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Bibliography: Definition and Importance in Legal Research

Introduction:.

In the realm of legal research, the importance of a comprehensive bibliography cannot be overstated. A bibliography serves as a roadmap, guiding researchers through the labyrinth of legal literature, statutes, case law, and scholarly commentary. This essay will delve into the definition of a bibliography, its significance in legal research, and the various ways it enhances the integrity, transparency, and efficacy of legal scholarship.

Definition of Bibliography:

A bibliography is a systematic list of sources consulted or referenced in the preparation of a scholarly work. These sources can include books, articles, case law, statutes, regulations, treaties, and other legal documents. Each entry typically includes bibliographic information such as the author’s name, title of the work, publication date, and relevant page numbers. In legal research, a bibliography serves as a repository of knowledge, documenting the intellectual journey undertaken by the researcher in exploring a particular legal issue or topic.

Importance in Legal Research:

• Verification and Credibility : A bibliography enhances the credibility of legal research by allowing readers to verify the accuracy and reliability of the information presented. By citing authoritative sources, researchers demonstrate the rigor of their methodology and the soundness of their arguments. This transparency fosters trust and confidence in the integrity of the research.
• Access to Additional Resources : Legal research often requires consulting a wide array of sources, ranging from landmark court decisions to scholarly treatises. A well-curated bibliography provides readers with access to these resources, facilitating further exploration and a deeper understanding of the legal issues at hand. It serves as a springboard for additional research, enabling scholars to build upon existing knowledge and contribute to the advancement of legal scholarship.
• Intellectual Integrity : Including a bibliography demonstrates intellectual honesty and integrity on the part of the researcher. By acknowledging the contributions of other scholars and sources, researchers uphold ethical standards and avoid the pitfalls of plagiarism. A comprehensive bibliography signals a commitment to engaging with diverse perspectives and honoring the intellectual lineage of the research.
• Contextualization and Interpretation : Legal research is not conducted in isolation but within the broader context of legal doctrines, principles, and precedents. A bibliography helps situate the research within this larger framework, providing valuable context for interpreting and analyzing legal issues. By tracing the evolution of legal thought and scholarship, researchers gain insights into the historical, theoretical, and practical dimensions of the law.
• Legal Precedence and Authority : In the field of law, citation of legal authorities is paramount. A bibliography serves as a repository of these authorities, ranging from landmark court decisions to influential scholarly works. By citing relevant precedents and authorities, researchers bolster the persuasiveness of their arguments and provide a solid foundation for their legal analysis.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, a bibliography is an indispensable tool in the arsenal of legal researchers. It not only enhances the credibility, transparency, and integrity of legal scholarship but also fosters a culture of intellectual engagement, dialogue, and advancement. By documenting the sources consulted and referenced in their work, legal researchers contribute to the collective body of legal knowledge and enrich the discourse surrounding complex legal issues. As such, a well-constructed bibliography is not merely a list of sources but a testament to the rigor, diligence, and intellectual curiosity of the researcher.

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• Table of contents
• Citing Judicial Opinions ... in Brief
• Citing Constitutional and Statutory Provisions ... in Brief
• Citing Agency Material ... in Brief
• The Bluebook
• ALWD Citation Manual
• Introduction
• Purposes of Legal Citation
• Types of Citation Principles
• Levels of Mastery
• Citation in Transition
• Who Sets Citation Norms
• Electronic Resources
• Judicial Opinions
• Constitutions & Statutes
• Agency & Exec. Material
• Arbitrations
• Court Rules
• Law Journal Writing
• Case Documents
• Words in Case Names
• Case Histories
• Omissions in Case Names
• Reporters & Courts
• Spacing & Periods
• In Citations
• Items Not Italicized
• Citations & Related Text
• Short Form Citations
• Tables of Authorities
• Changes in The Bluebook
• Table: Bluebook
• Table: ALWD Manual
• Table: State-Specific Practices

• University of Newcastle Library
• Referencing Guides
• AGLC4: Australian Guide to Legal Citation 4th edition
• Bibliography

AGLC4: Australian Guide to Legal Citation 4th edition:  Bibliography

• About AGLC4
• Legislation
• Parliamentary and Government Documents
• UN Materials and Treaties
• Journal and Newspaper Articles
• Books and Book Chapters
• Other Sources
• UON Referencing Guide This link opens in a new window
• General Rules- Bibliography
• Example of Bibliography
• YouTube Video

General Rules for B ibliography

See details in AGLC4 1.13

• Where a bibliography is required, it should appear at the end of your paper starting on a new page
• Bibliography should list all sources that were relied upon (not only those referred to in the text and footnotes). 
• The title of the bibliography should be in capitals and centred. 
• The bibliography may be divided into the sections below. However, a section may be omitted and other categories or subdivisions may be included as needed (with appropriate renumbering). 
• The section titles should be centred and in italics
• Within each section, sources should be listed in alphabetical order according to the first element of the citation (excluding ‘the’).  If the first element is the same, list by the second element (and so on)
• Unlike the footnotes, the 1st author's first name and surname should be inverted and separated by a comma. For works with more than one author, only the first author's name and surname are inverted
• Unlike the footnotes, there is no full stop at the end of the bibliography entry
• References in the bibliography should be flush left (not indented)

Sample Bibliography

AGLC features footnotes in the text, and if needed a sectional bibliography at the end of the document.  A bibliography provides the full details of the sources cited in the text and any other sources you have consulted but not cited in your paper.  Sources are listed in alphabetical order within each section. 

See the  general rules for bibliography  for more details. 

A YouTube video on AGLC4 Bibliography by UTS Library blow

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• Law Library

Legal Citations

• How to Read a Legal Citation
• Citation Styles
• Citation Training and Guides
• Citation Tools

Tools for Reading Citations

• Prince's Bieber Dictionary of Legal Abbreviations by Mary Miles Prince Call Number: KF246 .B46 2017 (Location: Reference) Publication Date: 2017-01-01 The best guide for deciphering cryptic abbreviations.
• Cardiff Index to Legal Abbreviations (Online Resource) Web-based service allows you to search for the meaning of abbreviations for English language legal publications, from the British Isles, the Commonwealth and the United States, including those covering international and comparative law. A wide selection of major foreign language law publications is also included.

Definition of a Legal Citation

A citation (or cite) in legal terminology is a reference to a specific legal source, such as a constitution, a statute, a reported case, a treatise, or a law review article.  A standard citation includes first the volume number, then the title of the source, (usually abbreviated) and lastly, a page or section number.

IMPORTANT NOTE: This guide is not meant to provide guidance for correct legal citation format; rather, it is a basic guide to understanding the parts of a legal citation and a list of sources for looking up legal abbreviations. Be sure to follow the rules of your particular court for proper citation format.

Case Citations

Case citations designate the volume number of the reporter in which the case appears, the name of the reporter, the page on which the case begins, and the year the decision was rendered.  Thus, each citation is unique.  Cases, or judicial opinions, can be published by more than one publisher.  If this occurs, the case name may be followed by one or more “parallel citations.”  The official reporter is the one with whose publisher the court has contracted to publish the reports; any other citation is called “unofficial.”  (Sometimes a case will have only an unofficial citation, such as in the Federal Reporter; then the “unofficial” cite will be listed alone.)  The text of the opinions will be the same in the official or unofficial sources, but the unofficial may contain additional editorial features which differ from the official.    In California, the State Supreme Court cases are published officially in the California Reports, series 1-4; the Court of Appeals cases are officially published in the California Appellate Reports, series 1-4.  Unofficial reports are published by West; Supreme Court and Appellate Court decisions are published together in the West’s California Reporter, series 1, 2 & 3.  The Supreme Court decisions are also published in the Pacific Reporter, series 1, 2 & 3. 

Here are examples of citations for California:

Federal cases are cited in the same format as California cases.  For United States Supreme Court cases, the official reports, United States Reports, (abbreviated “US”) are published by the U.S. Government.  There are two parallel citations for Supreme Court cases: those published by West in the Supreme Court Reporter are abbreviated “S.Ct.”; those published by LexisNexis, the United States Supreme Court Reports, Lawyers’ Edition, are abbreviated “L.Ed.” or “L.Ed. 2d”  Court of Appeals cases, published only in West’s Federal Reporter, are abbreviated “F.,” “F. 2d.” or “F. 3d.”  Federal District Court cases are published only in West’s Federal Supplement, abbreviated “F. Supp.” or “F. Supp. 2d”  

Code Citations

Citations to California Codes do not begin with numbers; instead, the title of the code name is followed by the section number, the publisher, and the date of the volume (not the date the individual code section was enacted).  Parallel cites are not used for the code, since there is no official code for California.  The version of the unofficial code used (Deering’s or West) is indicated in the date portion of the citation.

