interdisciplinary problem solving examples

October 1, 2018

To Solve Real-World Problems, We Need Interdisciplinary Science

Solving today’s complex, global problems will take interdisciplinary science

By Graham A. J. Worthy & Cherie L. Yestrebsky

T he Indian River Lagoon, a shallow estuary that stretches for 156 miles along Florida's eastern coast, is suffering from the activities of human society. Poor water quality and toxic algal blooms have resulted in fish kills, manatee and dolphin die-offs, and takeovers by invasive species. But the humans who live here have needs, too: the eastern side of the lagoon is buffered by a stretch of barrier islands that are critical to Florida's economy, tourism and agriculture, as well as for launching NASA missions into space.

As in Florida, many of the world's coastlines are in serious trouble as a result of population growth and the pollution it produces. Moreover, the effects of climate change are accelerating both environmental and economic decline. Given what is at risk, scientists like us—a biologist and a chemist at the University of Central Florida—feel an urgent need to do research that can inform policy that will increase the resiliency and sustainability of coastal communities. How can our research best help balance environmental and social needs within the confines of our political and economic systems? This is the level of complexity that scientists must enter into instead of shying away from.

Although new technologies will surely play a role in tackling issues such as climate change, rising seas and coastal flooding, we cannot rely on innovation alone. Technology generally does not take into consideration the complex interactions between people and the environment. That is why coming up with solutions will require scientists to engage in an interdisciplinary team approach—something that is common in the business world but is relatively rare in universities.

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Universities are a tremendous source of intellectual power, of course. But students and faculty are typically organized within departments, or academic silos. Scientists are trained in the tools and language of their respective disciplines and learn to communicate their findings to one another using specific jargon.

When the goal of research is a fundamental understanding of a physical or biological system within a niche community, this setup makes a lot of sense. But when the problem the research is trying to solve extends beyond a closed system and includes its effects on society, silos create a variety of barriers. They can limit creativity, flexibility and nimbleness and actually discourage scientists from working across disciplines. As professors, we tend to train our students in our own image, inadvertently producing specialists who have difficulty communicating with the scientist in the next building—let alone with the broader public. This makes research silos ineffective at responding to developing issues in policy and planning, such as how coastal communities and ecosystems worldwide will adapt to rising seas.

Science for the Bigger Picture

As scientists who live and work in Florida, we realized that we needed to play a bigger role in helping our state—and country—make evidence-based choices when it comes to vulnerable coastlines. We wanted to make a more comprehensive assessment of both natural and human-related impacts to the health, restoration and sustainability of our coastal systems and to conduct long-term, integrated research.

At first, we focused on expanding research capacity in our biology, chemistry and engineering programs because each already had a strong coastal research presence. Then, our university announced a Faculty Cluster Initiative, with a goal of developing interdisciplinary academic teams focused on solving tomorrow's most challenging societal problems. While putting together our proposal, we discovered that there were already 35 faculty members on the Orlando campus who studied coastal issues. They belonged to 12 departments in seven colleges, and many of them had never even met. It became clear that simply working on the same campus was insufficient for collaboration.

So we set out to build a team of people from a wide mix of backgrounds who would work in close proximity to one another on a daily basis. These core members would also serve as a link to the disciplinary strengths of their tenure home departments. Initially, finding experts who truly wanted to embrace the team aspect was more difficult than we thought. Although the notion of interdisciplinary research is not new, it has not always been encouraged in academia. Some faculty who go in that direction still worry about whether it will threaten their recognition when applying for grants, seeking promotions or submitting papers to high-impact journals. We are not suggesting that traditional academic departments should be disbanded. On the contrary, they give the required depth to the research, whereas the interdisciplinary team gives breadth to the overall effort.

Our cluster proposal was a success, and in 2019 the National Center for Integrated Coastal Research (UCF Coastal) was born. Our goal is to guide more effective economic development, environmental stewardship, hazard-mitigation planning and public policy for coastal communities. To better integrate science with societal needs, we have brought together biologists, chemists, engineers and biomedical researchers with anthropologists, sociologists, political scientists, planners, emergency managers and economists. It seems that the most creative perspectives on old problems have arisen when people with different training and life experiences are talking through issues over cups of coffee. After all, "interdisciplinary" must mean more than just different flavors of STEM. In academia, tackling the effects of climate change demands more rigorous inclusion of the social sciences—an area that has been frequently overlooked.

The National Science Foundation, as well as other groups, requires that all research proposals incorporate a social sciences component, as an attempt to assess the broader implications of projects. Unfortunately, in many cases, a social scientist is simply added to a proposal only to check a box rather than to make a true commitment to allowing that discipline to inform the project. Instead social, economic and policy needs must be considered at the outset of research design, not as an afterthought. Otherwise our work might fail at the implementation stage, which means we will not be as effective as we could be in solving real-world problems. As a result, the public might become skeptical about how much scientists can contribute toward solutions.

Connecting with the Public

The reality is that communicating research findings to the public is an increasingly critical responsibility of scientists. Doing so has a measurable effect on how politicians prioritize policy, funding and regulations. UCF Coastal was brought into a world where science is not always respected—sometimes it is even portrayed as the enemy. There has been a significant erosion of trust in science over recent years, and we must work more deliberately to regain it. The public, we have found, wants to see quality academic research that is grounded in the societal challenges we are facing. That is why we are melding pure academic research with applied research to focus on issues that are immediate—helping a town or business recovering from a hurricane, for example—as well as long term, such as directly advising a community on how to build resiliency as flooding becomes more frequent.

As scientists, we cannot expect to explain the implications of our research to the wider public if we cannot first understand one another. A benefit of regularly working side by side is that we are crafting a common language, reconciling the radically different meanings that the same words can have to a variety of specialists. Finally, we are learning to speak to one another with more clarity and understand more explicitly how our niches fit into the bigger picture. We are also more aware of culture and industry as driving forces in shaping consensus and policy. Rather than handing city planners a stack of research papers and walking away, UCF Coastal sees itself as a collaborator that listens instead of just lecturing.

This style of academic mission is not only relevant to issues around climate change. It relates to every aspect of modern society, including genetic engineering, automation, artificial intelligence, and so on. The launch of UCF Coastal garnered positive attention from industry, government agencies, local communities and academics. We think that is because people do want to come together to solve problems, but they need a better mechanism for doing so. We hope to be that conduit while inspiring other academic institutions to do the same.

After all, we have been told for years to "think globally, act locally" and that "all politics is local." Florida's Indian River Lagoon will be restored only if there is engagement among residents, local industries, academics, government agencies and nonprofit organizations. As scientists, it is our responsibility to help everyone involved understand that problems that took decades to create will take decades to fix. We need to present the most helpful solutions while explaining the intricacies of the trade-offs for each one. Doing so is possible only if we see ourselves as part of an interdisciplinary, whole-community approach. By listening and responding to fears and concerns, we can make a stronger case for why scientifically driven decisions will be more effective in the long run.

Graham A. J. Worthy is founder and director of the National Center for Integrated Coastal Research at the University of Central Florida (UCF Coastal) and chairs the university's department of biology. His research focuses on how marine ecosystems respond to natural and anthropogenic perturbations.

Cherie L. Yestrebsky is a professor in the University of Central Florida's department of chemistry. Her research expertise is in environmental chemistry and remediation of pollutants in the environment.

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• Published: 03 August 2020

A practical guideline how to tackle interdisciplinarity—A synthesis from a post-graduate group project

• Max Oke Kluger   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9130-8948 1 &
• Gerhard Bartzke 1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  7 , Article number:  47 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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The comprehensive understanding of increasingly complex global challenges, such as climate change induced sea level rise demands for interdisciplinary research groups. As a result, there is an increasing interest of funding bodies to support interdisciplinary research initiatives. Attempts for interdisciplinary research in such programs often end in research between closely linked disciplines. This is often due to a lack of understanding about how to work interdisciplinarily as a group. Useful practical guidelines have been provided to overcome existing barriers during interdisciplinary integration. Working as an interdisciplinary research group becomes particularly challenging at the doctoral student level. This study reports findings of an interdisciplinary group project in which a group of doctoral students and postdoctoral researchers from various disciplines faced the challenges of reconciling natural, social, and legal aspects of a fictional coastal environmental problem. The research group went through three phases of interdisciplinary integration: (1) comparing disciplines, (2) understanding disciplines, and (3) thinking between disciplines. These phases finally resulted in the development of a practical guideline, including five concepts of interactive integration. A reflective analysis with observations made in existing literature about interdisciplinary integration further supported the feasibility of the practical guideline. It is intended that this practical guideline may help others to leave out pitfalls and to gain a more successful application of interdisciplinarity in their training.

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Introduction.

The large economic, ecological, and demographical challenges caused by globalization led to the transition towards interdisciplinary collaborations between scientific communities, policymakers, and society (Langfeldt et al., 2012 ; Pedersen, 2016 ). Integration of diverse understandings by interdisciplinary collaboration is seen as most comprehensive approach to complex environmental problems (Bromham et al., 2016 ; Ledford, 2015a ; Wagner et al., 2011 ). For example, a paragon for addressing a complex environmental problem was reported for Nova Scotia, Eastern Canada. In this study a group of decision makers from industry, policy, research, communities, as well as, fishery assessed an interdisciplinary way to sustainably harness tidal energy potential (Palmer, 2018 ). In academia, however, discoveries are said to be more likely on the boundaries between disciplines. In this case the latest methods and perspectives can increase knowledge during interdisciplinary research collaborations (Rylance, 2015 ). In contrast, single-disciplinary and multi-disciplinary research collaborations increase impact output in highly specialized fields. Therefore, interdisciplinary research collaboration fosters deeper interaction and integration of various disciplinary perspectives (Bergen et al., 2020 ; Gewin, 2014 ; Pykett et al., 2020 ; Sá, 2008 ; Van Noorden, 2015 ).

In order to successfully investigate intricate problems, all involved parties have to communicate and collaborate in an attempt to create a common understanding and to learn from each other’s perspectives. This ideally results in a new perspective that is more than the sum of its components (Brewer, 1999 ; Nissani, 1997 ; Tauginienė et al., 2020 ). As a result, global governance recognizes interdisciplinary research as the best way to address emerging multifaceted problems. Therefore, interdisciplinary programs were strongly encouraged over the last decades (Bozeman and Boardman, 2014 ; Ledford, 2015b ; Pedersen, 2016 ; Rylance, 2015 ), including interdisciplinary research graduate programs. Among others, the US graduate program Integrative Graduate Education and Research Traineeship Footnote 1 (IGERT) and the Toolbox Dialogue Initiative Footnote 2 appear to be good showcases for interdisciplinary approaches (Eigenbrode et al., 2007 ; Goring et al., 2014 ; Kennedy et al., 2012 ; Laursen, 2018 ; Pennington et al., 2013 ; Steel et al., 2017 ). Another typical example for an interdisciplinary research training program is the Trust and Communication in a Digitized World program, which examines how trust can be developed and maintained under the conditions of new forms of communication. Footnote 3

To date, a broad range of interdisciplinary graduate education programs have been established to address cross-cutting environmental and sustainability problems (Bruce et al., 2004 ; Campbell, 2005 ; Graybill et al., 2006 ; Juhl et al., 1997 ; McCarthy, 2004 ; Morse et al., 2007 ; Morss et al., 2005 ; Rhoten and Parker, 2004 ; Skates, 2003 ). Nonetheless, from the doctoral student’s perspective the focus on interdisciplinary research may not be trivial, because in order to conclude their work in a time frame that is often narrowly predetermined, doctoral students rarely have the opportunity to gain a deeper understanding of disciplines outside of their own field (Welch-Devine, 2012 ; Welch-Devine and Campbell, 2010 ). Collaboration efforts mostly come in the form of the exchange of expertise between closely related disciplines, for example in collaborations between geology and biology. In such disciplinary and cross-disciplinary investigations the integration of disciplines is straightforward. However, interdisciplinary collaboration efforts between disciplines not as obviously related to each other, for example social and natural sciences, can introduce misunderstandings because of stereotypes (MacLeod, 2018 ). This can hinder research progress, leads to unnecessary repetition or, in the worst case, can have negative consequences when misunderstood theories are applied in improper contexts (Campbell, 2005 ). In post-graduate training programs, these problems are further complicated as doctoral students are still at the stage of mastering the vocabulary of their own disciplines, while, because of the large time effort, being less interested in working out the meaning from another discipline’s perspective.

Practical guidelines from established literature are commonly the first choice to tackle interdisciplinary integration and research process (Brandt et al., 2013 ; Brown et al., 2015 ; Lang et al., 2012 ). It is also beneficial to reflect on assumptions originating from the different disciplinary perspectives. An efficient communication framework favours respectful attitudes within the research group, resulting in effective cooperation rather than competition. Repko and Szostak ( 2020 ) and Menken and Keestra ( 2016 ) synthesized case studies about interdisciplinarity and provided a good roadmap and interdisciplinary research model how to work interdisciplinarily.

One of the most prominent examples for interdisciplinarity is the effect of climate change on the coastal environment. It comprises of an interacting web of various disciplines covering, for example, atmospheric and oceanographic issues, biological consequences, economic interests, societal concerns, legal commitments, political action as well as ethical implications. Our study aims to extent the existing scientific literature about interdisciplinary integration by focusing on the perspective of post-graduates working in the coastal environment. We reflect on an interdisciplinary group project in which doctoral students and postdoctoral researchers from the interdisciplinary training program INTERCOAST, having different single disciplinary backgrounds, faced challenges of interdisciplinarity in a fictional coastal environmental problem. From our observations about advantages and challenges of interdisciplinarity, a practical guideline was synthesized that could help to educate post-graduates with different backgrounds to face an interdisciplinary problem as a group and how to bypass the pitfalls when it comes to interdisciplinary group work.

Background and composition of the group project

The post-graduate training group Integrated Coastal Zone and Shelf-Sea Research (INTERCOAST) was funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft from 2009 to 2018 and was a collaboration between the University of Bremen (Germany) and the University of Waikato (New Zealand). The premier goal of INTERCOAST was to gain an integrated understanding of the coastal environment from oceanographic, sedimentological, biological, socio-economic, and legal perspectives. INTERCOAST consisted of 47 individual research projects, which until now resulted in ca. 100 publications in peer-reviewed journals and books. At present, the majority of these publications aimed on disciplinary research questions, whereas only few interdisciplinary studies have been published (Koschinsky et al., 2018 ; Markus et al., 2015 ). Apart from the high level of disciplinary research, the focus of INTERCOAST was also set on interdisciplinary education, which was provided to the post-graduates through workshops and group projects.

