 • Memorial on the Bone of the Buddha [PDF] Emperor Wuzong, r. 841-846 • Emperor Wuzong's Edict on the Suppression of Buddhism: The Edict of the Eight Month [PDF]

Tang Dynasty Government: Effective Rulership, the Law, and Taxes

Emperor Taizong, r. 626-649 • Emperor Taizong on Effective Government [PDF]

Zhangsun Wuji, d. 659 • The Great Tang Code: Article 6, "The Ten Abominations" [PDF]

Yang Yan, 727-781; Lu Zhi, 754-805 • Tang Debate on the Twice-a-Year Tax [PDF]

Reflections on War

Emperor Taizong, r. 626-649 • Emperor Taizong on Effective Government: "Maintaining Military Forces" [PDF]

Li Bo, 701-762 • "Fighting South of the Ramparts" [PDF]

Du Fu, 712-770 • "A Song of War Chariots" [PDF]

Slavery in Tang China

• Deed of a Sale of a Slave [PDF]

Women & Family

Song Ruozhao, 8th century • Analects for Women [PDF]

Yan Zhitui, 531-591 • House Instructions of Mr. Yan (Yanshi Jiaxun) [PDF]

• Record of Family Division [PDF]

Tang Poets: Wang Wei, Li Bo, Du Fu

Wang Wei, 699-761 • Selected Poems: "Fields and Gardens by the River Qi"; "Deer Fence"; "Villa on Zhong-nan Mountain"; "Reading the Classic of Mountains and Sea , I" [PDF]

Li Bo, 701-762 • "Fighting South of the Ramparts" [PDF] • Selected Poems: "At Yellow Crane Tower Taking Leave of Meng Hao-jan as He Sets Off for Kuang-ling"; "Summer Days in the Mountains"; "Drinking Alone under the Moon" [PDF]

Du Fu, 712-770 • Selected Poems: "On the River"; "I Stand Alone"; "Views in Springtime" [PDF]

1000 - 1450

Neo-confucianism.

Lu Jiuyuan (Lu Xiangshan), 1139-1193 • Mind Is Principle [PDF]

Zhu Xi, 1130-1200 • Preface to the Great Learning by Chapter and Phrase [PDF] • The Nature As Principle [PDF]

Song Dynasty Government: Reform under the Neo-Confucianists

Wang Anshi, 1021-1086 • Memorial on the Crop Loans Measure [PDF]

Cheng Hao, 1032-1085 • Remonstrance Against the New Laws [PDF]

Ming Dynasty Government: Promotion of Social Order and Morality

Emperor Hongwu (Zhu Yuanzhang), 1328-1398 • An Imperial Edict Restraining Officials from Evil [PDF]

• Village Ordinances: "Prohibition Ordinance" [PDF]

Military: The Northern Song Defeated by the Jurchen Jin

Yue Fei, 1103-1142 • Poem to be Sung to the Tune of "Full River Red" [PDF]

Agriculture; Growth of Cities and urban Life during the Song and Yuan Dynasties

Chen Pu (Chen Fu), 1076-1154 • On Farming (Nongshu) [PDF]

Unknown Author, ca. 1235 • The Attractions of the Capital (Hangzhou) [PDF]

Yuan Cai, ca. 1140-ca. 1195 • "It Is Difficult for Widows to Entrust Their Financial Affairs to Others" [PDF]

Empress Xu, d. 1407 • Instructions for the Inner Quarters [PDF]

Literature of Scholar-Officials and Military Officers

Sima Guang, 1019-1086 • Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance [PDF]

Su Shi (Su Dongpo), 1036-1101 • Rhyming with Tzu-yu's "Treading the Green" [PDF] • The Red Cliff, Part I [PDF]

Women Writers

• Poem to be Sung to the Tune of "Southern Song" (Nan-ge-zi) [PDF]

1450 - 1750

Neo-confucianism during the ming.