Citations to the United States Code follow the same general format as cases; however, the first number refers to the title of the United States Code rather than a volume number, and the second number refers to the section number of the code rather than the page number.  Parallel cites are not used for the code, since the numbering is uniform for both official and unofficial codes.  The unofficial codes are designated by their own abbreviations, U.S.C.A. (West) and U.S.C.S. (Lexis). 

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Locating Legal Information in Primary and Secondary Resources: #1: How To Read A Legal Citation

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• #2: Digests: An Index to Case Law
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Legal Research Guide #1

How to read a legal citation,  what is a citation.

A citation is a reference to a legal authority. It is essential that citations to legal materials follow a standard format so that anyone using a law library may find the resources cited. Citation formats exist for many different types of legal sources including cases, statutes and secondary legal materials. Understanding the basic format for each of these different types of sources will enable the researcher to more independently locate materials in the law library.

Reading a Case Citation

Cases are published in reporters. A case citation is generally made up of the following parts:

• the names of the parties involved in the lawsuit
• the volume number of the reporter containing the full text of the case
• the abbreviated name of that case reporter
• the page number on which the case begins the year the case was decided; and sometimes
• the name of the court deciding the case.

Below is an example of a case citation:

Hebb v. Severson , 201 P.2d 156 (Wash. 1948).

In this example, Hebb and Severson are the parties in the case. The case can be found in volume 201 of the Pacific Reporter, Second Series beginning on page 156. The case was decided by the Washington State Supreme Court in 1948.

How To Find A Case By Citation

• Once you have a citation, the first step in locating the case is to identify the appropriate reporter. As in the example above, the abbreviated title of the reporter will be found in the citation. Use the following list to convert the abbreviation in your cite to a full reporter title.

• For a more extensive list of abbreviations, consult either the abbreviation table in  The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation ,  ALWD Citation Manual , or  Beiber’s  Dictionary of Legal Abbreviations . Ask at the Reference Desk for assistance in locating these sources.
• After you have identified the complete name of the case reporter, you will want to locate that reporter series in the law library. (A location table is available at the Reference Desk to assist you.)
• Now that you have found the reporter series, the next step is to identify the volume where the case is located. In a citation, the volume number always precedes the abbreviated reporter title.
• Next you need to determine the page on which the case begins. This page number always follows the abbreviated reporter title in your citation.
• Now that you have identified the appropriate volume and page number, pull the volume from the shelf. (Volume numbers are located on the spine of each reporter.) Turning to the appropriate page, you will find the full text of the opinion of the court.  Using the volume, reporter abbreviation, page number is also the best way to find a case electronically. 

Reading a Statutory Citation

Unlike case law which is made by judges in specific court cases, statutory law is made by the federal and state legislative branches of the government. Statutory law is published in codes. The United States Code contains statutes that have been passed by Congress. In addition, every state publishes its own statutory code. Citation format for statutes varies widely across the state and federal systems, however, there are similarities.

A federal statutory citation generally contains the following elements:

• the title or chapter number of the code
• the abbreviated name of the code
• the section or part number of the title or chapter; and
• the year of the code

Below is an example of a United States Code citation:

42 U.S.C. § 1983 (2006).

In this citation 42 is the Title of the Code where this statute can be found. U.S.C. is the abbreviation for the United States Code. § is the section symbol. 1983 is the section of title 42 of the code where the statute can be found. 2006 is the year of the code.

How to Find a Statute by Citation

• Once you have a citation, the first step is to identify the appropriate code. If you are researching a United States Code citation you may use any of the three federal statutory codes. Abbreviations for the federal statutory codes are as follows:

• The U.S.C. is the official code of the federal government. This set contains the actual statutes as adopted by Congress. The U.S.C.A. and U.S.C.S. are annotated codes published by commercial entities. In addition to the statutes, these codes contain other information that may be valuable to your research. Perhaps most helpful are the case annotations where courts have interpreted the statutory sections. Annotated codes also provide cross-references to legal encyclopedias, legal periodicals, and federal regulations. An additional advantage of annotated codes is that they are available on the shelf long before the official U.S.C. which is published by the government.
• After you have identified the appropriate code, the next step is to identify the correct title. The United States Code is divided into 50 titles. Within all three versions of the United States Code, the titles are arranged numerically. In your citation, the title always precedes the code abbreviation.
• Once you have identified the appropriate title, the next step is to determine the section number. The section number follows the code abbreviation in your cite.
• Now that you have identified the appropriate title and section number you are ready to locate the code in the law library. Once you have found the code you will notice that the titles are printed on the spine. Often one title will span several volumes. Locate the volume containing your title and turn to the appropriate section number. Here you will find the full text of your statutory section.  The title, code abbreviation, and section can also be used to find the code section electronically.
• After you have found your section you will want to make sure that there have not been any amendments or changes. To do this check the pocket part (in the back cover of the volume) or the softbound supplement (shelved immediately after your volume).  Electronic code versions should be up to date, but you should always check to see when the electronic version was last updated.

(Last Revised 3/4/201 3 )

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How to write a first-class bibliography for a legal essay

• November 9, 2010

How to write a bibliography to conclude your first-class dissertation

There are three stages for completing an abundant and competent bibliography. First, go into the footnotes on your document, select all, copy and paste to the foot of your article, then separate into different categories. Then, second, go back through the materials which you have read and add them. Finally, third, sort alphabetically using Word or Excel.