From October 2014 to September 2015, 12 doctoral students and two postdoctoral researchers set up an interdisciplinary group project in which a problem related to the coastal environment was investigated to gain a better understanding from different disciplines. The proponents involved in the group project came from different academic disciplines and therefore had considerably different professional expertise about the coastal environment. Research topics that were covered by the proponents of the group project included, but were not limited to, studying iron enrichment in coastal sand deposits (Kulgemeyer et al., 2017 ), various coastal erosion processes (Bartzke et al., 2018 ; Biondo and Bartholomae, 2017 ; Blossier et al., 2017 ; Kluger et al., 2017 , 2019 ; Staudt et al., 2017 ), expansion mechanisms of invasive seaweeds (Bollen et al., 2017 ), the public discourse of coastal protection in Germany (Scheve, 2017 ), and legislative differences between Germany and New Zealand regarding underwater cultural heritage. The proponents of the group consisted of geoscientists, biologists, social scientists, and legal scientists, with geoscientists representing the majority (Table 1 ). The bias in group composition arose from the large quantity of individual research projects that focused on geoscientific topics. The number of group proponents was restricted to 14 as this was the number of doctoral students and postdoctoral researchers who were available during the time period of the group project.

Setup of the group project

Literature reports that three main goals of interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary research efforts need to be established within their own programmatic routines (Brandt et al., 2013 ; Lang et al., 2012 ). First, a research group forms around a commonly agreed integrated research question. To this end, it is important to identify an aim that does not privilege any involved discipline over another (Campbell, 2005 ). Further, it is necessary to create a common understanding of the different disciplinary concepts, vocabulary, methods, and values. Finally, an interactive communication framework needs to be set up to allow for an efficient sharing of the on-going research within the group. The group project reported in this study lasted for 11 months and was divided into three phases (Table 2 ), which were loosely associated with the three goals of interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary research described above: (1) phrasing an integrated research question, (2) creating a common understanding, and (3) establishing an interactive communication framework.

During the first 9 months (Phase 1), the postdoctoral researchers organized monthly group meetings. These group meetings consisted of an informal joint lunch break and a subsequent formal seminar. The formal seminar commonly lasted for 2 h and was organized and moderated by the postdoctoral researchers. In the first formal seminar, the group brainstormed about interdisciplinary topics related to the coastal environment in an open discussion. The decision about whether a topic was considered interesting and relevant to the coastal environment was made based on a rather superficial discussion among the group, without taking external expertise or research into account. The selection of relevant topics was not based on democratic decision, for example by means of a vote. A topic was considered interesting and relevant to the coastal environment when at least one proponent of the group supported the suggested topic and nobody expressed an objection. From these topics, the group chose the most interesting and relevant topic and framed a common research problem for further literature research. Wind energy production was selected as common research problem due to its broad applicability to the different disciplines and its prominence in the context of current societal and technical developments related to climate change. The agreement about a common research problem was achieved by an open vote.

The next step consisted of literature research: Each post-graduate had the task to familiarize themselves with one aspect of the common research problem, e.g. noise emission of wind turbines, while focusing on differences between the four disciplines, and prepared a short 10-min presentation about the selected aspect of the common research problem. The group did not monitor how long each individual post-graduate worked on the literature research and the preparation of the presentation. During seminars 2–6, the post-graduates presented their selected aspect of the common research problem to the entire group. Each presentation was followed by a 30-min to 1-h discussion phase during which the proponents of the group discussed the presented aspect in the light of their personal knowledge.

During seminars 7–9, the group phrased a commonly agreed research question. This process started with a discussion about the expected final outcome of the group project. At the end of the seventh seminar, the group agreed on (1) framing one integrated research question related to the common research problem and (2) answering this question interdisciplinarily. The eighth seminar was spent on framing the integrated research question. Several research questions were suggested by proponents of the group. Out of the several research questions, the group established a commonly agreed interdisciplinary research question by means of an open vote, namely:

“How do natural, social, and legal disciplines change in importance and interconnectivity when comparing potential wind farm locations (a) offshore within exclusive economic zone, (b) offshore within territorial sea, and (c) onshore near the coast?”

The ninth seminar was spent by the group to discuss and agree on the strategy to answer the integrated research question. The group decided to answer the integrated research question through phases 2 and 3 as explained below. The group did not monitor the involvement of individual group proponents during the process of phrasing the integrated research question. The authors therefore cannot judge about whether the idea of studying an interdisciplinary problem with a common research question was triggered by a single proponent of the group, or rather developed successively from the entire group’s discussion.

During the 10th month (Phase 2), the proponents of the group were asked to split into four multidisciplinary subgroups and prepared 30-min group presentations, which were supposed to address the research question by focusing on one of the four disciplines (Table 1 ). Each subgroup consisted of one expert from her/his own discipline by training. The other proponents of the subgroups had professional expertise in one of the four disciplines. For example, a social scientist, two geoscientists, and one biologist formed a subgroup with focus on societal aspects in respect to the research question. The social scientist was the expert of this subgroup, moderated the progress within the subgroup, and could help the other proponents of the subgroup in case of misunderstandings related to social scientific issues. The subgroups formed randomly; because of the relatively small number of proponents participating in the group project, they were not always composed of researchers from all four disciplines. The content of the group presentation was divided equally among the proponents of the subgroup to provide the possibility that every proponent would contribute equally to the outcome of their group presentation. The group did not monitor how long each subgroup prepared themselves for their group presentation. The authors acknowledge that an equal contribution is difficult to judge upon due to different personalities of the group proponents. One proponent might spend more effort and time to her/his part of the group presentation than others, or vice versa. The subgroups presented their findings to the entire group during the first day of a 2-day off-campus retreat. Each of the four presentations were followed by a discussion phase. During the discussion phase, the proponents of the group were asked to focus on how the four disciplines addressed the research question in their group presentation. This approach was chosen to create a common understanding of the different disciplinary concepts, vocabulary, methods, and values relevant to the research question. The final outcome of the discussion phase was the common agreement throughout the group to perform a role play as interdisciplinary interactivity.

Phase 3 started with the role play, which was conducted on the second day of the 2-day off-campus retreat. The aim of the role play was to transfer the integrated knowledge gained from the group presentations into an interactive communication framework. The role play included a 2-h planning phase, followed by a 2-h preparation phase, the actual role play (ca. 1 h), and was completed with a 2-h discussion phase. In the planning phase, the proponents of the group nominated different communication scenarios in which the research question could be addressed by all four disciplines. The group decided that the role play would be framed in an open forum in which actors, representing the four disciplines’ interests, would discuss where to construct a future fictional wind farm in Germany. Afterwards, all group proponents slipped into a role and prepared themselves for their part in the role play. One group proponent proposed the role of a moderator. The proponents chose roles based on their individual interests and preferences in order to increase motivation and to maintain a long and interesting discussion among proponents of the group.

The role play took place in a seminar room and the actors were seated in a circle of chairs. The moderator started the role play by introducing him/herself and the reasoning for an open forum. Subsequently, the other actors introduced their role and made a first statement in which they highlighted their role and their role’s opinion, as in the case of the present study, in the process of wind farm construction. Afterwards, a discussion started among the actors. This discussion was only loosely framed by the moderator, giving the actors space to freely interact and communicate within the group and respond to other actors’ opinions. The moderator ensured that all actors had the chance to contribute equally to the role play. Although it has to be acknowledged that the actors contributed differently due to their different personalities and role. After the role play, the proponents of the group discussed the outcome of the role play with respect to importance of the different actors and their interconnectivity between actors.

During two 6-h seminars, which took place in the month after the 2-day off-campus retreat, the group went through a phase of intense reflection in order to answer the research question stated above. The first seminar was spent on finding a way to visualize the involvement and role of each discipline in regard to the three locations for wind farm construction. The group decided to develop a conceptual model. In the second seminar, the group created the conceptual model. All group proponents took part in the seminars, but the group did not monitor whether or not all proponents contributed equally to the final conceptual model.

Phrasing an integrated research question—Phase 1

The integrated research question was phrased during group meetings, which took place in monthly intervals during the first 9 months of the project (Table 2 ). Informal joint lunch breaks formed the first platform of the group meetings. It was observed that doctoral students and postdoctoral researchers exchanged private and professional topics during the lunch breaks without paying much attention to the disciplinary perspectives. Proponents had the time and space to explain misunderstandings that arose from the conversations throughout the group. It was observed that the group dynamics changed over time. During the first lunch breaks, proponents were mostly interested in private topics or in professional topics related to their own disciplines. At the end of the 9 months period of phase 1, it was observed that the proportion of professional topics that were not related to their own disciplines increased. This shows that the informal lunch breaks nurtured interdisciplinary emphasis of the group.

Formal seminars formed the second platform of the group meetings. During the first formal seminar, the proponents brainstormed about topics relevant to the coastal environment and created a mind map. For the present study, this mind map was visualized as perspective map in Fig. 1 . Relevant topics to the coastal environment considered by the group included, but were not limited to, wind energy production, food production, tourism and residential areas, industry and infrastructure, waste water disposal and dredging, marine resources, and underwater cultural heritage. The proponents divided the coastal environment into three areas of interest, namely (1) onshore near the coast, (2) offshore within territorial sea (up to 12 nautical miles offshore), and (3) offshore within exclusive economic zone (up to 200 nautical miles offshore). After an intense discussion and numerous refinements, the research group decided that the challenge of increasing the proportion of wind energy production within the next decades would probably be the most relevant topic for interdisciplinary research in the three areas of interest today (Deutscher Bundestag, 2014 ; Ender, 2017 ). Therefore, the commonly agreed research problem was framed on understanding the complex roles and interactions between disciplines when searching for an appropriate coastal wind farm location. During phase 1 it was observed that for the proponents it was of particular importance to be able to identify themselves with the chosen research problem with respect to their disciplinary background and to share their expertise with the group.

The dark-shaded area highlights the three different locations for wind farms, which are the commonly agreed research areas of the interdisciplinary group work. The three areas include a – c offshore within exclusive economic zone (EEZ), offshore within territorial sea (TS), and onshore near the coast. Alternative suggestions for research areas include d farming, e tourism and residential areas, f industry and infrastructure, g waste water disposal, dredging, and dumping, h scientific surveys, i underwater cultural heritage, j marine resources, and k fishery.

The post-graduates presented their literature research about one aspect of the common research problem (seminars 2–6). At this stage, the definition of a specific research question was not the premier goal of the group. The group was more concerned with the establishment of a common understanding of interdisciplinary aspects within the research problem. It was observed that the aspects chosen by the proponents still remained in their own disciplines during this phase. For example, biologists chose to read literature about bird collision within offshore wind farms or whether or not noise emission would affect the behaviour of marine mammals. A geoscientist was more concerned about the possible difficulties of predicting the sediment stability around wind turbines located in a highly dynamic environment. A social scientist read literature about public perception of onshore and offshore wind farms, whereas a legal scientist studied the differences of regulatory frameworks of wind farm constructions between the different areas of interest. In the following seminars, the proponents seemed to become more familiar with the other disciplines in the group and, but more importantly, appeared to develop an interest to understand the other disciplines’ arguments and concerns. We believe that this transformation towards interdisciplinary group work was mainly initialized by the exchange of personal and professional opinions during the informal lunch breaks.

The phrasing of a commonly agreed research question (seminars 7–9) turned out to be a long-lasting process. Proponents discussed about topics such as the usefulness of phrasing a single integrated research question or the general thematic focus of the question. The hierarchy of words were a matter of discussion too. Proponents argued about, for example, whether or not the order of disciplines as phrased in the research question (“How do natural, social, and legal disciplines […]”) would refer to some kind of a hierarchical order. It was observed that proponents with social and legal professional backgrounds were more actively focusing on levelling the hierarchy of disciplines than the natural scientists. This was probably because social and legal disciplines formed the minority within the group, felt underrepresented, and attempted to strengthen their position.

During the process of phrasing a common research question, the group decided to name the group project InterWind , being a word combination of interdisciplinarity and wind farms. The title of the group project was initially suggested by one of the doctoral students and was later commonly accepted by the entire group. The authors believe that establishing both a common research question and a project name was the most important step for the proponents to identify themselves with the research project. This was especially important because the doctoral students performed the group project also during the last year of their Ph.D. and were therefore preoccupied with other topics.

Creating a common understanding—Phase 2

Multidisciplinary group work was used as a tool to improve the understanding of the different disciplines with respect to the common research question and to encourage interdisciplinary thinking. The proponents of the subgroup approached interdisciplinary thinking from different perspectives. On the one hand, the expert functioned as mentor and could observe and comprehend the other proponents’ struggles and difficulties when facing an unrelated discipline. On the other hand, the proponents of unrelated disciplines enjoyed the immediate benefit from explanations and advices provided by the expert in cases of misunderstandings. The exchange of these two different perspectives within subgroup encouraged interdisciplinary thinking.

The multidisciplinary subgroups presented their findings to the entire group during the first day of the off-campus retreat. In the presentations, the subgroups focused not only on their acquired knowledge but also on their impressions and personal experiences during the multidisciplinary group work. For example, one of the multidisciplinary group presentations focused on how the procedure of wind turbine construction differs throughout the three areas of interest. Among other aspects, it was presented that the type of foundation may differ from a surface foundation in the onshore environment to monopile and tripod foundations in the offshore environment. For the present study, this example was visualized in the lower panel of Fig. 2 . The differences between these three types of foundations were presented from legal, geoscientific, and biological perspectives. The subgroup did not find any societal topics related to the type of foundations. Another subgroup presented the impact of wind turbines on bird migration. The proponents showed that in the public perception, collision with wind turbines as a consequence of bird migration is considered a major obstacle for the construction of wind turbines (Devlin, 2005 ). However, recent systematic studies showed that birds tend to avoid the wind turbines and that the thread for collision is highly overestimated in the public (Hüppop et al., 2006 ).

It represents the different weighting (circle size) and interactivity (arrow width) of the four disciplines in the context of wind farm construction between a offshore within the executive economic zone, b offshore within the territorial sea, and c onshore near the coast.

These discrepancies between disciplines observed in the group presentations were vividly discussed by the group. The group decided to class the discrepancies with respect to the three areas of interest (onshore near the coast, offshore within territorial sea, and offshore within exclusive economic zone). In the following, the authors describe the main findings the group made about the differences between disciplines with respect to the three areas of interest.

In the onshore environment near the coast, the group considered geological and biological environmental constraints lower in importance compared with the offshore areas. The main reason for this consideration was that, because onshore wind turbines are commonly built in anthropogenically modified areas, they commonly require simpler ground investigations and have a limited effect on the ecosystem. In contrast, the group considered the impact on society, represented by for example land owners and tourists, as comparatively large (Wolsink, 2007 ). The group explained this conclusion with the high visibility of onshore wind turbines. In areas where the available space is already limited, people may object the construction of wind turbines despite the numerous positive effects on environment and economy.

In the offshore environment, the group discussed that various geological aspects, such as the presence of strong wind and hydrodynamic loads, the sediment properties of the subsoil, and the wind turbine design, have to be accounted for (BSH, 2014 ). Biological aspects include the possible effects of wind turbines on the marine ecosystem (Desholm and Kahlert, 2005 ; Elmer et al., 2007 ) as well as long-term climate variability due to reduction in carbon dioxide emission (Kempton et al., 2007 ). The group considered societal aspects high within the territorial sea as the tourism industry and public acceptance may be influenced in cases where offshore wind farms are visible from the coast (Devine-Wright and Howes, 2010 ; Gee, 2010 ). In the exclusive economic zone, societal impacts are mainly limited to shipping industry and fishery (Berkenhagen et al., 2010 ). Due to the large distance from the coast, offshore wind farms are generally more accepted by coastal communities and negative effects on coastal tourism are low (Hübner and Pohl, 2016 ; Hübner and Pohl, 2014 ). Therefore, the group considered societal aspects smaller in the exclusive economic zone compared with the territorial sea. The legal aspects, such as the regulatory framework for wind farm construction in Germany (BSH, 2014 ) was considered as equally important throughout the three areas of interest.