Wang Yangming, 1472-1529 • Wang Yangming on the Unity of Knowing and Acting [PDF] • The Identification of Mind and Principle [PDF]

Books of Moral Instruction, Ming and Qing

Yuan Huang, 1533-1606 • Excerpt from Ledger of Merit and Demerit [PDF]

• Selections from The Twenty-four Exemplars of Filial Piety [PDF]

• Selections from Meritorious Deeds at No Cost [PDF]

Christianity Enters China

Yang Guangxian, 1597-1669 • I Cannot Do Otherwise (Budeyi) [PDF]

Zhang Xingyao, 1633-c. 1715 • An Examination of the Similarities and Differences Between the Lord of Heaven Teaching (Christianity) and the Teaching of the Confucian Scholars [PDF]

Provincial and Imperial Government under the Qing

Reign of Qing emperors Kangxi (r. 1662-1722) and Yongzheng (r. 1723-1735) • The Qing Dynasty "Sacred Edict" [PDF] • Wang Youpu's Sacred Edict Lecture: "Exhortations on Ceremony and Deference" [PDF]

Lan Dingyuan, 1680-1733 • Excerpts from The Casebook of the County Magistrate Lan Dingyuan: “Depraved Religious Sects Deceive People” [PDF]

Chen Hongmou, 1696-1771 • On the Duties of an Official [PDF] • On Substantive Learning [PDF]

Lu Kun, 1536-1618 • Preface to Models for the Inner Quarters

Essays, Poems and Fantasy Tales of the Qing

Li Yü (Li Liweng), 1611-ca. 1680 • "On Being Happy Though Poor" [PDF]

Yuan Mei, ca. 1716-ca. 1798 • "On His Chair-bearers—A Case of Misplaced Sympathy" [PDF]

Li Ju-chen, ca. 1763-ca. 1830 • "In the Country of Women" [PDF]

1750 - 1919

"self-strengthening" and "learning from the west".

Feng Guifen, 1809-1874 • Excerpts from "On the Adoption of Western Learning" [PDF]

Yan Fu, 1854-1921 • Excerpts from "Learning from the West" [PDF]

Liang Qichao, 1873-1929 • Excerpts from "Observations on a Trip to America" [PDF]

Calls for Radical Social Reform

Han Yi (Pseudonym, possibly written by Liu Shipei, 1884-1917) • Excerpts from "Destroying the Family" [PDF]

He Zhen (wife of Liu Shipei, 1884-1917) • "What Women Should Know About Communism" [PDF]

The May Fourth Movement (ca. 1916-1920s)

• Before and After the May Fourth Movement The so-called "May Fourth" or "new culture" movement began in China around 1916, following the failure of the 1911 Revolution to establish a republican government, and continued through the 1920s. This unit includes a background reading and three primary-source readings [ Chen Duxiu's "Our Final Awakening" (1916) [PDF] ; Chiang Kai-shek's "Essentials of a New Life Movement" (1934) [PDF] ; Mao Zedong's "Reform Our Study" (1941)], plus discussion questions and suggested activities for students.

The Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864)

• Excerpts from The Land System of the Heavenly Kingdom (Tianzhao tianumu zhidu): "The Taiping Economic Program" [PDF]

• Excerpts from Ode for Youth [PDF]

The Years of Reform: Prologue to Revolution

• From Reform to Revolution, 1842 to 1911 After China's defeat in the Opium War of 1842, thinkers tried to understand what made the West so strong and how China could best respond. This unit traces the debates about reform from the mid-nineteenth into the early twentieth century, as arguments for more radical reform, including revolution, increased. Includes background readings, two primary-source readings ( Feng Guifen's "On the Adoption of Western Learning" [PDF] and Yan Fu's "Learning from the West" [PDF] ) and brief discussions of Liang Qichao's ideas on democracy and Sun Yatsen's "Three People's Principles." Also see the Religion, Philosophy, Thought section, above, for more readings by these and other reformist thinkers.