7. BIBLIOGRAPHY 7.1. TABLE OF CASES A and others v Denmark [1996] ECHR 2 AG of Zambia v Meer Care and Desai [2005] EWHC 2102 (Ch), appeals dismissed [2006] EWCA Civ 390 Airbus Industrie GIE v Patel [1999] 1 AC 119 Airey v Ireland [1979] ECHR 3 Al-Bassam v Al-Bassam [2004] EWCA Civ 857 Amuur v France (1996) 22 E.H.R.R. 533 Andreucci v Italy [1992] ECHR 8 Ashingdane v United Kingdom [1985] ECHR 8 Att. Gen. v Arthur Anderson & Co [1989] ECC 224 Axelsson v. Sweden, no.11960/86, 13 July 1990 Bensaid v United Kingdom (2001) 33 EHRR 10 Berghofer v. ASA SA Case 221/84 [1985] ECR 2699 Berisford Plc v New Hampshire Insurance [1990] 2 QB 631 Bock v. Germany [1989] ECHR 3 Boddaert v Belgium (1993) 16 EHRR 242 Bosphorus Hava Yollari Turizm Ve Ticaret Anonim Sirketi(“Bosphorus Airways“) v Ireland (2006) 42 EHRR 1 Bottazzi v. Italy [1999] ECHR 62 Brazilian Loans (PCIJ Publications, Series A, Nos. 20-21, p.122) Bristow Heliocopters v Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation [2004] 2 Ll Rep 150 British Airways v Laker Airways [1983] AC 58 British South Africa Co v Companhia de Moçambique [1893] AC 602 Buchholz v Germany [1981] ECHR 2 Carel Johannes Steven Bentinck v Lisa Bentinck [2007] EWCA Civ 175 Ceskoslovenska Obchodni Banka AS v Nomura International Plc [2003] IL Pr 20 Chellaram v Chellaram [1985] 1 Ch 409 Connelly v RTZ Corpn plc [1998] AC 854 Credit Agricole Indosuez v Unicof Ltd [2004] 1 Lloyd.s Rep 196 Cumming v Scottish Daily Record and Sunday Mail Ltd, The Times June 8, 1995 Darnell v United Kingdom (1993) 18 EHRR 205 Delcourt v Belgium (1979-80) 1 EHRR 355 Derbyshire CC v Times Newspapers Ltd [1992] QB 770 Deweer v Belgium (1979-80) 2 EHRR 439 Di Mauro v. Italy ECHR 1999-V Drozd and Janousek v France and Spain (1992) 14 EHRR 745 Eckle v Germany (1983) 5 EHRR 1 Elderslie Steamship Company v Burrell (1895) 22 R 389 Elefanten Schuh GmbH v Jacqmain (Case 150/80) [1981] ECR 1671 Erich Gasser GmbH v Misat Srl, C-116/02 [2005] QB 1 ERT v DEP C-260/89 [1991] ECR I-2925 F v Switzerland [1987] ECHR 32 Ferrari v Italy [1999] ECHR 64 Foti v Italy (1982) EHRR 313 Fritz and Nana v France, 75 DR 39 Golder v. United Kingdom [1975] ECHR 1 Gorbachev v Russia, No. 3354/02, Judgment of 15 February 2007. Government of the United States of America v Montgomery (No 2) [2004] UKHL 37 Guincho v Portugal (1984) 7 EHRR 223 H v France (1990) 12 EHRR 74 Hesperides Hotels Ltd v Aegan Turkish Holidays Ltd [1979] AC 508 Hewit’s Trs v Lawson (1891) 18 R 793. Huseyin Erturk v Turkey [2005] ECHR 630. Irish Shipping Ltd v Commercial Union [1991] 2 QB 206. Iveco Fiat v Van Hool Case 313/85 [1986] ECR 3337 Jones v Saudi Arabia [2004] EWCA Civ 1394 JP Morgan Europe Ltd v Primacom [2005] EWHC 508 Katte Klitsche de la Grange v Italy (1994) 19 EHRR 368 Klockner Holdings GmbH v Klockner Beteiligungs GmbH [2005] EWHC 1453 Konamaneni v Rolls-Royce Industrial Power (India) Ltd [2002] 1 WLR 1269 Konig v Federal Republic of Germany (1978) 2 EHRR 170 Krombach v Bamberski Case C-7/98 [2001] QB 709 Kudla v Poland [2000] ECHR 512 Lacey v Cessna Aircraft (1991) 932 F.2d 170 Ledra Fisheries Ltd v Turner [2003] EWHC 1049 Lubbe v Cape Industries Plc [2000] 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 383 Malone v United Kingdom (1985) 7 EHRR 1 Malstrom v Sweden (1983) 38 Decisions and Reports 18 Manieri v Italy [1992] ECHR 26 Margareta and Roger Andersson v Sweden (1992) 14 EHRR 615. Markovic v Italy [2006] ECHR 1141 Maronier v Larmer [2003] QB 620 Matthews v United Kingdom [1999] ECHR 12. Messier-Dowty v Sabena [2000] 1 WLR 2040 Netherlands 6202/73 1975 1 DR 66 OT Africa Line Ltd v Hijazy (The Kribi) [2001] Lloyd’s Rep 76 Owens Bank Ltd v Bracco [1992] 2 AC 433 Owners of the Atlantic Star v Owners of the Bona Spes (The Atlantic Star and The Bona Spes) [1974] AC 436 Owusu v Jackson and Others C-281/02 [2005] QB 801 Pafitis v Greece (1999) 27 EHRR 566 Pfeiffer and Plankl v Austria (1992) 14 EHRR 692 Philip Morris International Inc v Commission of the European Communities [2003] ECR II-1 Prince Hans-Adam II of Liechtenstein v Germany ECHR 2001-VIII. R (Razgar) v Special Adjudicator [2004] 1 AC 368 R v Jones [2003] 1 AC 1 R. (Alconbury Developments Ltd) v Secretary of State for the Environment [2001] 2 WLR 1389 R. (on the application of Ullah) v Special Adjudicator [2004] UKHL 26 Riccardo Pizzati v Italy [2006] ECHR 275 Robins v United Kingdom (1998) 26 EHRR 527 Salesi v Italy [1993] ECHR 14 Salotti v RUWA Case 23/76 [1976] ECR 1831 Santambrogio v Italy [2004] ECHR 430 Scopelliti v Italy (1993) 17 EHRR 493 Sim v Robinow (1892) 19 R 665 Soc Divagsa v Spain (1993) 74 DR 274. Soering v United Kingdom (1989) 11 EHRR 439 Spiliada Maritime Corporation v Cansulex Lid [1987] 1 AC 460 Standard Steamship Owners Protection and Indemnity Association v Gann [1992] 2 Lloyd’s Rep 528 Stogmuller v Austria (1979) 2 EHRR 155 Stubbings v United Kingdom [1996] ECHR 44 Sunday Times v United Kingdom (1979-80) 2 EHRR 245 The Al Battani [1993] 2 Lloyd’s Rep 219 The Benarty [1984] 2 Lloyd’s Rep 244 The Fehmarn [1958] 1 WLR 159 The Jalakrishna [1983] 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 628 The Lakhta [1992] 2 Lloyd’s Rep 269 The Nile Rhapsody [1992] 2 Lloyd’s Rep 399 The Pioneer Container [1994] 2 AC 324 The Polessk [1996] 2 Lloyd’s Rep 40 The Vishva Ajay [1989] 2 Lloyd’s Rep 558 Toepfer International G.M.B.H. v. Molino Boschi Srl [1996] 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 510 Trendex v Credit Suisse [1982] AC 679 Turner v Grovit and Others [2005] 1 AC 101 Union Alimentaria SA v Spain (1990) 12 EHRR 24 Vocaturo v Italy [1991] ECHR 34. Wemhoff v Germany (1968) 1 EHRR 55 Winterwerp v The Netherlands [1979] ECHR 4 X v France [1992] ECHR 45 Xn Corporation Ltd v Point of Sale Ltd [2001] I.L.Pr. 35 Z and Others v. United Kingdom (2002) 34 EHRR 3 Zimmermann and Steiner v Switzerland [1983] ECHR 9 7.2. TABLE OF LEGISLATION European Union EC Treaty Art 6(2) Art 307 Council Regulation 44/2001 (Brussels Regulation) Art 2 Art 4 Art 27 Art 28 Art 30 Art 34(1) Art 34(2) Art 35(3) Art 71 Italy Law no.89 of 24 March 2001 (the “Pinto Act”). United Kingdom Civil Jurisdiction and Judgments Act 1982 Civil Procedure Rules 1998 Part 11 r 3.1(2)(f) Human Rights Act 1998 (HRA 1998) s1(1)(a) s2(1)(a) s3(1) s6(3)(a) 7.3. TABLE OF CONVENTIONS Brussels Convention on Jurisdiction and Judgments in Civil and Commercial Matters (Brussels Convention) Art 21 Art 22 Art 57 European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) Art 5 Art 6 Art 7 Art 13 7.4. TEXTBOOKS Anton, A.E., and Beaumont, P., 1995. Anton & Beaumont’s Civil Jurisdiction in Scotland: Brussels and Lugano Conventions. 2nd ed ., Edinburgh: Greens Bell, A., 2003. Forum Shopping and Venue in Transnational Litigation. Oxford: OUP Briggs, A., 2002. The Conflict of Laws, Oxford: OUP. Briggs, A., and Rees, P., 2002. Civil Jurisdiction and Judgments. 3rd ed., London: LLP Briggs, A., and Rees, P., 2005. Civil Jurisdiction and Judgments. 4rd ed., London: LLP Clarkson, C.M.V., and Hill, J., 2002. Jaffey on the Conflict of Laws. 2nd ed., Oxford: OUP Clarkson, C.M.V., and Hill, J., 2006. The Conflict of Laws. New York: OUP Clayton, R. and Tomlinson, H., 2000. The Law of Human Rights. Oxford: OUP Collier, J.C., 2001. Conflict of Laws. 3rd ed., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Collins, L., et al (eds), 2006. Dicey Morris and Collins on the Conflict of Laws. 14th ed. London: Sweet and Maxwell Crawford, E.B., and Carruthers, J.M., 2006. International Private Law in Scotland. 2nd ed, Edinburgh: Greens Einhorn, T. and Siehr, K., 2004. Intercontinental Cooperation Through Private International Law – Essays in Memory of Peter E. Nygh. The Hague, The Netherlands: T.M.C. Asser Press. Fawcett, J.J., 1995. Declining jurisdiction in private international law: reports to the XIVth congress of the International Academy of Comparative Law, Athens, August 1994. Oxford: Clarendon Press Fawcett, J.J., Harris, J. and Bridge, M., 2005. International Sale of Goods in the Conflict of Laws. Oxford: OUP Grosz, S., Beatson, J. and Duffy, P., 2000. Human Rights: The 1998 Act and the European Convention,.London: Sweet and Maxwell Harris, D.J., O’Boyle, M., Warbrick, C., 1995. Law of the European Convention on Human Rights. London: Butterworth Hill, J., 2005. International Commercial Disputes in English Courts. 