The group further focused on comparing the interactions between disciplines within the three areas of interest. The group considered that the society emphasizes with fauna and flora more easily than it does with practical aspects of geology, such as geotechnical engineering efforts when searching for a wind farm location. Therefore, the group weighted interactions between society and biology higher than those between society and geology. The highest interactions were considered to exist between society and biology when wind farms form part of the landscape (onshore and offshore within territorial waters) (Gee, 2010 ).

Establishing an interactive communicative framework—Phase 3

In the third phase, the group performed a role play in order to transfer the integrated knowledge gained from the group presentations into an interactive communication framework (second day of the off-campus retreat). The role play was framed in an open forum in which stakeholders from one of the four disciplines discussed where to construct a future fictional wind farm. The roles’ opinions reflected various aspects of the decision process of wind farm constructions and encompassed, among others, a local resident, a wind farm operator, an eco-activist, a federal politician, and an employee working for a federal maritime agency. During the role play the proponents had to emphasize with their new role and built a line of argumentation based on their role’s best interest. As the communication proceeded, the actors emphasized with the perspectives of the other roles, made compromises, and finally decided on a wind farm location every actor could agree upon.

The group went through intense discussions and reflections about the group presentations and the role play in order to find and agree on an integrated answer to the common research question. The group agreed that the complex roles of disciplines and interactions between disciplines with respect to the three areas of interest could be best synthesized by means of a conceptual model (Fig. 2 ). The group decided that the conceptual model should be divided into the three areas of interest. Each subdivision should consist of four geometrical shapes each of them representing one of the four disciplines. The size of geometrical shapes should reflect the group’s decision about the dominance of individual disciplines over other disciplines in the area of interest, respectively. Arrows of different widths would connect the four geometrical shapes in order to visualize a degree of interaction.

The group agreed that the legal framework provides the basis of interactions between the other three disciplines. Therefore, the law discipline was put into the centre (or heart) of the conceptual model. A triangular shape was chosen for the law discipline, symbolizing a cogwheel that drives the interactions and communications between the other disciplines. The other three disciplines were symbolized as circular shapes that surround the law triangle. The circular shape was chosen to be different from the law triangle, but without taking any other meaning into account. Note that the relative position and colour of circles do not indicate any hierarchical order of the disciplines but were chosen solely for a better illustration of the conceptual model.

The relative weighting of the disciplines and their degree of interaction were subject to long discussions throughout the research group. The final conceptual model (Fig. 2 ) was the result of various refinements that were made by all group proponents of all four disciplines and may therefore be considered as a truly interdisciplinary outcome. The conceptual model could indicate weaknesses in current practices and involvements of disciplines regarding wind farm constructions.

Practical guideline for interdisciplinary research process

All observations made during the interdisciplinary group project were synthesized into a practical guideline (Fig. 3 ) that may help other research groups composed of various disciplines to engage in an interdisciplinary problem. The practical guideline is conceptualized as a sequence of three phases of interdisciplinary integration: (1) comparing disciplines, (2) understanding disciplines, and (3) thinking between disciplines. The basic concept of these three phases follows the suggestions made by Lang et al. ( 2012 ) for transdisciplinary research process, who divided integrative research process into (1) problem framing and team building based on a societal and/or scientific problem, (2) co-creation of solution-oriented transferable knowledge, and (3) (re-)integration and application of created knowledge in both societal and scientific practice. The conceptual model of Lang et al. ( 2012 ) has many similarities to other models in the literature (Carew and Wickson, 2010 ; Jahn, 2008 ; Krütli et al., 2010 ; Talwar et al., 2011 ) and was adopted by numerous researchers (Brandt et al., 2013 ; Mauser et al., 2013 ; Miller et al., 2014 ).

Geometric objects (triangle, square, circle, and diamond) indicate different disciplines. The term ‘dark cloud’ refers to an unresolved challenge that has to be encountered interdisciplinarily.

The conceptual model synthesized in the present study (Fig. 3 ) starts with phase 1: Comparing disciplines. Doctoral students and/or postdoctoral researchers, originally having professional backgrounds in a single discipline, form a group and collect ideas about a common research problem through group meetings. A commonly agreed research problem is framed through iterative refinements throughout the group proponents, before the group decides upon an integrated research question. In phase 1, proponents may face problems and misunderstandings when trying to emphasize with the other disciplines. The limited understanding about the other disciplines is illustrated in the conceptual model by a dark cloud , which every proponent of the group must enter in order to find an integrated research question (as symbolized in the left part of Fig. 3 ). Group meetings that combine informal lunch breaks with subsequent formal seminars were found to be a successful tool for helping proponents to compare disciplines, to collect ideas for a research problem, which does not privilege one discipline over another, and to finally reach a common agreement on an integrated research question.

Lang et al. ( 2012 ) emphasized that the individual phases of transdisciplinary research process are not likely to be a linear process but often have to be performed in an iterative manner in order to reflect about transdisciplinarity. Based on the methodological approach of the present study, the three phases of the practical guideline followed a predefined chronological sequence, without allowing any iterative adjustments between phases. However, within phase 1 an iteration step was included that allowed a refinement of the common research problem.

In phase 2, the group establishes a common understanding of the different disciplines through multidisciplinary group work. The different perspectives of expert and non-experts during multidisciplinary group work nurtures empathy of proponents when dealing with unknown disciplines. The proponents familiarize themselves with an unknown discipline during their own literature review, can discuss and change perspectives during the preparation of multidisciplinary group presentations, and can finally benefit from listening to and discussing about other presentations being held in an atmosphere not related to normal work environment, for example during an off-campus retreat. During this process, each proponent enters the dark cloud of disciplines, previously considered to contain research fields largely unrelated to each other, to steadily form an interconnected transdisciplinary framework (as symbolized on the left side of Fig. 3 ).

In phase 3, the group discusses and reflects about the findings with respect to the integrated research question through an interactivity, for example a role play. The answer to the integrated research question should reflect the ability of the group for successful interdisciplinary work. An abstraction, for example using a conceptual model, could be a helpful way to reduce complexity and ensure an answer that can be accepted by the entire group. During this process, the proponents finally start to understand the integrated problem as multidimensional complex of disciplinary interrelations and learn to think at the interfaces between disciplines (as symbolized on the left side of Fig. 3 ).

Our practical guideline for approaching an interdisciplinary problem may be considered as an extension to the conceptual model for transdisciplinary research process of Lang et al. ( 2012 ). It largely follows the three proposed phases of research process but also incorporates five new concepts, namely group meetings, multidisciplinary group work, an off-campus retreat, an interactivity, and an abstraction of interdisciplinarity that enable the research group to approach an integrated problem interdisciplinarily.

Our practical guideline is endorsed by the five principles of interdisciplinary collaboration presented by Brown et al. ( 2015 ). Here the researchers initially undergone through a phase of “forging a shared mission”, which provided an overall goal of collaboration. The shared mission needed to be formulated broad enough to incorporate meaningful roles for all disciplinary researchers involved. This principle was also observed by us during the process of phrasing an integrated research question in phase 1 as shown in our practical guideline. Brown et al. ( 2015 ) further described the usefulness of “T-shaped researchers” (Hansen and Von Oetinger, 2001 ). Such researchers are reported as experts in their own discipline, but are also capable of looking beyond their scope. In our practical guideline, the development of T-shaped researchers was nurtured through the multidisciplinary group work in phase 2 and the interactivity in phase 3. By this, the students have transferred into T-shaped researchers. In particular, by learning that an active engagement with other disciplines is important, and hence, understanding and appreciating their norms, theories, approaches, evolved as an important step towards interdisciplinary collaboration.

We believe that our practical guideline will help others facing similar challenges of interdisciplinarity and we are looking forward to future initiatives that incorporate the practical guideline into their interdisciplinary education. Nonetheless, we think that our presented guideline describes a practical approach to transform a disciplinary thinking group to an interdisciplinary working team efficiently.

Advantages and challenges of interdisciplinary group work

The interdisciplinary group project revealed a number of issues that are common among other interdisplinary and transdisciplinary working groups. The group project was biased in terms of disciplinary diversity. The majority of proponents had a background in natural sciences, while only few proponents came from social and legal science disciplines. The bias between disciplines arose from the relatively small number of participants, which possibly affected the weighting of one discipline over another during the three phases of interdisciplinary integration, especially during the multidisciplinary group work. Asymmetry in interdisciplinary integration was also mentioned by Viseu ( 2015 ). She pointed out that social sciences are often brought into a research team after the project already have been started. Moreover, social scientists sadly form the minority, lack in independence and funding, which eventually leads to a hampering in knowledge production. For future interdisciplinary group projects, we recommend that all disciplines are equally involved during all phases of interdisciplinary collaboration. This will avoid problems related to an unequal distribution and weighing of disciplines within the research group.

Communication problems on topics of mutual interest is famously and anecdotally a common problem in interdisciplinary collaboration. While the general challenges as well as the benefits have long been recognized (Brewer, 1999 ; Nissani, 1997 ), we would like to discuss some of the struggles that came with this project with concrete examples. The problems we encountered fall broadly into three categories: language (definition of terms, implicit assumptions), form (writing style, structure, organization), and prejudice (overcoming of stereotypes).

Language-based problems primarily appeared where certain words have different definitions in colloquial language and the technical terminology of one of the scientific disciplines. While this was rarely the cause for complete misunderstandings, it often led to lengthy discussions about the phrasing in written form. An example is the word coast : In casual conversation, it is more or less synonymous with beach or shore and can be understood as where the land meets the sea ; this would also be the definition most people would use in an interview for a sociological study. Geological definitions of the coastal system include significant portions of the continental shelf up to the shelf break, as well as inland areas that are still affected by coastal processes, for instance by dune formation. For legal purposes, distinctions are made between land, territorial waters, exclusive economic zone, and international waters. These kinds of discussions are an important part of the interdisciplinary process and a sufficient amount of time should be set aside for them.

Formal problems arose when decisions had to be made about content and order of information, both in the oral presentations and during the preparation of the present paper. Natural sciences make extensive use of graphical forms of presentation in the form of diagrams and sketches—a rarity at best in legal sciences, which in turn make good use of footnotes for clarification and additional information. Differing viewpoints exist about the need to quantify data or the appropriateness of qualitative descriptions. The order in which information is presented greatly influences the focus set for the audience. The audience itself is also a decisive factor; especially a mixed audience of experts from different fields has very heterogeneous expectations that can hardly be satisfied all at once. For the present paper, decisions were made regarding style, structure, significance of findings, and even writing conventions like first vs. third person and formal tone.

Prejudice might come as an unexpected challenge. Post-graduates of their various disciplines have been trained in the environment of a certain academic culture that they tend to identify with. This includes to distinguish their own discipline from others, often in the form of humorous observations about their aims, practices and usage as well as the perceived ranking of the respective disciplines on a scale of scientific value (with their own discipline of course close to the top).

Later in their career, when post-graduates become experts, they find themselves in a position where they need to justify their research in competitive environments, including the frequent search for future funding or constant rate of publications in a high-impact journal. By necessity, they learn to present their work in a way that highlights its values. Although few scientists will consciously think lesser of their colleagues, some may fall into the trap of unconsciously evaluate other disciplines less favourably than their own. From the observations made in the present study, the reason for bringing disciplines together is not to make scholars experts on all things (a rather hopeful goal) but to enable them to collaborate on a shared and integrated question. Apart from knowledge exchange itself and learning from each other, it is important that they trust each other’s expertise. Perhaps the most important thing to highlight is that post-graduates need to learn how to engage with other disciplines. This line of thinking is further supported by unfamiliarity with the tools and premises of said disciplines and is especially present in interdisciplinary environments where hard and soft sciences are part of the same group project. In this way, interdisciplinary projects can provide unique benefits, both to the work itself by enabling a greater inclusiveness and the ability to recognize more facets of a problem, as well as to the persons involved by broadening their horizon and facilitating scientific exchange.

One success of group projects, such as the one of the present study, is that it provided time and space for such conversations and argumentations. Without working through a structured process on this case study, the opportunity would have never arisen to learn about important differences between disciplinary structures and methods. Nor would most proponents of the group have a chance to examine their own assumptions about scientific vocabulary and consider alternate meanings of basic terms. These encounters and moments were only made possible through the group project, which proved its value in training early career scientists to work cooperatively across disciplinary boundaries. Overcoming these problems requires the willingness to compromise. The potential downside can be a loss of precision in some aspects of the work, which has to be pointed out and balanced by references to specialized literature.

The present study reports findings about an interdisciplinary group project in which doctoral students and postdoctoral researchers with natural, social, and legal professional backgrounds faced challenges of interdisciplinarity. Results of the group project include in a practical guideline, which extends existing conceptual models about transdisciplinary research process by introducing a concept that helps research groups to approach an integrated problem interdisciplinarily. In synthesis, the group went through three phases of interdisciplinary integration, namely (1) comparing disciplines, (2) understanding disciplines, and (3) thinking between disciplines.

A group of doctoral students and postdoctoral researchers collect ideas about a common research problem through group meetings and frame an integrated research question by iterative refinements. Group meetings combine informal lunch breaks with subsequent formal seminars and were found to be an effective too for helping proponents to initiate interdisciplinary thinking.

A common understanding about the different disciplines’ perspectives is established through multidisciplinary group work of experts and non-experts. The different perspectives of expert and non-experts during multidisciplinary group work nurtures empathy of proponents when dealing with unknown disciplines. Group presentations and subsequent discussions in an atmosphere not related to normal work environment help to steadily form an interconnected transdisciplinary framework between disciplines.

The group discusses and reflects about the findings with respect to the integrated research question through an interactivity, for example a role play. The answer to the integrated research question should reflect the ability of the group for successful interdisciplinary work. An abstraction, for example using a conceptual model, could be a helpful way to reduce complexity and ensure an answer that can be excepted by the entire group.

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Acknowledgements

This research was funded by the DFG Research Center MARUM of the University of Bremen, Germany, through INTERCOAST (Reference number: 112807311) and the University of Waikato in Hamilton, New Zealand. We also acknowledge K. Huhn who encouraged this project. We thank T. Kulgemeyer who contributed to the discussion of this manuscript and for providing comments on the final manuscript. We acknowledge B. Blossier, F. Boxberg, C. Gawrych, S. Gustafson, M. Preu, and F. Staudt who commented on an early version of this manuscript. We thank all proponents who contributed to the group project InterWind.

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Kluger, M.O., Bartzke, G. A practical guideline how to tackle interdisciplinarity—A synthesis from a post-graduate group project. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 7 , 47 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-020-00540-9

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Wellcome Open Research

We need an interdisciplinary approach to solve real world problems: a case study from the covid-19 pandemic.