Chu Chengbo's 1895 memorial to Qing emperor Guanxu (1871-1908, r. 1875-1908) • Excerpts from Reforming Men's Minds Comes Before Reforming Institutions [PDF]

Kang Youwei's 1898 memorial to Qing emperor Guanxu (1871-1908, r. 1875-1908) • Excerpts from Comprehensive Consideration of the Whole Situation [PDF]

Reform Imperial Edict of 1901 (Issued by the Empress Dowager Cixi, 1835-1908) • Reform Edict of the Qing Imperial Government (January 29, 1901) [PDF]

International Relations: China and Europe (Macartney Embassy, Opium War)

• Macartney and the Emperor The Qing dynasty's restrictions on foreign trade increasingly frustrated Europeans, especially the British. In 1792 Great Britain sent a diplomat, Lord George Macartney (1737-1806), to present its demands to the Qianlong emperor (r. 1736-1796). This unit includes an introductory note to teachers with suggestions for teaching about Macartney's mission; a student reading discussing European contact and trade with China prior to and on the eve of Macartney's mission to China; and the primary-source reading Two Edicts from the Qianlong Emperor , which were the Qianlong emperor's responses to the Macartney mission. With discussion questions and suggested activities for students.

• The Opium War and Foreign Encroachment In the fifty years after Macartney's visit (see "Macartney and the Emperor," above), Western powers pushed their demands on China further, leading to war and the gradual shift from tribute to treaty relations. This unit examines the events surrounding the Opium War and the Treaty of Nanjing, which concluded that war, and the increasing foreign encroachments upon China during the nineteenth century. Included are two primary-source readings: Commissioner Lin Zexu's "Letter of Advice to Queen Victoria" (1839) and The Treaty of Nanjing (1842) [PDF] . With discussion questions and suggested activities for students.

1900 - 1950

• Before and After the May Fourth Movement The so-called "May Fourth" or "new culture" movement began in China around 1916, following the failure of the 1911 Revolution to establish a republican government, and continued through the 1920s. This unit includes a background reading and three primary-source readings [ Chen Duxiu's "Our Final Awakening" (1916) [PDF] ; Chiang Kai-shek's "Essentials of a New Life Movement" (Speech, 1934) [PDF] ; Mao Zedong's "Reform Our Study" (1941) ], plus discussion questions and suggested activities for students.

Chen Duxiu, 1879-1942 • "The True Meaning of Life" [PDF] • "Our Final Awakening" (1916) [PDF]

Chiang Kai-shek, 1887-1975 • "Essentials of a New Life Movement" (Speech, 1934) [PDF] • "China Cannot Be Conquered" (Speech, 1939) [PDF]

Hu Shi, 1891-1962 • "Our Attitude Toward Modern Western Civilization" [PDF]

Liang Shuming, 1893-1988 • "Chinese Civilization vis-a-vis Eastern and Western Philosophies" [PDF]

Rebuilding China

Liang Qichao, 1873-1929 • "Renewing the People" [PDF]

Sun Yat-sen, 1866-1925 • Selections from A Program of National Reconstruction: "The Three Stages of Revolution" (1918) [PDF] • "The Principle of Democracy" (1924) [PDF]

Chiang Kai-shek, 1887-1975 • "Essentials of the New Life Movement" (Speech, 1934) [PDF]

Mao Zedong (1893-1976) and the Chinese Revolution

• The Long March (1934-1936)

• Commonly Read Speeches and Writings of Mao Zedong (1927-1945) With excerpts from three speeches and one article, all highlighting two important themes in Mao Zedong's thinking: voluntarism and selflessness. Includes excerpts from "In Memory of Norman Bethune" (1939) ; "Serve the People" (1944) ; "The Foolish Old Man Who Removed the Mountains" (1945) ; and Report on the Investigation of the Peasant Movement in Hunan (1927) .