3rd ed Portland: Hart Publishing McClean, D. and Beevers, K., 2005. Morris on the Conflict of Laws. 6th ed., London: Sweet and Maxwell North, P.M. and Fawcett, J.J., 2004. Cheshire and North’s Private International Law. 13th ed. Oxford: OUP Ovey, C. and White, R., 2002. The European Convention on Human Rights. New York: OUP Raitio, J., 2003. The Principle of Legal Certainty in EC Law. The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers Reed, R. and Murdoch, J., 2001. A Guide to Human Rights Law in Scotland. Edinburgh: Butterworths Scotland Starmer, K., 1999. European Human Rights Law. London: Legal Action Group 7.5. ARTICLES Baldwin, J., and Cunnington, R., 2004. “The Crisis in Enforcement of Civil Judgments in England and Wales.” 2004 PL (SUM) 305-328 Briggs, A., 2005a. “Foreign Judgments and Human Rights.” 121(APR) L.Q.R. 185-189 Briggs, A., 2005b. “The Death of Harrods: Forum non Conveniens and the European Court.” 121(OCT) L.Q.R. 535-540 Clarke, A., 2007. “The Differing Approach to Commercial Litigation in the European Court of Justice and the Courts of England and Wales” 18 E.B.L.Rev. 101-129 Collins, L., 1995. “The Brussels Convention Within the United Kingdom”, 111 LQR 541 Costa, J-P., 2002, Rivista internazionale dei diritti dell’uomo, 435, cited in Kinsch, P., 2004. “The Impact of Human Rights on the Application of Foreign Law and on the Recognition of Foreign Judgments – A Survey of the Cases Decided by the European Human Rights Institutions,” in Einhorn, T. and Siehr, K., 2004. Intercontinental Cooperation Through Private International Law – Essays in Memory of Peter E. Nygh, The Hague, The Netherlands: T.M.C. Asser Press, pp197-228, p228 n100 Crawford, E.B., 2005. “The Uses of Putativity and Negativity in the Conflict of Laws.” 54 ICLQ 829-854 Crifo, C., 2005. “First Steps Towards the Harmonisation of Civil procedure: The Regulation Creating a European Enforcement Order for Uncontested Claims.” C.J.Q. 2005, 24(APR), 200-223 Eardley, A., 2006. “Libel Tourism in England: Now the Welcome is Even Warmer.” 17(1) Ent. L.R. 35-38 Fabri, M., and Langbroek, P.M., 2003. “Preliminary draft report: Delay in Judicial Proceedings: A preliminary Inquiry into the Relation Between the Demands of the Reasonable Time Requirements of Article 6(1) ECHR and Their Consequences for Judges and Judicial Administration in the Civil, Criminal and Administrative Justice Chains”, CEPEJ (2003) 20 Rev Farran, S., 2007. “Conflicts of Laws in Human Rights: Consequences for Colonies”, (2007) 1 EdinLR 121 Fawcett, J.J., 2007. “The Impact of Article 6(1) of the ECHR on Private International Law.” 56 ICLQ 1-48 Fentiman, R., 2005. “English Domicile and the Staying of Actions” [2005] 64 CLJ 303 Flannery, L., 2004. “The End of Anti-Suit Injunctions?” New Law Journal, 28 May 2004, 798 Franzosi, M., 2002. “Torpedoes are here to stay” [2002] 2 International Review of Industrial Property and Copyright Law 154 Franzosi, M., 1997. “Worldwide Patent Litigation and the Italian Torpedo” 19 (7) EIPR 382 Green, L., 1956. “Jury Trial and Mr. Justice Black,” 65 Yale LJ 482 Halkerston, G., 2005. “A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum.” 155 NLJ 436 Hare, C., “Forum non Conveniens in Europe: Game Over or Time for ‘Reflexion’” JBL 2006, Mar, 157-179 Harris, J., 2001. “The Brussels Regulation.” 20 Civil Justice Quarterly 218 Harris, J., 2005. “Stays of Proceedings and the Brussels Convention.,” 54 ICLQ 933 Hartley, T.C., 1994. “Brussels Jurisdiction and Judgments Convention: Agreement and Lis Alibi Pendens.” 19(5) E.L.Rev 549-552 Hartley, T.C., 2001. “International Law and the Law of the European Union – A Reassessment”, 72 BYBIL 1 Hartley, T.C., 2005a. “Choice-of-court agreements, lis pendens, human rights and the realities of international business: reflection on the Gasser case” in Le droit international privé: mélanges en l’honneur de Paul Lagarde, (Dalloz, Paris, 2005), pp383-391 Hartley, T.C., 2005b. “The European Union and the Systematic Dismantling of the Common Law Conflict of Laws”, 54 ICLQ 813 Higgins, R., 2006. “A Babel of Judicial Voices? Ruminations From the Bench.” 55 ICLQ 791-804. Hogan, G., 1995. “The Brussels Convention, Forum non Conveniens and the Connecting Factors Problem.” 20(5) E.L. Rev. 471-493 Hood, K.J., 2006. “Drawing Inspiration? Reconsidering the Procedural Treatment of Foreign Law.” 2(1) JPrIL 181-193. Hunt, M., 1998. “The “Horizontal Effect” of the Human Rights Act”. 1998 Public Law 423-443 Hunter-Henin, M., 2006. “Droit des personnes et droits de l’homme: combinaison ou confrontation? (Family Law and Human Rights: Can They Go Along or Do They Exclude Each Other?),” 95(4) Revue critique de droit international privé pp743-775. Kennett, W., 1998. “Service of Documents in Europe.” 17(JUL) C.J.Q. 284-307 Kennett, W., 2001. “The Brussels I Regulation.” 50 ICLQ 725 -737 Kennett, W., 2001. “The Enforcement Review: A Progress Report.” 20(Jan) CJQ 36-57 Kennett, W., and McEleavy, P., 2002. “(Current Development): Civil and Commercial Litigation” 51 ICLQ 463 Kinsch, P., 2004. “The Impact of Human Rights on the Application of Foreign Law and on the Recognition of Foreign Judgments – A Survey of the Cases Decided by the European Human Rights Institutions,” in Einhorn, T. and Siehr, K., 2004. Intercontinental Cooperation Through Private International Law – Essays in Memory of Peter E. Nygh, The Hague, The Netherlands: T.M.C. Asser Press, pp197-228. Lester, A., and Pannick, D., 2000. “The Impact of the Human Rights Act on Private Law: The Knight’s Move.” 116 LQR 380-385 Loucaides, L.G., 2003. “Questions of a Fair Trial Under the European Convention on Human Rights.” (2003) HRLR 3(1), pp27-51. Lowenfield, A.F., 2004. “Jurisdiction, Enforcement, Public Policy and Res Judicata: The Krombach Case,” in in Einhorn, T. and Siehr, K., 2004. Intercontinental Cooperation Through Private International Law – Essays in Memory of Peter E. Nygh, The Hague, The Netherlands: T.M.C. Asser Press, pp229-248 Mance, J., 2004a. “Civil Jurisdiction in Europe – Choice of Court Clauses, Competing Litigation and Anti-Suit Injunctions – Erich Gasser v. Misat and Turner v. Grovit: Address to Second Conference of European Commercial Judges, (“Problems of enforcement of european law”)” Paris – 14th October 2004; http://www.courdecassation.fr/formation_br_4/2004_2034/jonathan_mance_8239.html, (Accessed 10 March 2007) Mance, J., 2004b. “Exclusive Jurisdiction Agreements and European Ideals.” 120 LQR 357 Mance, J., 2005. “The Future of Private International Law.” 1(2) JPrIL 185-195 Mance, J., 2007. “Is Europe Aiming to Civilise the Common Law?” 18 EBLRev 77-99 McLachlan, C., 2004. “International Litigation and the Reworking of the Conflict of Laws” 120(OCT) LQR 580-616 Meidanis, H.P., 2005. “Public Policy and Ordre Public in the Private International Law of the EU: Traditional Positions and Moderns Trends.” 30(1), ELRev, 95-110 Merrett, L., 2006. “The Enforcement of Jurisdiction Agreements within the Brussels Regime,” 55 ICLQ 315 Muir Watt, H., 2001. “Evidence of an Emergent European Legal Culture: Public Policy Requirements of Procedural Fairness Under the Brussels and Lugano Conventions.” 36 Tex. ILJ, p. 539. North, P., 2001. “Private International Law: Change or Decay?” 50 ICLQ 477-508 Orakhelashvili, A., 2006. “The Idea of European International Law.” 17 Eur. J. Int’l L. 315 Peel, E., 2001. “Forum non Conveniens Revisited.” 117(APR) L.Q.R. 187-194 Robertson, D.W., 1987. “Forum Non Conveniens in America and England: ‘A rather fantastic fiction’.” 103 LQR 398 Robert-Tissot, S., and Smith, D., 2005. “The Battle for Forum”, New Law Journal, 7 October 2005, p1496 Robert-Tissot, S., 2005. “The Battle for Forum.” 155 NLJ 1496 Rodger, B.J., 2006. “Forum non Conveniens: Post Owusu.” 2(1) JPrIL 71 Schiavetta, S., 2004. “The Relationship Between e-ADR and Article 6 of the European Convention of Human Rights pursuant to the Case Law of the European Court of Human Rights.” 2004 (1) The Journal of Information, Law and Technology (JILT). http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/law/elj/jilt/2004_1/schiavetta/ (Accessed 28 February 2007) Sinopoli, L., 2000. Le droit au procès équitable dans les rapports privés internationaux (doctoral dissertation, University of Paris-I, 2000) Slater, A.G., 1988. “Forum Non Conveniens: A View From the Shop Floor.” 104 LQR 554 Svantesson, D.J.B., 2005. “In Defence of the Doctrine of Forum Non Conveniens.” (2005) HKLJ 395 Van Hoek: 2001. “Case note on Krombach v Bamberski” (2001) 38 CMLR 1011. Wade, H.W.R., 2000. “Horizons of Horizontality.” 116 LQR 217-224 Williams, J.M., 2001. “Forum non Conveniens, Lubbe v Cape and Group Josi v Universal General Insurance.” J.P.I. Law 2001, 1, 72-77 Zhenjie, H., 2001. “Forum Non Conveniens: An Unjustified Doctrine.” 48 NILR 143