As a research community, we need to change our ways of working to solve real world problems in real time. An interdisciplinary approach is urgently needed, bringing together experts and knowledge from across the full spectrum of research disciplines.

In this blog, Trisha Greenhalgh, Mustafa Ozbilgin, and Damien Contandriopoulos consider how a lack of interdisciplinarity impacted the public health discourse and policy around the transmission of COVID-19. Keep reading to learn more about their fascinating Research Article on Wellcome Open Research.

COVID-19 is most certainly an airborne virus, but policies for managing its spread remain focused on handwashing, and place little emphasis on airborne precautions. This ‘droplet dogma’ has prevailed since the beginning of the pandemic, despite the clear (and ever-growing) evidence for airborne transmission.

But how did we get here? How have public health discourse and policy failed to properly consider airborne transmission? Why does droplet science continue to hold its position in the mainstream?

Power and knowledge

The concepts of orthodoxy and heterodoxy are central in answering these questions.

Every field of research has its own set of orthodoxies (beliefs which are established and considered legitimate) and heterodoxies (marginal, fringe beliefs which are dismissed and not widely accepted yet, legitimate only in another field of science), but the COVID-19 pandemic brings the stand-off between these positions into the spotlight.

Our article on Wellcome Open Research draws on the work of French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu to look at how knowledge and power played out between orthodox and heterodox groups of scientists throughout the pandemic.

Orthodoxy and heterodoxy in the COVID-19 pandemic

Even before the coronavirus outbreak, two groups of scientists in different fields held very different views on the transmission of respiratory viruses.

The accepted, orthodox position is held by infectious disease researchers and IPC (Infection Prevention and Control) scientists, including doctors and nurses based in hospitals. This group traditionally research diseases for which handwashing is a key preventative measure.

Conversely, the heterodox position consists of aerosol scientists who study the flow of airborne particles – including engineers, chemists, architects, and others interested in the physical environment and how things move through it.

Since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, researchers in the heterodox position have found it difficult to challenge the orthodoxy because they lacked the power needed to successfully assert that the virus is airborne against the accepted droplet discourse.

How did the ‘droplet dogma’ begin?

It’s interesting to consider a case study from the World Health Organization when asking how the orthodox position became so entrenched, particularly in the West.

At the WHO’s first international press conference on COVID-19 back in February 2020, Director-General Tedros Adhanom declared “corona[virus 19] is airborne”. He then immediately corrected himself: “Sorry, I used the military word, airborne. It meant to spread via droplets or respiratory transmission. Please take it that way; not the military language.” A little over a month later, the WHO confirmed on Twitter that “COVID is not airborne”, and the recommendations and public health measures that followed were all based on droplet transmission.

When comparing this case study with Japan, where the possibility of aerosol transmission of COVID-19 was accepted from the outset, the difference is clear.

Japan’s ‘three Cs’ campaign advised the public to avoid closed spaces, crowded places, and close-contact settings. Inter-field struggles between orthodox and heterodox positions were not so marked in Japan, allowing their local policymakers to embrace a wider range of hypotheses and research methods.

The solution: an interdisciplinary approach

What is interdisciplinarity.

Ironically, interdisciplinarity is defined differently by different disciplines. Some definitions focus on interdisciplinarity as collaboration , where a combination of different skills and knowledge come together to address a complex research challenge.

For the purpose of our research, we have followed Rowland and defined it as contestation . This means that although interdisciplinary approaches can bring inevitable conflict, the outcomes of these clashes could be positive – for example, generating new insights or knowledge.

What does an interdisciplinary approach look like?

An interdisciplinary approach to any real world issue, including the COVID-19 pandemic, needs to incorporate two key areas:

• Inclusive work practices
• Radical changes to governance

We recommend the adoption of what Nowotny et al call ‘Mode 2 knowledge production’ – an approach to science which is:

• Socially distributed
• Application-oriented
• Inherently transdisciplinary
• Involves a wide range of stakeholders, including researchers and the lay public

Acknowledging the evidence on airborne transmission opens up a range of possibilities, including:

• Creation of higher-grade, better-fitting masks
• Improvement of building safety through ventilation and air filtration
• Support for work-from-home policies, to reduce crowding in shared workspaces

During the last 22 pandemic months, science has sometimes progressed at breakneck speed. New discoveries such as vaccines were rapidly implemented and scaled up. But in other areas such as preventive public health, policy has simply not kept pace with the latest research. Our paper puts forward a political and sociological explanation for this entrenchment.

We hope that better understanding of why aerosol science is being ignored, and a move towards interdisciplinary ways of working, may help break droplet orthodoxy’s current grip on infection control policy.

You can read the full Research Article and the peer review reports via Wellcome Open Research, ‘Orthodoxy, illusio, and playing the scientific game: a Bourdieusian analysis of infection control science in the COVID-19 pandemic [version 2; peer review: 2 approved]’ >>

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Smithsonian Voices

From the Smithsonian Museums

SMITHSONIAN EDUCATION

Teaching About Real-World, Transdisciplinary Problems and Phenomena through Convergence Education

In its 2018 Federal STEM Strategic Plan, a collaboration of government agencies wrote that science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education should move through a pathway where disciplines “converge” and where teaching and learning moves from disciplinary to transdisciplinary. Classroom examples help spotlight what this framework can look like in practice.

Carol O’Donnell & Kelly J. Day

In today’s K-12 classrooms, students are learning a lot more than just reading, writing, and arithmetic. Today, problem- and phenomenon-based learning means that students are tackling some of the most complex topics of our times, whether it is cybersecurity, innovation and entrepreneurship, climate change, biodiversity loss, infectious disease, water scarcity, energy security, food security, or deforestation. Educators are using transdisciplinary learning to help students address deep scientific questions and tackle broad societal needs.

Convergence Education

But how does an educator, who is assigned to teach one discipline (e.g., reading, writing, math, science, social studies, or art) bring together multiple disciplines to teach about complex socio-scientific problems or opportunities? Researchers at the National Science Foundation (NSF) call this “ convergence ”, and say that it has three primary characteristics:

• A deep scientific phenomenon (that is, an observable event or happening that can be explained, such as clean groundwater);
• An emerging problem  (that is, something that can be solved through the development of an object, tool, process or system and includes multiple criteria and constraints, such a new water filtration system); or,
• A pressing societal need (that is, a need to help people and society, such as ensuring all community members have access to clean water to stay healthy).
• It has deep integration across multiple disciplines. This is important because complex socio-scientific problems and phenomena cannot be explained or solved by looking at them through one perspective (e.g., environmental, social, economic, or ethical). Instead, experts from different disciplines must work together to blend their knowledge, theories, and expertise to come up with a comprehensive solution.
• Finally, it is transdisciplinary . That means no one discipline can solve the problem on its own.

From Disciplinary to Transdisciplinary

What do we mean by “transdisciplinary?” In its Federal STEM Strategic Plan, a collaboration of government agencies wrote in 2018 that science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education should move through a pathway where disciplines converge and where teaching and learning moves from disciplinary to transdisciplinary . They wrote:

“Problems that are relevant to people’s lives, communities, or society, as a whole, often cross disciplinary boundaries, making them inherently engaging and interesting. The transdisciplinary integration of STEM teaching and learning across STEM fields and with other fields such as the humanities and the arts enriches all fields and draws learners to authentic challenges from local to global in scale.” ( OSTP, 2018, p 20 )

STEAM education expert and author Joanne Vasquez, former Executive Director of the National Science Teaching Association (NSTA), and her co-authors explain it this way:

• Disciplinary – Students learn concepts and skills separately in isolation.
• Multidisciplinary – Students learn concepts and skills separately in each discipline but in reference to a common theme.
• Interdisciplinary – Students learn concepts and skills from two or more disciplines that are tightly linked so as to deepen knowledge and skills.
• Transdisciplinary – By undertaking real-world problems or explaining phenomena, students apply knowledge and skills from two or more disciplines to help shape the learning experience.

A Classroom Example

Let’s try an example, using images selected by one of the co-authors who is a master STEAM teacher and former Einstein Fellow at the U.S. Department of Energy, Kelly J. Day. Imagine you were teaching about plants so that your students can help people experiencing food insecurities in their community. This requires fundamental disciplinary knowledge about science, mathematics, social studies, civic engagement, and entrepreneurship. What would it look like to move along the pathway to convergence , from disciplinary to transdisciplinary teaching and learning?

• Using a disciplinary approach, a science teacher might ask students to examine the properties of soil or have students study how tomato seeds germinate in each soil type. In this case, the teacher is identifying an isolated concept (fact, idea, or practice) that is aligned with only one discipline (e.g., science).
• Using a multidisciplinary approach, a math teacher might ask the students who learned about soil properties and tomato seed germination in science class, to calculate in math class the cost of buying 1 pound of soil, 20 packets of tomato seeds, 10 packets of pepper seeds, and 3 garden tools. The concept now involves multiple disciplines addressed independently on different aspects of the same concept.
• Using an interdisciplinary approach, multiple teachers—for example, one social studies, one science, and one math—might work together to have students plant a variety of seeds in different soil types to grow vegetables on the school grounds. Each teacher would ask students to contribute to the collective problem—studying soil properties and seed germination in their science class; calculating the cost of the materials in their math class; and finally, drawing a map of the local school grounds in their social studies class to help decide where to place the garden based on geographic direction.  In this case, students and teachers across disciplines work together in an integrated way that makes the concept more authentic and real-world (but, like the salad shown here, you can still identify the individual component disciplines or parts).
• Finally, using a transdisciplinary approach, you would walk into any one classroom and not be able to tell which discipline(s) are being taught because they have “converged.” For example, students might be asked to come up with an entrepreneurial project to raise funds for those in need in their local community. They decide to design and build a garden so they can make and sell salsa, while also helping people experiencing food insecurities in their community. In this case, students identify a complex real-world problem and work together to create a shared approach to identifying the phenomenon or solving the problem.

A Pathway to Convergence

Teaching for convergence is not about replacing disciplinary teaching with transdisciplinary teaching; instead, it is about a pathway to convergence . Students, especially in the early grades, still require a strong foundation of disciplinary knowledge and skills. The transition along the pathway to convergence , from disciplinary to transdisciplinary teaching and learning, does not just happen—it is intentional, explicit, and measured.

Transdisciplinary teaching and learning that leads students along a pathway to convergence has many different names that you may be familiar with already—phenomenon-based learning, problem-based learning, place-based learning, project-based learning, civic engagement, inquiry-based learning, entrepreneurship education, and applied learning. No matter what you call it, this type of teaching is important to prepare today’s students for tomorrow’s complex world. And it is becoming more common in schools, despite the barriers that exist in the U.S. (e.g., aligning with standards; finding time in the curriculum; finding common planning time to collaborate with other teachers).

Free Teaching Resources

The Smithsonian and other federal agencies that support STEAM teachers are here to help. We develop resources to support educators as they move  from disciplinary to transdisciplinary teaching and learning along the pathway to convergence. At the Smithsonian, for example, we have a front door to discoveries in science, history, art, and culture. We bring these disciplines together by integrating inquiry-based science education, civic engagement, place-based education, global citizenship education, and education for sustainable development, so that students can engage in local action for global goals , whether it is about food security or environmental justice .

Convergence education and a transdisciplinary approach to teaching and learning helps students develop critical reasoning skills, systemic understanding of complex issues, scientific literacy, perspective taking, and consensus building, all as they plan and carry out local actions for social good. Teachers and students across the country, with the support of the Smithsonian and other federal partners, are tackling the most pressing environmental and social issues of our time, supporting young students as they take action to address complex global issues, and helping them find solutions that address societal needs through convergence education.

Acknowledgement : This article is based on the work of the Federal Coordination in STEM Education (FC-STEM) Interagency Working Group on Convergence, under the direction of Quincy Brown and Nafeesa Owens of the Office of Science and Technology Policy. The IWG is co-led by Louie Lopez and Jorge Valdes, with support from Executive Secretary Emily Kuehn.

Editor's Note: To learn more about the Convergence Education framework, join Carol O’Donnell and Kelly J. Day, along with a panel of federal educators and practitioners at the Smithsonian's National Education Summit on July 27-28, 2022. More information is available here:  https://s.si.edu/EducationSummit2022 

Carol O’Donnell | READ MORE

Dr. Carol O’Donnell is Director of the Smithsonian Science Education Center, dedicated to transforming K-12 Education through Science™ in collaboration with communities across the globe. Carol serves on numerous boards and committees dedicated to science education and is on the part-time faculty of the Physics Department at George Washington University, where she earned her doctorate. Carol began her career as a primary school teacher. Her TedX Talk demonstrates her passion for “doing science” and “object-driven learning.”

Kelly J. Day | READ MORE

Kelly Day is the Albert Einstein Distinguished Educator Fellow at the Department of Energy and is on the Interagency Working Group for Convergence Education. She also helps run the DOE-sponsored National Science Bowl. Prior to her placement at the DOE, Day was a mathematics teacher and in 2015 ,Day received the Fulbright Distinguished Award in Teaching.

10 Interdisciplinary Teaching Activities and Examples [+ Unit Design Steps]

Written by Marcus Guido

Use Prodigy to cut down admin time, engage your students and differentiate instruction.

• Teaching Strategies

Typically demanding a  spark of creativity  coupled with experimentation, interdisciplinary teaching can be an ambitious approach to use in your classroom.

Fortunately, there are activities you can implement relatively easily that deliver research-backed benefits.  These include:

• Improved Critical Thinking — Students should improve their analysis abilities by using approaches from different disciplines.
• Better Bias Recognition — To solve a problem that demands an interdisciplinary approach, students must typically use information rooted in a range of perspectives. This can often challenge their pre-existing ideas to help them identify bias in themselves in others.
• Preparation for Future Problems — Using skills and knowledge from different disciplines is practice for solving problems outside school walls.

Framed by a definition and supplemented with  unit design steps ,  below are 10 interdisciplinary teaching activities and examples.  To choose ones that suit your schedule, they’re categorized by length.

What Is the Interdisciplinary Approach?

Feel free to  skip this section  if you’re familiar with the interdisciplinary approach.

If it’s unfamiliar or you want a review, the teaching method is based on presenting issues, themes and problems that — to address or answer — require skills and knowledge from more than one subject. Depending on grade level and your area of expertise,  this may involve working with a colleague  in a different department to occasionally teach one another’s class.

Regardless, the purpose of this pedagogy is to encourage students to make connections between academic disciplines.

For example, you could task your class with determining why a powerful historical figure made certain decisions. Completing this activity may require insights from politics, economics and sociology, as well as history.

On top of the aforementioned benefits, they will likely  build informed and completer understandings  of the topics they’re studying.

So, how can you teach using the interdisciplinary approach?

The instruction style typically takes the form of an entire unit, but there are also class-long exercises and short activities you can run. Examples and instructions are below.

Quick and Easy Interdisciplinary Activities

1. news analysis.

Start your class with this minds-on exercise that provides  real-world interdisciplinary problems.