• Mao Zedong on War and Revolution

• From "The Dictatorship of the People's Democracy": On Leaning to One Side (Speech, 1949) [PDF]

Communism in China

Mao Zedong, 1893-1976 • Quotations from Chairman Mao on Being a Communist in China (1937-1938) [PDF]

Li Shaoqi, 1898-1969 • How to Be a Good Communist (1939) [PDF]

Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945)

Chiang Kai-shek, 1887-1975 • "China Cannot Be Conquered" (Speech, 1939) [PDF] • Generalissimo Chiang Assails Prince Konoe's Statement [PDF]

• Japanese Ambassador Hiroshi Saito on the Conflict in the Far East [PDF]

Mao Zedong (1893-1976) on War and Revolution

• Report on the Investigation of the Peasant Movement in Hunan (March 1927) [PDF]

• Selections from On Guerilla Warfare (1927) [PDF]

Society and Family: Raising Children

Zhu Ziqing, 1898-1948 • "My Children" [PDF]

Farmers and the Chinese Revolution

• Farmers and the Chinese Revolution This unit looks at the plight of China's farmers in the twentieth century. With a background reading and two primary-source readings [ "Spring Silkworms," by Mao Dun [PDF] ; Mao Zedong's "Report on the Investigation of the Peasant Movement in Hunan" [PDF] ].

20th-century Literature

Hu Shi, 1891-1962 • "A Preliminary Discussion of Literary Reform" [PDF]

Lu Xun (Zhou Shuren), 1881-1936 • "My Old Home" [PDF]

Mao Dun (Shen Yanbing), 1896-1981 • "Spring Silkworms" [PDF]

1950 - 2000

"hundred flowers" period.

• Intellectual Opinions from the Hundred Flowers Period (1957) [PDF]

Land Reform, Socialized Agriculture, The Great Leap Forward

• From the People's Daily: "How China Proceeds with the Task of Industrialization" (1953) [PDF]

Mao Zedong, 1893-1976 • "The Question of Agricultural Cooperation" (Speech, July 31, 1955) [PDF]

Cultural Revolution (1966-1976)

• The Sixteen Points : Guidelines for the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (1966) [PDF]

Socialism and Democracy in China after Mao Zedong

Wei Jingsheng, b. 1950 • “The Fifth Modernization: Democracy" (1978) [PDF]

Deng Xiaoping, 1904-1997 • "Uphold the Four Basic Principles" (Speech, March 30, 1979) [PDF] • "The Present Situation and the Tasks Before Us" (Speech, January 16, 1980) [PDF]

• From the Office of the CCP Dehong Dai Nationality and Qingbo Autonomous Zhou Committee: “Several Questions in Strengthening and Perfecting the Job Responsibility Systems of Agricultural Production” (1980) [PDF]

• How Should the Criteria for Admission to the Communist Youth League Be Administered After Installation of the Production Responsibility System? (1981) [PDF]

Fang Lizhi, b. 1936 • "The Social Responsibility of Today’s Intellectuals" (Speech, November 4, 1985) [PDF]

• From the People's Daily: "Bourgeois and Socialist Democracies Compared" (March 1990) [PDF]

Tiananmen Square Demonstrations (1989)

• The May 13 Hunger Strike Declaration (1989) [PDF]

• Interview at Tiananmen Square with Chai Ling

China's Political System since 1949

• The Chinese Political System and the Communist Party This unit provides an overview of the Chinese political system and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) with excerpts from the constitutions of the Communist Party of China and of the People's Republic of China. These primary documents can highlight for students how the Communist Party is the real political power in China. A chart of the political structure of China is also included, to help students better understand the relationship between the party and the state in a communist system. Discussion questions also included.

China's Foreign Policy; U.S.-China Relations

Mao Zedong, 1893-1976 • From "The Dictatorship of the People's Democracy": On Leaning to One Side (Speech, 1949) [PDF]

• Taiwan and U.S.-China Relations Since 1949 This unit offers an historical overview of Taiwan and U.S.-China relations. An introductory reading is followed by two important primary-source documents [ "Shanghai Communiqué" (1972) and Taiwan Relations Act (1979) ] and discussion questions.

Hao Ran, 1932-2008 • "Date Orchard" [PDF]