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Legal Research: A Guide to Case Law

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Legal citations, in general, are used to identify the source of information supporting a particular point in a legal document (such as a motion , a brief , or a decision). Citations that refer to court decisions identify where a particular decision has been published in a reporter; they are laid out in a specific and consistent manner so that a reader can easily find the text of the decision in a reporter. The typical form of a citation to a decision includes:

• the names of the lead parties (in most cases, the plaintiff or appellant versus the defendant or appellee),
• a number representing the volume of the reporter,
• an abbreviation of the name of the reporter,
• a second number providing the first page of the decision, and
• in parentheses, an abbreviation for the court and the year the decision was issued. 

For example, the citation Stearns v. Ticketmaster Corp ., 655 F.3d 1013 (9th Cir. 2011) , identifies a decision in a case between an appellant, named Stearns, and an appellee, named Ticketmaster Corporation. The citation indicates that the decision was published in volume 655 of the Federal Reporter, Third Series (identified by the abbreviation “F.3d”), beginning on page 1013. The citation also shows the decision was issued by the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit (abbreviated as 9th Cir.), in 2011.

The Bluebook

The rules governing the most widely used legal citation style are found in The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation . Below, find a link to fuller bibliographic information about this resource in the Library of Congress Online Catalog .

Online Legal Citation Guides

Online resources provide basic legal citation guidance, but should be used as a supplement to (not a substitute for) the Bluebook .

• Introduction to Basic Legal Citation External An online guide to basic legal citation by Peter W. Martin, Professor Emeritus at Cornell Law School.
• Bluebook Guide External An introduction to The Bluebook and basic concepts of legal citation, prepared by the Georgetown Law Library.
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• URL: https://guides.loc.gov/case-law

Legal Citation Guides and Abbreviations

Legal citation guides (us-based), legal citation guides (other countries), general (nonlegal) citation guides, legal abbreviation lists, general (nonlegal) abbreviation lists, getting help.

Part of doing legal research is citing your authorities properly and tracking down items with unfamiliar citations. This research guide lists citation manuals and dictionaries of legal abbreviations to help you with these tasks.

When filing legal documents with a court, court rules of citation apply. Consult court rules for required citation format, usually found in the jurisdiction's Rules of Procedure. When submitting written work to non-law journals, consult the journal to determine preferred citation format.

The Bluebook is the main citation manual for law in the U.S.  This guide lists Bluebook alternatives, but you should assume that Bluebook format is preferred by academic law journals and law school writing programs.

The Bluebook

• The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation, 21st ed. Compiled by the Law Review editors of Columbia, Harvard, University of Pennsylvania, and Yale, this guide is the most widely used citation manual for law. It prescribes citation formats for most U.S. law sources. It is not comprehensive for foreign law. For guidance citing sources not addressed, see the Guide to Foreign and Legal Citation.
• The Bluebook Online, by personal, fee-based subscription The library does not have institutional access to the Bluebook online. You may purchase individual subscriptions from this page.

Bluebook Aids

• Users Guide to the Bluebook by Alan Dworsky 2020 revised for 21st ed.
• Introduction to Basic Legal Citation by Peter Martin
• Bluebook Citation for LL.M. Students (HLSL Guide)
• Bieber's Dictionary of Legal Abbreviations Reversed Provides more comprehensive list of abbreviations for legal publications than the Bluebook and better guidance for online sources like press releases, LinkedIn, Facebook, etc.

Bluebook Alternatives

• ALWD Guide to Legal Citation, 7th ed. From the Association of Legal Writing Directors, this alternative to the Bluebook follows Bluebook-prescribed format but provides more examples and requires more bibliographic information for some sources.
• (The Maroonbook) The University of Chicago Manual of Legal Citation Created as a practical alternative to the Bluebook, the Maroonbook sets general guidelines and encourages the use of common sense when devising non-prescribed citation formats.
• The Redbook: A Manual on Legal Style by Bryan Garner 4th ed. Covers citation format but also style guidance for punctuation, capitalization and grammar. 3d edition available at same call number.
• Universal Citation Guide (Harvard login) Authored by the American Association of Law Libraries, this legal citation guide suggests a vendor-neutral format to facilitate the citation of online legal sources.
• The Indigo Book: An Open and Compatible Implementation of A Uniform System of Citation Free citation manual similar to the Bluebook system of legal citation.

Foreign and International Citation Guides

• UCIA, Universal Citation in International Arbitration Covers citation formats for international arbitration including International Court Decisions, supporting documentary materials and arbitral proceedings.
• Bluebook Table 2 Foreign Jurisdictions Citation formats for materials of non-U.S. jurisdictions is available free online.
• Guide to Foreign and International Legal Citations, 2d. ed. From the NYU Journal of International Law & Politics, this guide provides citation formats for non-U.S. and International legal materials.

State Specific Legal Citation Guides

• California Style Manual (Westlaw login)
• Uniform Maine Citations
• Massachusetts SJC Official Reports Style Manual
• New York Law Reports Style Manual
• New York Rules of Citation
• A Guide to South Carolina Legal Research and Citation
• (Texas) Manual on Usage and Style (Texas)
• Wisconsin Guide to Citation

Tax Citation Guides

• Citation and Style Manual U.S. Dept. of Justice Tax Division
• The Canadian Tax Foundation Style Guide
• TaxCite: A Federal Tax Citation and Reference Manual The American Bar Association Section of Taxation and the Virginia Tax Review authored this manual for citing tax-related documents. Tax materials are not comprehensively addressed by the Bluebook.