To launch the exercise, you must play a news clip that discusses a local, national or international topic. Then, give students a related question to solve either individually or in teams. For example, the clip can be about a store shutting down. Using skills and concepts from different subjects, ask students to determine an ideal new location for it. They can volunteer to present their solutions, answering questions from classmates.

Time:  30 – 45 Minutes

Age Range:  5th Grade and Up

2. Historical Pen Pals

Personalize history class —  developing creative writing skills in the process  — by dedicating time to this ongoing activity.

Each student takes the role of a historical figure and writes to a classmate about events he or she faced. Drawing on resources such as videos and textbooks, the exercise allows the writer to process content from different and relevant subjects. Let’s say a student takes the role of Galileo Galilei. He or she can write about the  polymath ’s discoveries, building knowledge of math and other subjects in the process.

Time:  45 Minutes

Age Range:  3rd Grade and Up

3. Math Gym

Combine math and science with physical education  by delivering ongoing lessons that explain and explore certain motions.

Let’s say it’s time to practice long jumps. You can briefly delve into physics and body mechanics, using a spring to illustrate the downward application of force. Then, students can  exercise their math skills  by estimating and measuring how far they jumped. These demonstrations and activities can also supplement lessons about lifting, throwing and other actions — potentially interesting students who don’t enjoy gym.

Time:  15 – 30 Minutes

Age Range:  3rd – 8th Grade

Class-Long Interdisciplinary Exercises

4. world traveller.

Let students plan vacations,  building research skills while touching on core subjects.

You need to designate time for independent study in a library or computer room, as students work to create week-long travel itineraries to their ideal destinations. The product should, for example, include information about:

• Landmarks and their historical significances
• Popular foods, dishes and the predominant cuisine
• Languages or dialects spoken in the area or country
• Cultural events that take place in the area or country

This interdisciplinary activity lends itself to second-language classes. For example, students could write itineraries in French for a trip to Paris or Montréal. To wrap up the exercise, you can explore some destinations with your class  using technology  such as Google Earth.

Time:  One – Three Classes

Age Range:  4th – 6th Grade

5. Leaning Tower

Bolster the last activity —  delving into more subjects  — by asking students to examine one of Italy’s famous landmarks.

A mainstay interdisciplinary activity for some teachers, this exercise focuses on independent research into the Leaning Tower of Pisa. Specifically, it can involve:

• Investigating the physics or structure of the tower, determining if or when it will fall
• Exploring the tower’s history and cultural significance to Pisa and Tuscany
• Developing an itinerary for a trip to Pisa, similar to the last activity
• Setting a budget for the trip

For lower grades, you can divide the activity into distinct exercises and allow students to work in groups. For higher grades, you can assign this as an in-class project for students to tackle either individually or in pairs.

Age Range:  6th Grade and Up

6. Incentives

Touch on business, philosophy and social studies  with this introspective activity.

The exercise starts by dividing your students into small groups and classroom into three stations. Each group has tokens totaling $1,000, which they must choose to spend at the stations. Each station has a unique category of cards you’ve pre-made, representing a distinct  incentive . An economic incentive could be to get faster transportation to school for $150, whereas a social incentive could be to host a party for $200. A moral incentive could be to make a charity donation for $100. Once every group has spent $1,000, tally the purchases to see which station sold the most incentives.

This opens the door to two reflection exercises. First, as a class, discuss how each group spent its money. Second, ask each student to write about why he or she wanted specific incentives.

Time:  One Class

Age Range: 4th Grade and Up

Interdisciplinary Unit Examples

7. field study.

Introduce new learning environments  by using an outdoor field study as the basis for a short unit.

Like any unit that uses an interdisciplinary approach, it must be rooted in an  organizing centre  — a defined focus or purpose, which will be further explained in this article’s next section. For example, the field study can concentrate on finding local bugs and animals. Then, you can base your unit on exploring a specific theme related to wildlife. Students could:

• Read and evaluate relevant poetry
• Write and submit profiles about wildlife they spotted
• Watch and discuss documentaries about animals, such as  Planet Earth
• Research and deliver presentations about how certain environments sustain wildlife

To launch the in-class part of the unit, you can hold a class-wide discussion about how the field study connected with past lessons. Perfect for gratifying outdoorsy students.

Time:  One to Two Weeks

8. All About Weather

Connect science with social studies  by presenting a unit that explores the impact of weather.

Many elementary science curricula have units about weather and atmosphere, which you can supplement by studying how they affect societies. For example, examine diverse regions and countries, looking into how climate influences labour, agriculture and cultural practices. Students can deliver products that depict how weather has historically shaped life and ecology in the area.

Age Range:  4th Grade and Up

9. More than a “Just” Book

Make language arts class more memorable  by examining a book’s underlying contexts, running engaging exercises while reading it.

Each book  lends itself to unique interdisciplinary activities. Start by dissecting the setting. For example, if it takes place several centuries ago, students can recreate the era’s scientific breakthroughs by making small windmills or simple telescopes. A book’s theme can also draw on different subjects. Let’s say you’re reading George Orwell. You can set up learning stations that teach political ideologies. For a light-hearted approach, students can re-enact scenes from dialogue-heavy novels, putting themselves in characters’ shoes. Who knew English class could be so versatile?

Time:  Two Weeks or Longer

10. Study-Free Test Preparation

Prepare your students for an upcoming exam or standardized test by exploring how to prepare aside from studying,  giving them methods to use throughout their academic careers.

Regardless of specific structure, this unit’s lessons and activities should be based on one guiding question or organizing centre: “As well as studying, what are the best ways to prepare oneself for an upcoming test?” You can focus on stress, sleep, nutrition, active listening and other factors that influence performance. To culminate the unit, each student can give a research-backed presentation about a study-free preparation tactic.

Time:  One Week or Longer

How to Design Interdisciplinary Units in 5 Steps

There’s more to creating an original interdisciplinary unit than running activities like the ones listed above.

Here are five steps to ensure you effectively plan, and smoothly run, the unit:

1. Assess Your Students and Setting

Analyzing your environment and students’  diverse learning styles  will help you customize a unit to meet their needs and interests.

For example, you could determine the bulk of your class struggles to contextualize many math skills. This insight can encourage you to make interdisciplinary lessons about  applying math  to social and political issues.

To learn more about your students, look into or reflect upon their:

• Engagement levels during different lessons
• Abilities to work by themselves and in groups
• Progression throughout the year or past years

To evaluate the classroom environment, consider if:

• Involving other teachers is needed or possible
• Dedicating enough time and resources to the unit is feasible
• Expanding learning locations by pursuing field trips or outdoor studies is needed

A proper assessment will reveal what you can and should do.

2. Create an Organizing Centre

Running an interdisciplinary unit without an organizing centre is like assigning a project without instructions.

The organizing centre is the overarching focus. All of your activities and lessons must relate to it. And all the approaches and subjects students use will connect with it.

Let’s use the  War of 1812  as an example.  Organizing centres can take the form of:

• Topics — Upper Canadian activity throughout the war.
• Issues  — Are lessons from the war relevant today?
• Themes  — Strife between communities.
• Works  — Primary documents about the Surrender of Detroit.
• Problems  — What can we do to prevent future conflicts between North American countries?

With an organizing centre decided, you’ll have an easier time focusing throughout the next step.

3. Develop Essential Questions

Like a mind map to a writer, students need help applying ideas and subjects to an organizing centre. That’s where essential questions come in.

When facing a new activity, students should be able to reference its underlying essential question and — after giving some thought — understand how it applies to the organizing centre.  Let’s return to the War of 1812 as an example.  An essential question may involve determining five long-term causes of conflict.

Each essential question should be:

• Somewhat complicated, encouraging students to divide it into simpler problems
• Rooted in concepts that are clearly applicable across subjects
• Completable within the allotted time frame
• Relevant and interesting to students

By framing and contextualizing your organizing centre with essential essentials, students should make natural connections between skills and disciplines.

4. Plan and Run Activities

Here’s the fun part. It’s time to make and deliver exercises that tie into specific essential questions.

Each exercise or lesson should introduce or reinforce ideas and skills, borrowing from different subjects to indicate the importance of combining disciplines.

To address the aforementioned essential question about conflict causes , you could set up  learning stations . Each one could teach students about issues — political, economic, sociological and more — that amount to tension between groups.

Like any lesson or unit plan, vary activity types to raise engagement levels and  give students chances to reflect on content and their work.

5. Review Student Performance and the Unit Itself

As you use the interdisciplinary approach and the unit concludes, assess students and activities.

This is not only an exercise in giving feedback to your class, but informing future interdisciplinary lessons.

To review student performance, consider evaluating:

• Participation
• Critical thinking

To review the interdisciplinary unit itself, consider reflecting upon:

• Student engagement
• Connections with different subjects
• Effectiveness of the organizing centre
• Relevancy and applicability of essential questions

If the reviews are positive, you can start planning your next interdisciplinary unit.

Final Thoughts About the Interdisciplinary Approach

Your students may appreciate subjects they disliked after participating in interdisciplinary units, lessons or activities.

That’s because they learned how skills and concepts relate to disciplines they enjoy. Coupled with time to practice those skills and use those concepts,  you should see positive results across classes.

Engaged students, happy teacher.

Interdisciplinary teaching strategies have some significant overlap with a number of other pedagogical approaches. Consider learning about more teaching strategies to get inspiration and enrich your pedagogical toolkit!

• Active learning strategies   position students at the center of the learning process, enriching the classroom experience and boosting engagement.
• As opposed to traditional learning activities,  experiential learning activities  build knowledge and skills through direct experience.
• Project-based learning   uses an open-ended approach in which students work alone or collectively to produce an engaging, intricate curriculum-related questions or challenges.
• Inquiry-based learning   is subdivided into four categories, all of which promote the importance of your students’ development questions, ideas and analyses.
• Adaptive learning  focuses on changing — or “adapting” — learning content for students on an individual basis, particularly with the help of technology.

Create or log into your teacher account on Prodigy — an adaptive math game that adjusts content to accommodate player trouble spots and learning speeds. Aligned to a growing list of curricula, Prodigy Math Game is used by more than 500,000 teachers and 16 million students across the globe.

What is an interdisciplinary approach, and how can it help you?

Today’s world calls for people with innovative and creative solutions . The problems and needs we face as a society can no longer be solved by traditional, unidimensional ways of reasoning.

At Advantere, we know the importance of re-thinking education and re-learning how we learn. That’s why we created our re-solutionary method , to empower the leaders of tomorrow. Because new times require new approaches, we believe in learning by doing, learning by living and learning by designing, with an interdisciplinary approach at the core of everything.

A holistic approach to learning

Interdisciplinarity is defined as ‘the involvement of two or more academic, scientific, or artistic disciplines’. Applied to learning, this would mean taking a holistic approach, combining multiple disciplines to achieve one common purpose .

Based on Plato’s ideal of unity as the highest good in all things, interdisciplinarity draws methods from different disciplines and merges them to produce cognitive advancement, that is, examining or solving a theme, problem, issue or experience.

Unlike multidisciplinarity, where no connections are made between the subjects of study, interdisciplinarity focuses on integration , comparing different concepts and insights across subjects to gain new knowledge.

The benefits of an interdisciplinary approach

There are many advantages to choosing an interdisciplinary education, not only when it comes to your career , but also to your personal development.

Critical thinking

By engaging in an interdisciplinary approach, you learn how to carefully dissect, process and compare information across subject boundaries.

In this way, you develop and strengthen critical thinking skills , resulting in a deeper understanding and assimilation of knowledge. All these abilities are transferable to future learning experiences, regardless of whether they are related to each other or not.

Creativity and innovation

An interdisciplinary approach involves considering different points of view, comparing and contrasting them. Apart from self-cultivation and critical thinking, evaluating perspectives and topics along diverse subject areas can be a great motivation to explore new interests.

Being constantly exposed to new frameworks and ideas heightens creativity , which in turn will nurture your capacity to come up with innovative solutions to modern issues.

Long-term learning

The contents included in an interdisciplinary curricula are rooted in real-life experiences and applicable to an actual context. This way, you can gain a deeper understanding of the world you live in and your place in it, connecting your learnings to a meaningful and authentic purpose.

These experiences are not only relevant to many different areas but also long-lasting, meaning you will continue to apply this knowledge throughout your whole life.

Why we need interdisciplinarity in today’s world

In the uncertainty of ever-changing panoramas, we need people who understand the bridges between different disciplines and their relationship to the modern context. Today’s real-world issues are mostly interdisciplinary , and therefore, require interdisciplinary solutions.

Approaching learning through the study and integration of multiple subjects, you can acquire important life skills such as collaboration, critical analysis and problem-solving, while also being able to apply these abilities to different backgrounds.

This way, you can face challenges with an innovative mindset that efficiently adapts to current demands, encouraging and creating new solutions to current needs.

In consequence, interdisciplinary education proves to be an important part of today’s scenario, holding the key to forming the re-solutionaries that will help build a better tomorrow .

If you are a re-solutionary, take a look at our Master's degree in International Management , in Finance and in Talent Management , we're looking for you.

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Interdisciplinary Research & Problem Solving: A Guide for Students

A short survey and explication of the literature on interdisciplinary studies, written for undergraduate students in environmental studies. Made available for others to use under a Creative Commons license.

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Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Building Bridges in the Brain, Behavioral, and Clinical Sciences; Pellmar TC, Eisenberg L, editors. Bridging Disciplines in the Brain, Behavioral, and Clinical Sciences. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2000.

Bridging Disciplines in the Brain, Behavioral, and Clinical Sciences.

• Hardcopy Version at National Academies Press

2 The Potential of Interdisciplinary Research to Solve Problems in the Brain, Behavioral, and Clinical Sciences

All knowledge begins with a question. — Neil Postman

To address the health needs of the new millennium, both single disciplinary research and interdisciplinary—including translational—approaches will be needed. This chapter focuses specifically on the contributions, past and expected, of some fields of interdisciplinary science. The research questions described in this chapter will call for integrated efforts to develop methods for prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of disease and to understand the basic mechanisms of brain and behavior. Approaches to interdisciplinary research are diverse. The examples in this chapter illustrate translational research that applied clinical findings to basic science and vice versa, collaborations across disciplines, integration of past disciplinary efforts to create a new perspective, and the synergy created by central facilities that bring people together. The committee emphasizes that interdisciplinary research is an approach, not an end. It should arise out of a challenge; that is, it should develop in response to a problem that cannot be embraced by a single discipline.

Many problems require single disciplinary scientific approaches. Historically, single disciplines grew out of bodies of knowledge in efforts to promote a coherent and ordered focus of investigation and study. Single disciplines enable in-depth and technically adroit approaches to complex problems. As described in chapter 3 , the constraints of training and getting started in a career make single disciplinary research the preferred route for many young investigators. The disciplinary approach to research is intellectually rewarding and leads to important findings. Investigators in single disciplinary work have contributed enormously to our understanding of basic biology and human health—B. F. Skinner in operant conditioning, von Bekesey in audition, and Hodgkin and Huxley in nerve conduction are examples. Furthermore, single disciplinary efforts often feed into interdisciplinary and translational efforts.