U.S. Court and Government Citation Manuals and Style Guides

• The Supreme Court's Style Guide The style manual used by the Reporter of Decisions of the U.S. Reports. It is not prescriptive to brief-writers, but the style suggestions are worth noting.
• 7th Circuit's Requirements and Suggestions for Typography
• Fed. Rules of Appellate Procedure Rule 32, Form of Briefs, Appendices, and Other Papers (Lexis login)
• U.S. GPO Style Manual: An Official Guide to the Form and Style of Federal Government (Harvard login)

Citation Guides for Foreign Law

• Guide to Foreign and Legal Citations, 2nd ed. Editors from the New York University School of Law's Journal of International Law and Politics have prepared this citation manual focusing on foreign jurisdictions and international law.
• HOLLIS Search for Legal Citation Manuals Add a jurisdiction on the second line to search for citation manuals for a specific jurisdiction.
• International Citator & Research Guide: the Greenbook Four volumes currently available of planned 6-volume reference work focused on foreign and international legal materials.

Jurisdiction-Specific Citation Guides

• Australian Guide to Legal Citation
• Canadian Guide to Uniform Legal Citation (McGill Guide)
• (Germany) Abkürzungsverzeichnis der Rechtssprache
• (Great Britain) Index to Legal Citations and Abbreviations
• (Great Britain) OSCOLA: Oxford University Standard for the Citation of Legal Authorities
• (Great Britain) How to Cite Legal Authorities
• (India) Standard Indian Legal Citation Order a copy of the working draft.
• (New Zealand) Style Guide
• (Quebec) Références Législatives, Jurisprudentielles et Doctrinales: Guide Pour le Droit Québécois
• The Chicago Manual of Style, 16th ed. (Harvard login)
• MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing, 3rd ed.
• APA Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association
• Harvard Referencing Harvard referencing is an in-text, author-date style. You will see references to Harvard citation format on HOLLIS records. There is no official guide to the format.
• (Turabian) A Manual for Writers for Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations: Chicago Style, 8th ed.
• The Chicago Guide to Writing About Numbers, 2d ed. Useful for researchers presenting statistical information.
• Cite Right: A Quick Guide to Citation Styles--MLA, APA, Chicago, the Sciences, Professions, and More, 2d ed.
• The Complete Guide to Citing Government Information Resources: a Manual for Writers & Librarians

Citation Management Software

• Citation Tools at Harvard Compares Endnote, Mendeley, and Zotero and provides basic information about each.

Citation Guides for Online Sources

The Bluebook has a rule for citing Internet resources, but the following guides are more detailed and may provide extra guidance.

• The Columbia Guide to Online Style
• APA Quick Style Guide See Quick Answers for citing Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, etc.
• Citing Electronic Resources by the Internet Public Library

Abbreviations used in legal citation are often inscrutable, e.g., 54 F.R.D. 85 or 32 L. Ed. 2d 95. Before you can track down a publication, you need to figure out its complete title. The following abbreviation lists are usage oriented and include variants of citations as well as standard forms.

In addition to those listed here, Harvard Law School Library has many other jurisdiction-specific legal abbreviation lists. To locate them, use this  HOLLIS search and add your jurisdiction.

• Prince's Dictionary of Legal Abbreviations (Formerly Bieber's) The most used list of legal abbreviations. Use it to find the full name of the reporter, code, or other legal source for which you only have the abbreviation.
• World Dictionary of Legal Abbreviations by Igor Kavass Provides the full name of legal publications from many countries by their abbreviations. For historical research, there is an appendix covering pre-1607.
• Black's Law Dictionary (Westlaw login) Has appendix for law-related abbreviations.
• Index to Legal Citations and Abbreviations by Donald Raistrick Focus is legal publications from the Commonwealth countries.
• Cardiff Index to Legal Abbreviations Free online tool for abbreviations from the U.K. and Commonwealth countries.
• Noble's Revised International Guide to the Law Reports Lists full titles for the array of English law reporter abbreviations.

The following lists are in addition to legal abbreviation lists.  They will help you find the full names or words from government, legal, medical, military, and technical abbreviations.

Abbreviations and Acronyms Lists

• Acronym Finder
• Abbreviations.com
• Acronyms, Initialisms & Abbreviations Dictionary (Harvard login) Use catalog link to online version.
• International Acronyms, Initialisms & Abbreviations Dictionary International in coverage, but weak for U.S., Canada, and the U.K.
• GovSpeak: A Guide to Government Acronyms & Abbreviations Acronyms and abbreviations used by the U.S. Government. Does not include military terms.
• DOD Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms (large pdf) Includes acronyms.

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Q. What is the format for the bibliography for Law coursework and dissertations? (OSCOLA)

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Answered By: Claire Mazer Last Updated: 16 Oct, 2023     Views: 23642

**Please check for current guidance from Brunel Law School**

In academic work more generally, a bibliography is typically used to show everything you have cited and anything else you have read, even if not cited. Recent advice from the Law School suggests that academic colleagues only wished for cited works to appear in the bibliography and not anything else. So, if you have read a source (book, article etc) , but not cited it in your footnotes, then don't include it in your bibliography.

Bibliography format for law coursework: The key points to note are that sources need to be in categories, with primary sources (cases, legislation) listed first, followed by secondary sources (books, journals, websites) all in alphabetical and then chronological order. Note that case names appear in plain text and not italics.

Note that authors names are inverted. Surname appears first followed by the initial of the first name and then a comma, i.e. Choo A, or Natile S, This does not apply to company, departmental or organisational names (including law firms and barristers chambers), i.e. European Commission, Ministry of Justice, British Red Cross, Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer, which remain as they are in both footnotes and the bibliography.

Electronic versions of cases and journal articles: Many cases and journal articles can be found in legal databases such as Westlaw, Lexis+ etc. However, it is not necessary to cite databases as the source. Almost all law reports and journals are available in printed form. The citation itself is sufficient since it includes the law report or journal in which the case was reported or journal article was published. There are a few journals where only an electronic version is available, usually the clue is in the title: The Internet Journal of Criminology. For these titles it is necessary to add the URL in triangular brackets and the date it was accessed.

Here is a sample bibliography:

Bibliography

Pepper v Hart [1993] AC 593 (HL)

Mastercard Inc v Merricks [2021] Bus LR 25

R v Brockway (Andrew Robert) (2008) 2 Cr App R (S) 4

R v Edwards (John) (1991) 93 Cr App R 48

Legislation

Crime and Disorder Act 1998

Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984

Dembour M-B, Who believes in human rights?: reflections on the European Convention (Cambridge University Press 2006)

Herring J, Criminal Law: Text and Materials (9th edn, OUP 2020)

Norrie A, Crime, Reason and History (3rd edn, Cambridge University Press 2014)

Ashworth A, ‘Social Control and “Anti-Social Behaviour”: the Subversion of Human Rights’ (2004) 120 LQR 263

Behan C and O'Donnell I, 'Prisoners, Politics and the Polls: Enfranchisement and the Burden of Responsibility' (2008) 48(3) Brit J Criminol 31

Stephens-Chu G, ‘Is it Always All About the Money? The Appropriateness of Non-Pecuniary Remedies in Investment Treaty Arbitration’ (2014) 30(4) Arbitration International 661

Gazard B, ‘What’s happened to crime during the pandemic? How ONS has responded to the measurement challenge’ ( Office for National Statistics , 25 August 2020) <https://blog.ons.gov.uk/2020/08/25/whats-happened-to-crime-during-the-pandemic-how-ons-has-responded-to-the-measurement-challenge/> accessed 16 December 2020

Gowin J, ‘Can We Predict Crime Using Brain Scans?’ ( You, Illuminated. Psychology Today, 2013)  <https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/you-illuminated/201304/can-we-predict-crime-using-brain-scans> accessed 20 October 2020

Metropolitan Police, ‘What is hate crime?’ ( Metropolitan Police, 2021) < https://www.met.police.uk/advice/advice-and-information/hco/hate-crime/what-is-hate-crime/ > accessed 26 February 2021

Bibliography format for law dissertations: Broadly the same as above except that separate tables of cases / legislation / EU or International legal materials (as applicable) should appear between the end of the dissertation and the beginning of the bibliography. The purpose of the bibliography at dissertation level is to provide a list of secondary sources, i.e. books, journals, online documents, websites, blogs.

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• Harvard Style Bibliography | Format & Examples

Harvard Style Bibliography | Format & Examples

Published on 1 May 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on 7 November 2022.

In Harvard style , the bibliography or reference list provides full references for the sources you used in your writing.

• A reference list consists of entries corresponding to your in-text citations .
• A bibliography sometimes also lists sources that you consulted for background research, but did not cite in your text.

The two terms are sometimes used interchangeably. If in doubt about which to include, check with your instructor or department.

The information you include in a reference varies depending on the type of source, but it usually includes the author, date, and title of the work, followed by details of where it was published. You can automatically generate accurate references using our free reference generator:

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Table of contents

Formatting a harvard style bibliography, harvard reference examples, referencing sources with multiple authors, referencing sources with missing information, frequently asked questions about harvard bibliographies.

Sources are alphabetised by author last name. The heading ‘Reference list’ or ‘Bibliography’ appears at the top.

Each new source appears on a new line, and when an entry for a single source extends onto a second line, a hanging indent is used:

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Reference list or bibliography entries always start with the author’s last name and initial, the publication date and the title of the source. The other information required varies depending on the source type. Formats and examples for the most common source types are given below.

• Entire book
• Book chapter
• Translated book
• Edition of a book

Journal articles

• Print journal
• Online-only journal with DOI
• Online-only journal without DOI

• General web page
• Online article or blog
• Social media post

Newspapers and magazines

• Newspaper article
• Magazine article

When a source has up to three authors, list all of them in the order their names appear on the source. If there are four or more, give only the first name followed by ‘ et al. ’:

Sometimes a source won’t list all the information you need for your reference. Here’s what to do when you don’t know the publication date or author of a source.

Some online sources, as well as historical documents, may lack a clear publication date. In these cases, you can replace the date in the reference list entry with the words ‘no date’. With online sources, you still include an access date at the end:

When a source doesn’t list an author, you can often list a corporate source as an author instead, as with ‘Scribbr’ in the above example. When that’s not possible, begin the entry with the title instead of the author:

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Though the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, there is a difference in meaning:

• A reference list only includes sources cited in the text – every entry corresponds to an in-text citation .
• A bibliography also includes other sources which were consulted during the research but not cited.

In Harvard referencing, up to three author names are included in an in-text citation or reference list entry. When there are four or more authors, include only the first, followed by ‘ et al. ’

In Harvard style referencing , to distinguish between two sources by the same author that were published in the same year, you add a different letter after the year for each source:

• (Smith, 2019a)
• (Smith, 2019b)

Add ‘a’ to the first one you cite, ‘b’ to the second, and so on. Do the same in your bibliography or reference list .

To create a hanging indent for your bibliography or reference list :

• Highlight all the entries
• Click on the arrow in the bottom-right corner of the ‘Paragraph’ tab in the top menu.
• In the pop-up window, under ‘Special’ in the ‘Indentation’ section, use the drop-down menu to select ‘Hanging’.
• Then close the window with ‘OK’.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

Caulfield, J. (2022, November 07). Harvard Style Bibliography | Format & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 4 July 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/referencing/harvard-bibliography/

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Richard H. Fallon, Jr., The Meaning of Legal “Meaning” and Its Implications for Theories of Legal Interpretation , 82 U. Chi. L. Rev. 1235 (2015).

Abstract: Debates about legal interpretation frequently bypass or give short shrift to the more basic concept of legal "meaning." Seeking to rectify that deficiency, this Article explores the meaning of "meaning." Examination of familiar terms of legal argument reveals an astonishing number of possible senses of that term - and, correspondingly, an equally large number of possible referents for ultimate claims concerning what legal provisions mean. These referents include a statutory or constitutional provision's semantic or literal meaning, its contextual meaning as framed by the shared presuppositions of speakers and listeners, its "real" conceptual meaning, and its intended, reasonable, and previously interpreted meanings. Proponents of interpretive theories such as textualism and originalism sometimes suggest that legal meaning depends on prelegal, linguistic facts that make one of these kinds or senses of meaning uniquely correct. But that suggestion reflects a misunderstanding about how language works. Framing the challenge for legal interpretation as that of choosing the normatively best referent for claims of legal meaning from among otherwise eligible candidates, this Article shows that textualism and originalism, in particular, lack the resources to make the unique, consistent, categorical selections and exclusions that some versions of those theories purport to achieve. Like a variety of other interpretive theories, they lapse into reliance on case-by-case normative judgments. When understood against the background of a careful delineation of the choices that legal interpretation requires, the aspirations of textualism and originalism help to frame a fundamental question: Given the function of interpretive theories to guide or determine choices among otherwise plausible senses of legal meaning, should such theories do so on a categorical or a case-by-case basis? This Article advocates the latter approach. A due appreciation of the interpretive challenge - which frequently requires a choice among the literal, con-textually framed and limited, real conceptual, intended, reasonable, and interpreted meanings of statutory and constitutional provisions - reveals the stark hubris of proposals that commit in advance to categorical selections or even categorical exclusions.

• Bibliographies
• A bibliography appears at the end of a document and lists all sources relied upon (not just those referred to in text and in footnotes)
• Do not include pinpoint references in a bibliography (Note that the starting page of some sources, such as journal articles and reported cases, forms part of the citation and is separate from the pinpoint)
• Do not place a full stop at the end of a citation
• In a bibliography, the author's surname comes before their first name, separated by a comma (if a source has more than one author, only the first author is listed as surname first)
• Case name or legislation title
• The first listed author's surname
• The name of the institution (excluding the word 'the')
• Where there is no author, the first word of the title (excluding the word 'the')
• A bibliography may be divided into the sections as shown below (you may change/remove/add other categories or subdivisions as relevant/needed):

A   Articles/Books/Reports

B  Cases

C  Legislation

D  Treaties

E  Other

Example bibliography

Bibliography.

A   Articles/Books/Reports

Bedford, Narelle and Monica Taylor, 'Model No More: Querulent Behaviour, Vexatious Litigants and the Vexatious Proceedings Act 2005 (Qld)' (2014) 24(1)  Journal of Judicial Administration  46

Boulle, Laurence and Rachael Field,  Mediation in Australia  (LexisNexis Buttersworths, 2018)

Haas, Ulrich and Deborah Healey (eds),  Doping in Sport and the Law  (Hart, 2016)

James, Nickolas et al,  Business and Company Law  (Wiley, 2 nd  ed, 2019)

Kenny, Paul, Michael Blissenden and Sylvia Villios, 'Wine Options of Australian Tax Reform' (2017) 15(1)  eJournal of Tax Research  22

Kirby, Michael, 'Judicial Independence and Accountability: An Asia-Pacific Perspective' [2009] (1)  LAWASIA Journal  1

OECD,  The Future of Education and Skills: Education 2030  (Report, 2018)

Ong,  Denis,  Trusts Law in Australia  (Federation Press, 5 th  ed, 2018)

Svantesson, Dan Jerker B and William Van Caenegem, 'Is it Time for an Offence of "Dishonest Algorithmic Manipulation for Electoral Gain"?' (2017) 42(3)  Alternative Law Journal  184

Vivian, Alison et al, 'Indigenous Self-Government in the Australian Federation' (2017) 20(1)  Australian Indigenous Law Review  215

B   Cases

AAT Case 7422  (1991) 22 ATR 3450

Blundell v Queensland Building and Construction Commission  [2018] QSC 58

Brown v Tasmania  (2017) 261 CLR 328

Moroccanoil Israel Ltd v Aldi Foods Pty Ltd  (2017) AIPC ¶92-533

Morris v Morris  [1982] 1 NSWLR 61

Palmer v Ayres  [2017] HCA 5

R  v Schelvis  (2016) 263 A Crim R 1

R v Visconti  [1982] 2 NSWLR 104

Re Nguyen and Migration Agents Registration Authority  [2012] AATA 925

Ross v Chambers  (Supreme Court of the Northern Territory, Kriewaldt J, 5 April 1956)

Waddy v Rabba  [1982] Qd R 20

C   Legislation

Australian Constitution

Constitution of Queensland 2001  (Qld)

Family Law Act 1975  (Cth)

High Court Rules 2004  (Cth)

Refugee Protection Bill 2018 (Cth)

Right to Information Act 2009  (Qld)

Right to Information Bill 2009 (Qld)

Right to Information Regulation 2009  (Qld)

Uniform Civil Procedure Rules 1999  (Qld)

D   Other

CCH Australia,  Australian Family Law and Practice Premium Commentary  (online at 28 February 2019)

Crowe, Jonathan and Zali Brookes, 'How Do We Think About Lolita? Difference, Alterity and Animal Liberation' (Speech, Australasian Society of Legal Philosophy Annual Conference, 6–8 July 2018)

Explanatory Memorandum, Freedom to Marry Bill 2016 (Cth)

Explanatory Notes, Right to Information Bill 2009 (Qld)

Jackson, Melanie and Daniel Walker, 'Boolean Guess Who? Using Gamification to Engage First Year Law Students with Advanced Legal Research Techniques', Centre for Professional Legal Education (Blog Post, 3 December 2022) <https://www.cple.blog/posts/boolean-guess-who-using-gamification-to-engage-first-year-law-students-with-advanced-legal-research-techniques>

LexisNexis,  Halsbury's Laws of Australia  (online at 27 February 2019) 10 Administrative Law

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• What Is an Annotated Bibliography? | Examples & Format

What Is an Annotated Bibliography? | Examples & Format

Published on March 9, 2021 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on August 23, 2022.