• NEUROSCIENCE: EVOLUTION OF A DISCIPLINE

The brain has been studied for millennia. As early as the fourth century BC Hippocrates recognized the involvement of the brain with sensation and with epilepsy. In the mid-1600s, Thomas Willis, an English anatomist, provided a detailed description of the structures of the brain. Two hundred years later scientists began to correlate structures with functions. For example, Paul Broca related a clinical pathology to a structural defect noted on autopsy and Eduard Hitzig and Gustav Fritsch found that electrical stimulation of specific cortical areas produced movement. By the mid-1800s many histologists were describing the cellular components of the nervous system. (For example, see the section on Ramon y Cajal that follows.) Early in the nineteenth century, neurophysiology was gaining momentum with the efforts of scientists such as Charles Sherrington and Edgar Adrian, and neurochemistry was developing, with Henry Dale's isolation of acetylcholine. 25 , 53

Up until a few decades ago scientists engaged in these endeavors identified themselves as anatomists, physiologists, psychologists, biochemists, and so on. In 1960 the International Brain Research Organization was founded to promote cooperation among the world's scientific resources for research on the brain. 41 In 1969, the Society for Neuroscience was founded to bring together those studying brain and behavior into a single organization; its membership has grown from 1000 in 1970 to over 25,000 in 2000. 86 Within the new discipline, neuroscientists are integrating a variety of perspectives to gain insights into fundamental questions about the nervous system in health and disease. Neuroscience is a clear example of a discipline of today arising from interdisciplinary approaches of the past. The discipline of neuroscience arose by combining the efforts of scientists in different fields to solve common scientific problems. It is a dynamic discipline in which new fields continue to be integrated (for example, informatics and molecular biology). The growth of this discipline has been so prodigious, the territories it covers so broad, and the methods it employs so varied that neuroscience itself is beginning to fragment into subdisciplines. One such subdiscipline is cognitive neuroscience, which is itself evolving as a new discipline.

• DISCIPLINARY WORK PROVIDES A FOUNDATION

Disciplinary research has an important place in the scientific enterprise. As the examples here illustrate, the efforts of scientists in their own fields can create the tools or provide the basis for many future efforts. Interdisciplinary approaches often build on single disciplinary discoveries.

Human Genome Project

The Human Genome Project was established in 1988. 85 Before it could become a reality, however, decades of disciplinary efforts were necessary to lay the foundations. In 1944, Avery et al. 5 discovered that DNA carried the genetic message. The structure of DNA was first unraveled by Watson and Crick 99 in 1953, and the genetic code was worked out in the middle 1960s. 22 In the early 1970s, the methodology of recombinant DNA was published. 103 Years of basic research on enzymes such as restriction endonucleases, polymerases, ligases, and reverse transcriptases, provided the tools that are the basics of the methodology for the Human Genome Project. For example, when Temin and Mizutani 93 and Baltimore 7 first described reverse transcriptase in 1970, they were focused on how some viruses copy their genetic messages from RNA to DNA in host cells. The enzyme became the focus of biochemists and virologists trying to understand its characteristics. On the basis of their findings, the enzyme was recognized as important for the analysis of the genome.

Having evolved from independent, single disciplinary efforts, the Human Genome Project has expanded into a prime example of interdisciplinary research, involving scientists in a variety of disciplines, such as biology, chemistry, genetics, physics, mathematics, and computer science. The enormous data management problems arising from the wealth of information generated in genomic analyses require new and more powerful computational methods. In addition, important contributions to the analysis of the ethical and legal implications come from philosophy, jurisprudence, and ethics. The developing knowledge base is expected to serve as the foundation for new interdisciplinary efforts to understand the function of genes and the contribution of genetic diversity to both health and disease. The implications go beyond medicine and human health to applications in energy, environmental protection, agriculture, and industrial processes. 63 , 64 , 70 , 95

Neuroanatomy of Ramon y Cajal

Santiago Ramon y Cajal won the Nobel Prize in 1906 for his work on the histology of the nervous system. Because Ramon y Cajal used the newest stains, optical microscopy, and anatomical approaches, one could argue that this innovator's research reflects the coalescence of multiple disciplines into a single discipline. His methods became the standard tools of the neuroanatomist. He shared the Nobel Prize with Camillo Golgi, whose principal contribution was a stain with a unique property: it revealed an entire cell and its processes. Despite the discrete entities stained, Golgi continued to support the prevailing belief that the nervous system was a continuous network of fibers. Ramon y Cajal, however, reinterpreted the observations to support the “neuron doctrine,” which today is basic to our understanding of central nervous system organization. His histological studies provided detailed representations of cells from many parts of the nervous system and created a starting point for understanding their connections, their physiology, and their pathophysiology. Ramon y Cajal's work is still cited in reports on subjects as varied as gene expression in rat brain, 51 electrophysiology of synaptic currents, 8 and axonal regeneration in spinal cord. 23

• TRANSLATIONAL RESEARCH: TO THE CLINIC AND BACK AGAIN

The following examples illustrate how clinical and basic researchers can join together to advance a field. In one case, a chance conversation about a clinical observation led to a basic science breakthrough in understanding pathology. In the other case, a patient's unfortunate circumstances created the stimulus for a field that continues to integrate basic and clinical investigation.

Breakthrough in Sickle Cell Anemia

While they served together on an advisory committee, William Castle, a clinician, described to Linus Pauling, a physical chemist, his observation that in sickle cell disease the red blood cells were abnormally shaped only when deoxygenated. Pauling hypothesized that the abnormal shape of the red blood cells in the patients was a result of an altered shape of the oxygen-carrying hemoglobin molecule. On his return to his laboratory, Pauling and a young colleague, Harvey Itano, attempted to distinguish normal hemoglobin from sickle cell hemoglobin by using a variety of physical and chemical methods. With a new electrophoresis technique, they found a difference in mobility suggesting that the two forms of hemoglobin had different electrical charges. 89 The results were published in a Science paper titled, “Sickle Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease.” 72 The paper reasoned that genetic control of the amino acid composition of hemoglobin was responsible for the hereditary nature of the disease. The field of genetic medicine was born of the interaction between a bedside clinical investigator and a basic laboratory scientist. From this first recognition of the molecular basis of the pathology has followed the development of treatments: drugs that address the pathophysiology of the disease 16 and nitric oxide, 35 bonemarrow transplantation, 98 and the promise of gene therapy. 49 , 55 , 92 The development of animal models 71 , 76 promises to continue to bridge the gap between laboratory and clinic.

• THE STORY OF PATIENT HM

In an effort to control a severe case of epilepsy, a patient known as HM had most of the temporal lobes of his brain removed bilaterally in the early 1950s. The consequences were unexpected. HM was unable to form new memories. He could remember his childhood and he could recognize his mother. But, although he could learn a name or memorize a number for a very short time, the information was lost to him after a few minutes. 81 HM's condition provided a clinical model that stimulated extensive laboratory efforts to understand the neurobiology of memory. Mishkin 59 reproduced the lesions of HM in primates to develop an animal model to study the process of memory. With the evidence of hippocampal and medial temporal lobe involvement in memory formation, many basic laboratory investigations focused on neurophysiological mechanisms, neuroanatomic substrates, and behavioral deficits in animal models. As the understanding of memory grew, the impairment in HM and other unfortunate patients was reevaluated. 20 , 21 , 58 , 75 , 88 For example, the testing of HM's capabilities supported the laboratory-generated hypothesis that there are different kinds of memory processes. Although HM does not recall having met a visitor or recall the process of learning a task like mirror writing, he can improve his skill at mirror writing at a normal rate and even retain the skill for weeks. 29 Clinical observations of memory loss continue to stimulate the basic animal research efforts with clinically relevant questions. 87 The advent of new imaging technologies, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging, and new noninvasive recording methods, such as magnetoencephalography, continue to enhance the interactions between clinical and basic research. 21 , 28 , 87

• INTERDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH: MAKING PROGRESS

Several interdisciplinary programs have been running long enough to demonstrate the added value of interactive efforts. Whether developed through the encouragement of a funding agency or through the leadership of an individual, these programs illustrate the breadth of what can be achieved when disciplines come together to solve a problem. The role of the leader of an interdisciplinary team is analogous to that of an orchestra conductor who coordinates highly specialized experts to produce harmonious outcomes. The leader would be expected to converse freely with persons in disparate fields and to facilitate the interactions among team members. The expectation for the team members is to be responsible for issues involving their expertise and to develop a working knowledge of each others' fields. The composition of the “orchestra” would not be fixed, but, rather, would change depending on the particular problem at hand. With time, participants would expand their understanding of other fields while continuing to contribute their own expertise.

Cardiovascular Health and Behavior

In recent years, fields that have not traditionally embraced interdisciplinary research have begun to recognize that it is essential. For example, the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Task Force on Behavioral Research in Cardiovascular, Lung, and Blood Health and Disease concluded in 1998 that collaborations between behavioral and medical researchers would provide a better understanding of disease. Many Americans are living with heart disease, including more than 13 million who have angina pectoris or who have suffered a myocardial infarction. 65 Management of their disease and prevention of recurrent disease are foci of attention for behavioral and clinical scientists.

Recent studies have demonstrated that such behaviors as smoking, lack of exercise, and inappropriate diet can increase the risk of heart disease. Epidemiological studies, clinical investigation, and experiments in animal models have provided new understanding of the physiological links between behavior and pathology. In addition, personality traits, exposure to stress, socioeconomic status, and social support have been found to influence the risk of cardiovascular disease. Extensive research collaborations among experts in many fields—including psychologists, neurobiologists, cardiologists, and comparative pathologists—provided evidence that stress, anger, and lifestyle influence the pathophysiology of coronary heart disease. 43 , 46 Large interdisciplinary clinical trials are in progress to determine whether psychosocial interventions can reduce morbidity and mortality in heart diseases. 10 , 84 Continued interdisciplinary research is likely to produce new advances in the prevention and management of cardiovascular disease.

Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a chronic and disabling mental disorder. Diverse symptoms encompass abnormalities in perception, thinking, speech, affect (expression of emotion), and behavior. Hallucinations, delusions, and social withdrawal are commonly associated with the disease. Schizophrenia usually first manifests itself in young adults. Patients suffer from public stigma because of their unusual behavior. Although treatments are available, adherence to treatment regimens is a problem, in part because of the side effects of the pharmaceutical agents. Although we are using schizophrenia as though it were a single disease, it would be more accurate to use the schizophrenias because of the likelihood of underlying disease heterogeneity.

There is now general agreement among experts in schizophrenia that abnormal brain development from many causes underlies the disease. 9 Advances in neuroimaging have shown that some people with schizophrenia have abnormally large ventricles (fluid-filled cavities) within the brain. 52 , 100 Schizophrenia has been associated with impaired migration of neurons in the brain during fetal development. 2 Both genetics and environmental factors influence development of the disease. Twin studies and other genetic epidemiological assessments indicate clearly that a genetic predisposition to the disease exists. 44 , 45 , 73 Some data suggest a link between schizophrenia and maternal viral infection during gestation. 101

Recent studies have brought together multiple disciplines in attempts to understand the disease in its entirety. For example, the combined use of such neuroimaging techniques as positron emission tomography (PET) to look at blood flow and magnetic resonance imaging to look at structures, genetic analyses, cognitive testing, and clinical trials of pharmaceutical agents to evaluate patients with schizophrenia is allowing progress toward the development of interventions for the disease. 4 Continued interdisciplinary efforts in schizophrenia research—including epidemiology, genetics, structural brain abnormalities, development, behavior, and virology—should advance the understanding and treatment of the disease.

• INTERDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH: FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Major advances in human health are increasingly contingent on interdisciplinary research that requires close collaboration between biomedical and behavioral scientists. Although research in single disciplines has made and will continue to make important contributions to understanding chronic diseases, current efforts are needed to solve problems that stem from multiple domains. The committee heard from the directors of several of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) about fields ripe for interdisciplinary research (see Appendix B ), including:

• The management of symptoms at the end of life: the complex interaction of clinical symptoms (including biochemical, neurological, endocrine, immune, and psychological status), therapeutics, and ethics.
• Alcoholism: integration of neuroscience, genetics, molecular biology, neurochemistry, electrophysiology, imaging, and more. The “oldest old:” complex health and social concerns in those over 85 years old.
• Vulnerability to addiction: merging genetics, environmental risk, protective factors, behavior, and neuroscience.
• Treatment research, including adherence issues: bringing to bear behavioral, psychosocial, pharmacological therapeutic, and clinical concerns.

Clearly, many problems that face today's society require coordinated efforts in multiple disciplines. The following examples can give a flavor of the benefits that an interdisciplinary approach could provide.

Pain is one of the most frequent reasons for visits to the doctor and costs society greatly in medical expenses and loss of productivity. 15 , 50 The effect of pain on immune function and mental attitude can influence patient outcomes and prolong hospital stays. 47 Gender, genetics, and cultural background affect how a person responds to painful stimuli; stress also modulates pain. There are many types of pain, and they have different neural pathways and different underlying mechanisms. Some painkillers are addictive, and the risk of chemical dependence needs to be considered in studying pain and its control (for reviews see: Melzack, 1999 56 and Good, 1999 34 ).

The study of pain requires coordinated efforts in a number of disciplines to develop therapeutic approaches (for example, see Dubner and Gold, 1999 24 ). Imaging technology can provide a better understanding how the of brain functions during painful experiences. Cellular electrophysiology can elucidate the neuronal mechanisms involved and define potential sites for pharmacological intervention. Neurochemistry can identify and characterize trophic factors and neurotransmitters that influence the modulation and perception of pain. Genetic analyses can elucidate inherited susceptibility to pain. Social, psychological, and cultural approaches can provide a better understanding of the interaction of sociocultural environments and the neurophysiological substrates of pain. Such understandings will provide new insights into pharmacological and behavioral means of coping with pain. 67

Injuries, both intentional and unintentional, are the leading cause of death of people 1–44 years old. They continue to be the cause of many deaths and serious disabilities throughout life, although other causes (e.g., heart disease, cancer, stroke) become more common in later life. 13 , 14 Many injuries that do not cause death result in lifelong serious disabilities, such as spinal cord paraplegia and quadriplegia. Injury in the elderly is often the precipitating event in terminal illness, especially pneumonia. 62 , 94 The term unintentional injury is now used, rather than accidents, to indicate that they are subject to the same epidemiological analysis of the interaction of host, agent, and environment as any other cause of death or disability. 39 , 40 Unintentional injuries result from characteristics of the injured (e.g., temperament and neurological status) and from agents in the physical and social environment. Prevention programs can control the environment (for example, with safety caps on medicines and poisons, seatbelts and airbags in automobiles, safer and more engineered roads) or change individual behavior (for example, with helmet use by bicycle riders, and reduction in drinking and driving). 40 Future research will be greatly enhanced by interdisciplinary efforts of psychologists, neuroscientists, engineers, regulatory agencies, and device manufacturers working together on epidemiological studies and interventions.