An annotated bibliography is a list of source references that includes a short descriptive text (an annotation) for each source. It may be assigned as part of the research process for a paper , or as an individual assignment to gather and read relevant sources on a topic.

Scribbr’s free Citation Generator allows you to easily create and manage your annotated bibliography in APA or MLA style. To generate a perfectly formatted annotated bibliography, select the source type, fill out the relevant fields, and add your annotation.

An example of an annotated source is shown below:

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Table of contents

Annotated bibliography format: apa, mla, chicago, how to write an annotated bibliography, descriptive annotation example, evaluative annotation example, reflective annotation example, finding sources for your annotated bibliography, frequently asked questions about annotated bibliographies.

Make sure your annotated bibliography is formatted according to the guidelines of the style guide you’re working with. Three common styles are covered below:

In APA Style , both the reference entry and the annotation should be double-spaced and left-aligned.

The reference entry itself should have a hanging indent . The annotation follows on the next line, and the whole annotation should be indented to match the hanging indent. The first line of any additional paragraphs should be indented an additional time.

In an MLA style annotated bibliography , the Works Cited entry and the annotation are both double-spaced and left-aligned.

The Works Cited entry has a hanging indent. The annotation itself is indented 1 inch (twice as far as the hanging indent). If there are two or more paragraphs in the annotation, the first line of each paragraph is indented an additional half-inch, but not if there is only one paragraph.

Chicago style

In a  Chicago style annotated bibliography , the bibliography entry itself should be single-spaced and feature a hanging indent.

The annotation should be indented, double-spaced, and left-aligned. The first line of any additional paragraphs should be indented an additional time.

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For each source, start by writing (or generating ) a full reference entry that gives the author, title, date, and other information. The annotated bibliography format varies based on the citation style you’re using.

The annotations themselves are usually between 50 and 200 words in length, typically formatted as a single paragraph. This can vary depending on the word count of the assignment, the relative length and importance of different sources, and the number of sources you include.

Consider the instructions you’ve been given or consult your instructor to determine what kind of annotations they’re looking for:

• Descriptive annotations : When the assignment is just about gathering and summarizing information, focus on the key arguments and methods of each source.
• Evaluative annotations : When the assignment is about evaluating the sources , you should also assess the validity and effectiveness of these arguments and methods.
• Reflective annotations : When the assignment is part of a larger research process, you need to consider the relevance and usefulness of the sources to your own research.

These specific terms won’t necessarily be used. The important thing is to understand the purpose of your assignment and pick the approach that matches it best. Interactive examples of the different styles of annotation are shown below.

A descriptive annotation summarizes the approach and arguments of a source in an objective way, without attempting to assess their validity.

In this way, it resembles an abstract , but you should never just copy text from a source’s abstract, as this would be considered plagiarism . You’ll naturally cover similar ground, but you should also consider whether the abstract omits any important points from the full text.

The interactive example shown below describes an article about the relationship between business regulations and CO 2 emissions.

Rieger, A. (2019). Doing business and increasing emissions? An exploratory analysis of the impact of business regulation on CO 2 emissions. Human Ecology Review , 25 (1), 69–86. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26964340

An evaluative annotation also describes the content of a source, but it goes on to evaluate elements like the validity of the source’s arguments and the appropriateness of its methods .

For example, the following annotation describes, and evaluates the effectiveness of, a book about the history of Western philosophy.

Kenny, A. (2010). A new history of Western philosophy: In four parts . Oxford University Press.

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A reflective annotation is similar to an evaluative one, but it focuses on the source’s usefulness or relevance to your own research.

Reflective annotations are often required when the point is to gather sources for a future research project, or to assess how they were used in a project you already completed.

The annotation below assesses the usefulness of a particular article for the author’s own research in the field of media studies.

Manovich, Lev. (2009). The practice of everyday (media) life: From mass consumption to mass cultural production? Critical Inquiry , 35 (2), 319–331. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/596645

Manovich’s article assesses the shift from a consumption-based media culture (in which media content is produced by a small number of professionals and consumed by a mass audience) to a production-based media culture (in which this mass audience is just as active in producing content as in consuming it). He is skeptical of some of the claims made about this cultural shift; specifically, he argues that the shift towards user-made content must be regarded as more reliant upon commercial media production than it is typically acknowledged to be. However, he regards web 2.0 as an exciting ongoing development for art and media production, citing its innovation and unpredictability.

The article is outdated in certain ways (it dates from 2009, before the launch of Instagram, to give just one example). Nevertheless, its critical engagement with the possibilities opened up for media production by the growth of social media is valuable in a general sense, and its conceptualization of these changes frequently applies just as well to more current social media platforms as it does to Myspace. Conceptually, I intend to draw on this article in my own analysis of the social dynamics of Twitter and Instagram.

Before you can write your annotations, you’ll need to find sources . If the annotated bibliography is part of the research process for a paper, your sources will be those you consult and cite as you prepare the paper. Otherwise, your assignment and your choice of topic will guide you in what kind of sources to look for.

Make sure that you’ve clearly defined your topic , and then consider what keywords are relevant to it, including variants of the terms. Use these keywords to search databases (e.g., Google Scholar ), using Boolean operators to refine your search.

Sources can include journal articles, books, and other source types , depending on the scope of the assignment. Read the abstracts or blurbs of the sources you find to see whether they’re relevant, and try exploring their bibliographies to discover more. If a particular source keeps showing up, it’s probably important.

Once you’ve selected an appropriate range of sources, read through them, taking notes that you can use to build up your annotations. You may even prefer to write your annotations as you go, while each source is fresh in your mind.

An annotated bibliography is an assignment where you collect sources on a specific topic and write an annotation for each source. An annotation is a short text that describes and sometimes evaluates the source.

Any credible sources on your topic can be included in an annotated bibliography . The exact sources you cover will vary depending on the assignment, but you should usually focus on collecting journal articles and scholarly books . When in doubt, utilize the CRAAP test !

Each annotation in an annotated bibliography is usually between 50 and 200 words long. Longer annotations may be divided into paragraphs .

The content of the annotation varies according to your assignment. An annotation can be descriptive, meaning it just describes the source objectively; evaluative, meaning it assesses its usefulness; or reflective, meaning it explains how the source will be used in your own research .

A source annotation in an annotated bibliography fulfills a similar purpose to an abstract : they’re both intended to summarize the approach and key points of a source.

However, an annotation may also evaluate the source , discussing the validity and effectiveness of its arguments. Even if your annotation is purely descriptive , you may have a different perspective on the source from the author and highlight different key points.

You should never just copy text from the abstract for your annotation, as doing so constitutes plagiarism .

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Caulfield, J. (2022, August 23). What Is an Annotated Bibliography? | Examples & Format. Scribbr. Retrieved July 4, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/citing-sources/annotated-bibliography/

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• > Contract Law
• > Bibliography

Book contents

• Frontmatter
• 1 Philosophical Problems of Contract Law
• 2 History and Sources
• 3 Formation
• 4 Interpretation
• 5 Performance
• 6 Enforcement and Remedies
• 7 Special Categories of Contract Law
• 8 Modern Contract Law Practices
• 9 How Many Contract Laws?
• Bibliography
• Table of Cases
• Statutes and Restatements

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 November 2012

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• Brian H. Bix , University of Minnesota
• Book: Contract Law
• Online publication: 05 November 2012
• Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139024877.011

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