In late 1999, Jeffrey Koplan, director of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, issued a report on the growing obesity epidemic in the United States. 60 The report documents the alarming increase in obesity during the 1990s. According to the report, the prevalence of obesity (defined as 30% over ideal body weight) increased from 12% in 1991 to 17.9% in 1998. Obesity increased in all states and all demographic groups, including race, education level, and age. Over the same interval, physical inactivity, a major contributor to obesity, was essentially unchanged. Since obesity is associated with many chronic illnesses, including heart disease and diabetes, those trends pose a major public health concern. According to Koplan, “overweight and physical inactivity account for more than 300,000 premature deaths each year in the United States, second only to tobacco-related deaths.” 12 Even in children as young as 5 to 10 years old, over half those considered overweight already show at least one risk factor for heart disease.

Obesity prevention and control provide fertile ground for interdisciplinary research. Both genetic and environmental factors influence body weight. Understanding of the behavioral components that contribute to obesity, including inactivity and overeating, is necessary for effective interventions. 36 Sociocultural differences in the prevalence of obesity among ethnic and socioeconomic groups require clarification. In addition, the physiological mechanisms that regulate appetite and metabolism need to be elucidated. In the middle 1990s, a concerted effort was made to find genes that contribute to obesity. 18 The hormones mediating appetite (including leptin, neuropeptide Y, and melanocyte-stimulating factor) are under active investigation. Additional physiological factors that control dietary intake, energy expenditure, and energy regulation must be better understood. 11 New information on hypothalamic pathways that influence food intake 26 , 78 has increased theoretical understanding of body weight regulation but is still far from clinical application. Understanding and clinically addressing dietary behavior require an integration of the genetic, endocrine, metabolic, and neurophysiological components with environmental factors and cultural factors.

• EFFECTIVE FUNDING INITIATIVES IN INTERDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH

Many interdisciplinary efforts arise out of serendipity, but many arise out of need and the ripeness of research problems. Targeted programs in interdisciplinary research have yielded valuable knowledge and clinical results. Two such programs supported by NIH are described below as examples of initiatives that the committee found to be model programs.

Alzheimer's Disease Centers

Research in Alzheimer's disease has made rapid progress as a direct result of opportunities for interdisciplinary investigation fostered by NIH. Almost 2 decades ago, despite the great need for research on the medical and social problems resulting from Alzheimer's disease and related dementias associated with aging, there was little activity. The lack of interest was coupled with the widespread misunderstanding that dementia is a natural consequence of aging.

The National Institute on Aging (NIA) recognized that advances in understanding Alzheimer's disease required the coordinated efforts of neurologists, psychiatrists, neuropathologists, psychologists, neurochemists, molecular biologists, geneticists, and epidemiologists in an interdisciplinary approach to address the neurological, behavioral, familial, and social implications. To address that need, NIA developed a Request for Applications (RFA) for Alzheimer's Disease Research Centers (ADRCs). These clinical centers were required to have both cores and scientific projects. The mandated cores were clinical to recruit patients with dementing illnesses, neuropathological to archive neuropathology specimens, educational to provide scientists and the general public with information about the dementias, and administrative. The scientific projects were investigator-initiated clinical or basic neuroscience studies of dementing diseases and included at least two pilot projects. 69 A small number of ADRCs were created at first. As the ADRCs proved effective, additional funds were allocated and the number of centers grew. Later, NIA created Alzheimer's Disease Core Centers (ADCCs), which supported only core facilities with the expectation that other investigator-initiated studies would be stimulated by the availability of the funded cores. 68 NIA now funds 29 Alzheimer's Disease Centers around the country. 6

The development of the Alzheimer's Disease Center programs was scientifically beneficial. Advances in understanding of the basic pathophysiology of Alzheimer's disease have been striking, with promises of effective preventive strategies in the near future. Among the advances arising from the centers is delineation of the neuropathological changes, including the deposition of senile plaques, the development of neurofibrillary tangles, and the loss of neurons from critical brain regions. 17 , 33 , 61 , 82 , 102 Discovery of the alleles of apolipoprotein E revealed an important risk factor for Alzheimer's disease. 19 , 38 , 48 , 74 , 77 , 80 , 90 , 91 With the development of transgenic mice that express some of the neuropathological changes of Alzheimer's disease, an animal model is available to further the understanding of the basic biology of the disease and to test promising therapies. 30 Those advances are leading to medications to improve cognition and others that might even prevent symptoms. 79

• PET CENTERS

The targeted allocation of federal funds by NIH led to the development of PET as a means of studying the metabolism and biochemistry of the brain. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, PET technology had matured enough to be highly promising, but requiring further development to make a scientific impact. In 1985, NINCDS put out an RFA to create “Brain Imaging Research Centers” to advance the use of the technology in studying dynamic changes in the brain under normal and pathological conditions. 66 The terms of the RFA required the interdisciplinary collaboration of clinicians and scientists, including areas such as nuclear medicine, neurology, psychiatry, and neuroradiology. Members of the team needed to comprehend each specialist's field at some level to understand the possibilities of the new technology. The RFA asked for proposals that included development of cores facilities and hypothesis-driven scientific research projects. Following peer review, five centers were funded.

The effort led to substantial advances in understanding of biochemical processes in the human brain in health and disease. The studies included examination of regional cerebral blood flow, glucose metabolism, oxygen metabolism, and localization and concentration of biochemical substances, such as dopamine receptors, gamma-aminobutyric acid receptors, and opiate receptors. 97 The PET centers also advanced understanding of numerous neurological disorders, including stroke, epilepsy, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, multiple system atrophy, and alcoholism, to name just a few. 1 , 3 , 27 , 31 , 32 , 37 , 42 , 54 , 57 , 96 Cognitive psychology was advanced by combining psychological activation of the resting brain with PET studies of cerebral blood flow as a marker of changes in metabolic rate of the relevant brain regions (for a review, see Sergent 1994 83 ). The recent development of functional magnetic resonance imaging has superseded PET for activation studies because of the lower costs involved. The development of single photon emission computed tomography, which can be performed with radioactive pharmaceuticals that have a long half-life, led to widespread imaging of the brain's metabolic and biochemical processes.

• FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

A great many interdisciplinary programs currently exist. Whether developed through the encouragement of a funding agency or the leadership of an individual, these programs illustrate the breadth of what can be achieved when disciplines come together to solve a problem. To ensure the future of interdisciplinary research for solutions to complex problems, training is essential to prepare the next generation of investigators to tackle these interdisciplinary tasks.

Funding agencies can be influential in moving fields forward by organizing funding mechanisms around specified opportunities, technologies, or problems. To allow optimal use of funding dollars, it is important to target the problems that would most benefit from interdisciplinary approaches. Only after these problems are recognized should resources be allocated toward them. To identify such problems, lines of communication between sponsors and researchers should be established.

Recommendation 1: Federal and private research sponsors should seek to identify areas that can be most effectively investigated with interdisciplinary approaches. This should be done by engaging the research community through symposia, working groups, or ad hoc committees. Funding mechanisms, such as Requests for Applications or Proposals, should be developed to address the identified areas.

• Cite this Page Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Building Bridges in the Brain, Behavioral, and Clinical Sciences; Pellmar TC, Eisenberg L, editors. Bridging Disciplines in the Brain, Behavioral, and Clinical Sciences. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2000. 2, The Potential of Interdisciplinary Research to Solve Problems in the Brain, Behavioral, and Clinical Sciences.
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10 Interdisciplinary Skills and How To Improve Them

Discover 10 Interdisciplinary skills along with some of the best tips to help you improve these abilities.

In a rapidly changing and increasingly complex world, the ability to think and work across disciplinary boundaries is more important than ever. Interdisciplinary skills allow people to see the world from multiple perspectives and to find creative solutions to problems.

In this guide, we’ll discuss what interdisciplinary skills are, why they’re important, and how you can develop them.

Critical Thinking

Problem solving, communication, time management, organization, flexibility.

Critical thinking is the ability to think about information, ideas or arguments in a way that is objective, rational and open to debate. It is a way of thinking that is not influenced by personal beliefs or emotions. When we think critically, we are able to consider all sides of an issue and make a decision based on facts and evidence.

Critical thinking is an important interdisciplinary skill because it can be used in any field of study to analyze information, arguments and data. It is important to be able to think critically when reading a book, taking notes in a lecture, or when conducting research. Critical thinking can help you to better understand the world around you and make informed decisions.

Problem solving is an important interdisciplinary skill because it allows you to apply knowledge from different fields to solve a problem. For example, if you’re trying to figure out how to fix a broken car, you might use knowledge of mechanics, physics and chemistry to solve the problem.

Problem solving requires you to identify the problem, gather information, develop a plan, implement the plan and evaluate the results. To be an effective problem solver, you need to be able to think creatively and use logic to find creative solutions to problems.

Communication is an important interdisciplinary skill because it allows researchers, practitioners, and policymakers to share information and ideas. When researchers communicate their findings, they can inform practitioners about best practices and policy makers about potential solutions to problems. When practitioners communicate their experiences, they can share lessons learned and help policymakers develop better solutions. When policymakers communicate their plans, they can build support for their initiatives and ensure that everyone is on the same page.

Good communication requires good listening, which is another important interdisciplinary skill. When you’re able to listen to others, you can understand their perspective and build rapport. This can help you communicate your own ideas more effectively.

Teamwork is an important interdisciplinary skill because it allows individuals from different disciplines to work together towards a common goal. When working on a team, individuals must be able to communicate effectively, collaborate, and compromise. Additionally, team members must be able to understand and respect the different perspectives and expertise of their teammates.

Working on a team can be a great way to learn new skills and gain new knowledge. It can also be a great way to build relationships and networks.

Time management is the ability to use your time efficiently and effectively. It involves planning, prioritizing and scheduling your time to meet your goals. Good time management skills can help you in all aspects of your life, from your work to your personal life.

Time management is an important skill for interdisciplinary work because it allows you to effectively coordinate the efforts of multiple disciplines to achieve a common goal. Good time management skills can help you to avoid delays and meet deadlines. It can also help you to avoid burnout and stay productive over the long-term.

Research is an important interdisciplinary skill because it allows you to gather information from different sources and put it together to form a conclusion. When you’re doing research, you need to be able to find and use information from different fields to form a complete picture. This skill is important in fields like law, medicine, business and education.

When you’re doing research, you need to be able to find and use information from different fields to form a complete picture. This skill is important in fields like law, medicine, business and education.

Explain why Writing is an important Interdisciplinary skill. Writing is an important interdisciplinary skill because it allows you to communicate your ideas to people from different fields. When you’re writing, you need to be able to use different language and terminology to communicate with people from different backgrounds. This skill is important in fields like law, medicine, business and education.

Organization is important in interdisciplinary studies because it helps you to see how different disciplines relate to each other. When you are able to see the connections between disciplines, you can better understand the big picture and how your work fits into the overall field. Organization also helps you to be more efficient in your research and to communicate your findings effectively.

Technology is an important interdisciplinary skill because it allows people from different disciplines to work together more effectively. For example, a biologist might use technology to analyze data collected from a field study. A computer programmer might use technology to develop a website for the biologist to use for data analysis. Technology can also be used to share data and information between disciplines.

Creativity is the ability to come up with new and innovative ideas. It’s a skill that can be used in a variety of disciplines, from art to engineering to business. When you’re creative, you’re not just coming up with a new idea, but you’re also thinking of new ways to implement that idea.

Creativity is a valuable skill in any field because it allows you to think outside the box and come up with new solutions to problems. When you’re creative, you’re not limited by traditional thinking and you can find new ways to approach a problem.

Flexibility is important in interdisciplinary work because it allows you to adapt your approach to fit the needs of the project. Interdisciplinary projects often require collaboration across multiple fields, which can make it difficult to find a single approach that works for everyone. Flexibility allows you to find common ground and work together to find a solution that is best for the project.

Flexibility also allows you to adapt to changes in the project as it progresses. Interdisciplinary projects are often complex and can involve a lot of moving parts. As the project progresses, you may find that some parts are easier to complete than others. Flexibility allows you to adjust your approach to fit the needs of the project and to complete it successfully.

How to Improve Your Interdisciplinary Skills

1. Take an online course One way to improve your interdisciplinary skills is to take an online course. Many online courses are available for free, and some may even offer a certificate of completion.

2. Join a professional organization Joining a professional organization is a great way to network with other professionals and learn about new trends in your field. Professional organizations often offer webinars, conferences and other events that can help you learn new skills.

3. Attend a conference Conferences provide an opportunity to learn about new trends, network with other professionals and gain new skills. Many conferences offer workshops and other events that can help you learn about different topics.

4. Get a job in a related field Getting a job in a related field can help you learn new skills and gain experience. This can be a great way to learn about new trends and technologies.

5. Read books and articles Books and articles can provide you with new information and perspectives. Reading can help you learn about different topics and gain new skills.

6. Use social media Social media can be a great way to learn about new trends and technologies. You can also use social media to network with other professionals.

10 Cash Handling Skills and How To Improve Them

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Problem Solving

Ai generator.

Problem solving is a crucial skill in both personal and professional settings. Whether it’s addressing a personal challenge or drafting a business problem solving proposal , the ability to identify a problem and develop a solution is essential. Writing a problem solving essay helps articulate the issue clearly and systematically outline potential solutions. Effective problem and solution involves critical thinking, creativity, and a structured approach to overcome obstacles and achieve goals.

What is Problem Solving?

Problem solving is the process of identifying a challenge, analyzing its components, and finding an effective solution. It involves critical thinking, creativity, and the application of various techniques and tools.

Examples of Problem Solving

• Analytical Thinking : Breaking down complex problems into manageable parts.
• Creativity : Developing innovative solutions to problems.
• Critical Thinking : Evaluating information and arguments to make a reasoned decision.
• Decision-Making : Choosing the best course of action from various alternatives.
• Research : Gathering relevant information to understand and solve a problem.
• Communication : Clearly conveying ideas and solutions to others.
• Collaboration : Working effectively with others to solve problems.
• Time Management : Prioritizing tasks to efficiently address problems.
• Adaptability : Adjusting strategies as new information or challenges arise.
• Attention to Detail : Ensuring all aspects of a problem are considered.
• Logical Reasoning : Using logic to identify solutions and predict outcomes.
• Empathy : Understanding others’ perspectives to create more effective solutions.
• Negotiation : Finding mutually acceptable solutions through discussion.
• Conflict Resolution : Addressing and resolving disagreements.
• Patience : Remaining calm and persistent when solving complex problems.
• Organization : Structuring tasks and information systematically.
• Leadership : Guiding and motivating a team to solve problems.
• Decision Analysis : Evaluating the potential impact of different solutions.
• Project Management : Planning and executing solutions effectively.
• Technical Skills : Using specialized knowledge to solve technical problems.
• Customer Service : Resolving customer issues effectively and efficiently.
• Risk Management : Identifying and mitigating potential problems.
• Innovation : Implementing new ideas to solve existing problems.
• Strategic Planning : Developing long-term solutions and plans.
• Resourcefulness : Finding quick and clever ways to overcome difficulties.
• Stress Management : Handling pressure while solving problems.
• Observation : Noticing subtle details that could be key to solving a problem.
• Data Analysis : Interpreting data to inform problem-solving decisions.
• Flexibility : Being open to new approaches and changing plans when necessary.
• Self-Assessment : Reflecting on your own problem-solving process to improve future performance.

Problem-Solving Examples for Students

1. math word problems.

Problem: Jane has 3 apples, and she buys 4 more apples from the store. How many apples does she have now?

• Understand the problem: Jane starts with 3 apples and buys 4 more.
• Break it down: 3 apples (initial) + 4 apples (additional).
• Solve: 3 + 4 = 7.
• Answer: Jane has 7 apples.

2. Group Project Coordination

Problem: A group of students needs to complete a science project, but they are having trouble coordinating their schedules.

• Understand the problem: The main issue is scheduling conflicts.
• Break it down: Identify each member’s available times.
• Research: Use tools like Doodle or Google Calendar to find common free times.
• Brainstorm solutions: Propose meeting during lunch breaks or weekends.
• Evaluate: Choose the most convenient and feasible option for everyone.
• Develop an action plan: Set a recurring meeting time and delegate tasks.
• Implement: Start meeting and working on the project according to the plan.
• Monitor and review: Adjust schedules if conflicts arise and keep track of progress.

3. Essay Writing

Problem: A student struggles to start writing an essay on a given topic.

• Understand the problem: The difficulty is starting the essay.
• Break it down: Identify the essay topic, main points, and required structure.
• Research: Gather information and resources related to the topic.
• Brainstorm solutions: Create an outline, jot down ideas, and decide on the thesis statement.
• Evaluate: Choose the most compelling points and organize them logically.
• Develop an action plan: Write a draft based on the outline, then revise and edit.
• Implement: Begin writing the introduction, followed by the body paragraphs and conclusion.
• Monitor and review: Proofread the essay and make necessary corrections.

4. Time Management

Problem: A student has trouble managing time between homework, extracurricular activities, and leisure.

• Understand the problem: The issue is balancing multiple responsibilities.
• Break it down: Identify all tasks and time commitments.
• Research: Look for time management techniques and tools.
• Brainstorm solutions: Use planners, to-do lists, or apps like Trello or Todoist.
• Evaluate: Choose the most effective tool and technique.
• Develop an action plan: Create a weekly schedule, prioritizing tasks by importance and deadlines.
• Implement: Follow the schedule and adjust as necessary.
• Monitor and review: Reflect on the effectiveness of the schedule and make improvements.

5. Conflict Resolution

Problem: Two students have a disagreement over a shared locker space.

• Understand the problem: The conflict is about sharing limited space.
• Break it down: Identify each student’s concerns and needs.
• Research: Look into conflict resolution strategies.
• Brainstorm solutions: Propose solutions like dividing the locker into specific sections or creating a rotation schedule.
• Evaluate: Choose the fairest and most practical solution.
• Develop an action plan: Agree on the solution and set guidelines.
• Implement: Follow the agreed plan and make adjustments if needed.
• Monitor and review: Ensure both students are satisfied with the arrangement and resolve any further issues.

Problem-Solving Examples in Real-life

Example 1: workplace conflict.

Situation : Two team members have a disagreement that affects their productivity.

• Identify the Problem : Understand the root cause of the conflict.
• Analyze : Talk to both parties separately to get their perspectives.
• Generate Solutions : Consider solutions like mediation, reassignment of tasks, or team-building exercises.
• Evaluate : Assess which solution is likely to resolve the conflict without affecting team morale.
• Implement : Arrange a mediation session.
• Review : Follow up to ensure the conflict is resolved and monitor team dynamics.

Example 2: Personal Finance Management

Situation : Struggling to manage monthly expenses and savings.

• Identify the Problem : Determine specific areas where overspending occurs.
• Analyze : Review bank statements and categorize expenses.
• Generate Solutions : Create a budget, reduce unnecessary expenses, and set savings goals.
• Evaluate : Choose a budgeting method that fits your lifestyle.
• Implement : Start tracking expenses and adjust spending habits.
• Review : Regularly review your budget and savings to ensure you are on track.

How to Improve Your Problem-Solving Skills?

Understand the Problem: Before attempting to solve any problem, it’s crucial to fully understand it. Read through the problem statement carefully and make sure you grasp every detail.

Break It Down : Divide the problem into smaller, more manageable parts. This approach, known as decomposition, makes it easier to tackle complex issues by focusing on individual components one at a time.

Research and Gather Information : Collect all relevant information and data that might help in solving the problem. Look for similar problems and their solutions.

Brainstorm Possible Solutions : Generate as many potential solutions as possible. Don’t worry about evaluating them at this stage; the goal is to think creatively and come up with a wide range of ideas.

Evaluate and Select the Best Solution : Assess the feasibility, pros, and cons of each potential solution. Consider factors such as resources, time, and potential risks. Choose the solution that best addresses the problem and is most practical.

Develop an Action Plan : Create a detailed plan for implementing your chosen solution. Outline the steps you need to take, assign tasks if working in a team, and set deadlines to ensure timely progress.

Implement the Solution : Put your plan into action. Stay focused and be prepared to adapt if necessary. Keep track of your progress and make adjustments as needed.

Monitor and Review : After implementing the solution, monitor the results to ensure the problem is resolved. Evaluate the outcome and review the process to learn from any mistakes or successes.

Problem-solving in workplace

• Enhancing Efficiency : Quick and effective problem resolution can streamline processes and reduce downtime.
• Boosting Productivity : Employees who can solve problems independently help maintain workflow and productivity.
• Improving Customer Satisfaction : Solving customer issues promptly can lead to higher satisfaction and loyalty.
• Fostering Innovation : Problem-solving often leads to new ideas and improvements that drive innovation.
• Promoting Employee Development : Encouraging problem-solving helps employees grow and develop their skills.

How To Highlight Problem-Solving Skills?

1. on your resume.

When listing problem-solving skills on your resume, provide concrete examples. Use action verbs and quantify your achievements where possible.

• Resolved a customer service issue that increased customer satisfaction by 20%.
• Developed a new process that reduced production errors by 15%.

2. In a Cover Letter

Your cover letter is a great place to elaborate on your problem-solving abilities. Describe a specific situation where you successfully addressed a challenge.

“In my previous role at XYZ Company, I identified a bottleneck in our production line. I conducted a thorough analysis and implemented a new workflow, which reduced production time by 25% and saved the company $50,000 annually.”

3. During an Interview

Be prepared to discuss your problem-solving skills in depth during an interview. Use the STAR (Situation, Task, Action, Result) method to structure your responses.

Example: “Can you give an example of a time when you solved a difficult problem at work?”

• Situation: Our sales team was struggling with declining numbers.
• Task: I was tasked with identifying the root cause and finding a solution.
• Action: I analyzed sales data, conducted team meetings, and identified a lack of training as the main issue.
• Result: I organized comprehensive training sessions, which led to a 30% increase in sales over the next quarter.

4. On Social Media and Professional Profiles

Highlight problem-solving skills on LinkedIn and other professional profiles. Share posts or articles about your problem-solving experiences and successes.

“I’m thrilled to share that I recently led a project to overhaul our customer service protocol, resulting in a 40% reduction in response time and a significant boost in customer satisfaction!”

5. In Performance Reviews

During performance reviews, make sure to emphasize your problem-solving contributions. Provide specific examples and outcomes.

“In the past year, I resolved three major project roadblocks, enabling our team to meet all deadlines and exceed our performance goals.”

6. Through Projects and Case Studies

If applicable, create case studies or detailed project descriptions that showcase your problem-solving process and results. This can be particularly useful for portfolios or presentations.

Case Study: Improving IT System Efficiency

• Problem: Frequent system downtimes affecting productivity.
• Solution: Implemented a new monitoring system and revised maintenance schedules.
• Outcome: System downtimes were reduced by 50%, significantly improving productivity.

7. By Demonstrating Soft Skills

Problem-solving often involves other soft skills such as communication, creativity, and teamwork. Highlighting these related skills can further emphasize your ability to solve problems effectively.

“By fostering open communication within my team and encouraging creative brainstorming sessions, we were able to devise innovative solutions to our most pressing challenges.”

How to Answer Problem-Solving Interview Questions

• Understand the Question : Make sure you fully understand the problem before you try to solve it. Ask clarifying questions if needed to ensure you have all the relevant information.
• Think Aloud : Demonstrate your thinking process by explaining your thoughts as you work through the problem. This shows your interviewer how you approach problems and organize your thoughts.
• Break It Down : Divide the problem into smaller, manageable parts. This can make a complex issue seem more approachable and allows you to tackle each component systematically.
• Use a Structured Approach : Employ frameworks or methodologies that are relevant to the question. For example, you might use the STAR method (Situation, Task, Action, Result) for behavioral questions, or a simple problem-solving framework like Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, Control (DMAIC) for process improvements.
• Be Creative : Employers often look for creativity in your answers. Think outside the box and propose innovative solutions when appropriate.
• Prioritize Solutions : If there are multiple potential solutions, discuss the pros and cons of each and explain why you would choose one over the others.
• Stay Calm and Positive : Problem-solving under pressure is part of the test. Maintain a calm and positive demeanor, showing that you can handle stress effectively.
• Summarize Your Steps : After you have worked through the problem, summarize the steps you took and the conclusion you reached. This helps ensure the interviewer followed your process and underscores your methodical approach.
• Ask for Feedback : After presenting your solution, it can be beneficial to ask if there are any additional factors you might consider. This shows openness to learning and adapting.
• Practice Regularly : Like any skill, problem-solving improves with practice. Regularly engage in brain teasers, logic puzzles, or case studies to sharpen your skills.

Why Are Problem-Solving is Important?

• Effective Decision-Making : Problem-solving is essential for making decisions that are logical, informed, and well-considered. This skill helps individuals and organizations make choices that lead to better outcomes.
• Innovation and Improvement : Solving problems effectively often requires innovative thinking. This can lead to new ideas and improvements in processes, products, and services, which are essential for business growth and adaptation.
• Handling Complex Situations : Many roles involve complex situations that are not straightforward to manage. Problem-solving skills enable individuals to dissect these situations and devise effective strategies to deal with them.
• Enhances Productivity : Efficient problem-solving contributes to higher productivity, as it allows for the identification and removal of obstacles that impede workflow and performance.
• Career Advancement : Individuals who are effective problem solvers are often seen as leaders and can advance more quickly in their careers. This skill is valuable because it demonstrates the ability to handle difficult situations and complex challenges.
• Adaptability and Resilience : Problem-solving is key to adapting to new situations and overcoming challenges. Those who can creatively navigate through difficulties are generally more resilient.
• Quality of Life : On a personal level, strong problem-solving skills can improve one’s quality of life by enabling better management of the challenges that come with daily living.
• Team Collaboration : Problem-solving often requires collaboration. Being good at solving problems can improve your ability to work with others, as it involves communication, persuasion, and negotiation skills.

How to Include Problem-Solving in a Job Application

• Resume : Detail specific problem-solving instances in your job descriptions using action verbs like “analyzed” and “implemented”. Mention the positive outcomes achieved.
• Cover Letter : Narrate a specific instance where your problem-solving skills led to a successful outcome, demonstrating initiative and effectiveness.
• Skills Section : Include “problem-solving” in a skills section if the job ad specifically mentions it.
• Quantify Achievements : Use numbers to describe the impact of your solutions, such as cost savings or efficiency improvements.
• Job Interviews : Prepare to discuss specific examples of your problem-solving skills, focusing on the challenge, your action, and the result.
• References : Brief your references about your problem-solving achievements so they can provide specific examples when contacted by employers.

Tips for Enhancing Problem-Solving

• Practice Regularly: Like any skill, problem-solving improves with regular practice. Engage in activities that challenge your thinking, such as puzzles, games, or real-world problem-solving scenarios.
• Learn from Others: Study how others approach and solve problems. This can provide new strategies and perspectives that you can incorporate into your own problem-solving toolkit.
• Stay Calm and Positive: Maintaining a calm and positive mindset can significantly improve your ability to solve problems. Stress and negativity can cloud your judgment and hinder creative thinking.
• Develop Critical Thinking: Sharpen your critical thinking skills by questioning assumptions, analyzing information, and evaluating evidence. This will help you make more informed and logical decisions.
• Collaborate with Others: Working with others can bring new insights and ideas. Collaboration can also help you see the problem from different angles and develop more effective solutions.
• Keep Learning: Continuously expand your knowledge and skills. The more you know, the better equipped you are to tackle a variety of problems.

How can I improve my problem-solving skills?

Practice regularly, learn various problem-solving techniques, and engage in activities that challenge your thinking.

What are common problem-solving techniques?

Common techniques include brainstorming, root cause analysis, the 5 Whys, and SWOT analysis.

What are the steps in the problem-solving process?

Identify the problem, analyze the problem, generate solutions, select a solution, implement, and evaluate.

How do I demonstrate problem-solving skills in an interview?

Discuss specific situations where you effectively solved problems, highlighting your thought process and outcomes.

What’s the difference between critical thinking and problem-solving?

Critical thinking involves analyzing and evaluating information, while problem-solving focuses on finding solutions to problems.

How do problem-solving skills help in leadership?

They enable leaders to manage challenges effectively, inspire innovation, and guide teams through obstacles.

How to measure problem-solving skills?

Assess through scenarios or challenges that require identifying, analyzing, and resolving problems.

What role does creativity play in problem-solving?

Creativity enables out-of-the-box thinking, which can lead to innovative and effective solutions.

How do you use problem-solving in project management?

Apply it to anticipate potential issues, plan solutions, and ensure smooth project execution.

What’s an example of a problem-solving situation?

Resolving customer complaints by identifying the issue, brainstorming solutions, and implementing changes to prevent future complaints.

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Interdisciplinary Practice in Education

• First Online: 11 January 2023

Cite this chapter

• Helder Coelho 31  

Part of the book series: Logic, Argumentation & Reasoning ((LARI,volume 31))

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Interdisciplinarity (Pombo, 2004a, b, 2005) refers to a method or mindset that merges concepts and methods in order to arrive at new approaches and solutions in scientific research and education. This convergence, along with problem-solving strategy, can be attained by mixing several scientific disciplines, namely when we face hard and complex problems.

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Acknowledgments

I would like to thank the criticism put forward by my colleagues Olga Pombo, Jorge Louçã, João Branquinho, António Branco, Maria Armanda Costa and Ana Sebastião, along these years. My involvement with Complexity started before my attachment with the Faculty of Sciences (C3 or the Centro de Ciências da Complexidade was launched with my colleagues José Fiadeiro e Félix Costa, July 1995, and the Institute of Complexity Science was created during 2004 by several colleagues from different universities) and the course on Complexity Sciences was designed almost at the same time as the one on Cognitive Science (2007).

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Helder Coelho

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Coelho, H. (2023). Interdisciplinary Practice in Education. In: Pombo, O., Gärtner, K., Jesuíno, J. (eds) Theory and Practice in the Interdisciplinary Production and Reproduction of Scientific Knowledge. Logic, Argumentation & Reasoning, vol 31. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-20405-0_7

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Published : 11 January 2023

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