best biography alexander the great

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The best books on alexander the great, recommended by hugh bowden.

Alexander the Great: A Very Short Introduction by Hugh Bowden

Alexander the Great never lost a battle and established an empire that stretched from the Mediterranean to the Indian subcontinent. From the earliest times, historians have argued about the nature of his achievements and what his failings were, both as a man and as a political leader. Here, Hugh Bowden , professor of ancient history at King's College London, chooses five books to help you understand the controversies, the man behind the legends, and why the legends have taken the forms they have.

Interview by Benedict King

Alexander the Great: The Anabasis and the Indica by Arrian

The History of Alexander by Quintus Curtius Rufus

The First European: A History of Alexander in the Age of Empire by Pierre Briant

The Persian Empire: A Corpus of Sources from the Achaemenid Period by Amélie Kuhrt

Fire from Heaven by Mary Renault

1 Alexander the Great: The Anabasis and the Indica by Arrian

2 the history of alexander by quintus curtius rufus, 3 the first european: a history of alexander in the age of empire by pierre briant, 4 the persian empire: a corpus of sources from the achaemenid period by amélie kuhrt, 5 fire from heaven by mary renault.

B efore we get to the books, please could you tell us about Alexander the Great’s background. What was it that led him to go out and conquer the known world?

That suggests that the huge contrast between Greece on one hand and Persia on the other, which is what Greek historians tended to focus on, and which modern scholars also often assume to be the case, wasn’t there quite so much in reality. Alexander would have been more familiar with the kind of things that went on further east.

Let’s explore how the books you’ve chosen shed light on this venture, starting with Arrian’s Alexander the Great: The Anabasis and the Indica . I think this was written in the second century AD. What sources did he use and why did he write this book?

Arrian, very helpfully, does tell us who he was getting his facts from. He relies principally on two authors. One is Ptolemy, son of Lagus, who becomes Ptolemy I, the first Ptolemaic ruler of Egypt. The other is a Greek called Aristobulus. Both of them accompanied Alexander on his campaigns.

Both of them probably wrote their accounts many decades after Alexander’s death, possibly 40 or 50 years after Alexander’s death, a generation or so later. It’s also worth saying that, although Ptolemy was there at all the battles, he probably often didn’t know what was going on. I think there’s good reason to suppose that Ptolemy actually used other histories to write his own, even though he was an eyewitness. Alexander had an official historian, or someone who is referred to as an official historian, called Callisthenes, who was later arrested, accused of plotting against Alexander and died in captivity. It may be that for the bits where Callisthenes got to before he stopped writing Ptolemy was able to use his account.

So Arrian is using these two figures. The important thing is that they were contemporaries of Alexander and they’re either using their own memory or supplementing their memory with what other contemporaries wrote. Arrian has slightly implausible explanations as to why you should trust them. He says you should trust Ptolemy’s account because Ptolemy is a king and kings don’t lie.

“I think that the modern tendency to point out how bad Alexander was probably misses the point of what historians should be doing”

A third writer on Alexander, who I didn’t choose, is Plutarch, who wrote the life of Alexander the Great round about AD 100, so a little bit before Arrian. In one or two places in his book, he mentions episodes, and lists all the historians who report the event and those who denied it happened. The most obvious one of these is when the queen of the Amazons visits Alexander. Arrian and Ptolemy both deny this happened, but others, including some who were contemporaries of Alexander, people who were there, are listed as having told this story. So, we do clearly have people, even in Alexander’s time or within living memory of Alexander, telling implausible stories about him. Arrian chooses those who don’t do that.

The other thing to say is that Arrian has probably got a particular reader in mind, and that reader is the Emperor Hadrian. Arrian knew Hadrian. Arrian was made a consul and that would have been a decision of Hadrian. Hadrian inherited an empire from his predecessor, Trajan, that reached into Mesopotamia, that included a lot the territory in which Alexander had fought. One of Hadrian’s first acts was to withdraw from the region east of the Euphrates River—so he was abandoning places Alexander had once controlled.

Part of what Arrian is doing in his book is suggesting that there were things that Alexander the Great did that were good, but there were also things Alexander did which weren’t necessarily a good idea for a wise ruler to follow. So Arrian is using Alexander as a model for how to be a king: setting up his bad points as things to avoid and his good points as things to follow.

One other important thing about Arrian is that he’s from a Greek background. He’s from a town in western Anatolia, but he’s very much a figure of Greek literature. He sat at the feet of a famous philosopher, Epictetus, and recorded his work. He wants to present Alexander in a positive light as a Greek, as a sign of how great the Greeks were in the past. This is a ‘look what the Greeks have done for us’ kind of presentation, or ‘look how glorious the ancestors of the Greeks were.’

Is he focused entirely on their military conquests or does he have a broader point to make about Greek culture?

It’s not solely about Alexander’s conquests, although his skill as a general is mentioned a lot. There are stories about Alexander’s interest in culture, sometimes suspiciously so because, for example, Arrian is not particularly keen to suggest that Alexander adopted Persian clothes, but Alexander did adopt Persian clothes and some Persian court practices. Arrian is ambivalent about these, so he does present these aspects in a bad way to some extent, but at the end he says, ‘well, he was only doing it to be a better ruler.’ Broadly speaking, Arrian wants to suggest that most of the time Alexander is moderate and it’s only occasionally that he is excessive. At the very end there’s a sort of obituary of Alexander where he sums things up and he says, amongst other things that, according to Aristobulus, Alexander only ever drank moderately. So Arrian was trying to play down the stories of Alexander getting drunk and doing things in a drunken fury, although even he shows that this happened from time to time.

So, it’s a picture of Alexander as a good character, more perhaps than Alexander as a bearer of Greek culture. But that Greekness is there in Arrian, minimising the extent to which Alexander was working within an Achaemenid Persian set up.

And is it a good read?

Let’s move on to Quintus Curtius Rufus. This book was a bit earlier, I think, and a bit more negative in its picture of Alexander the Great. Is that fair?

That’s right. We don’t know for certain when Curtius wrote, or indeed who he was. There are two possibilities: either he wrote under the emperor Vespasian in the 70s or, possibly, he wrote earlier under Claudius in the first half of the first century AD. He wrote in Latin and he was probably a senator in Rome.

The other problem we have with Curtius is that, unfortunately, the first two of the ten books of his history are missing. That’s a pity, because it means we don’t have his account of the early stages of Alexander the Great’s career. But, more significantly, it means we don’t have his introduction and we don’t have his conclusion either because there are also bits missing later on. In the beginning, in his prologue, he may well have said something about who his sources were and what his aims were in writing, but we’ve lost that.

He’s using a different source from Arrian. Scholars generally believe, although Curtius never mentions it, that he is using the work of a man called Cleitarchus who was probably writing in Alexandria in Egypt, probably about the same time as Ptolemy. But Cleitarchus was someone who had not campaigned with Alexander. So Cleitarchus is getting all this information second-hand, and it’s generally thought that Cleitarchus is more interested in fantastic stories than Plutarch and Aristobulus.

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It’s worth saying some of these descriptions of non-Greek activity seem to be more plausible and more likely to be accurate than the alternatives. It may well be, for example, that Cleitarchus understood more about Egyptian religious rituals. All the historians give a description of Alexander visiting an oracle in the Libyan desert. The process Curtius describes sounds much more like what actually happened in Egypt than, for example, the story Arrian relates, which we know is very close to what Callisthenes said, and which is probably also what Ptolemy said, which tends to present the oracle much more like a Greek oracle.

So Cleitarchus is probably in some areas, particularly in relation to non-Greek practices, more reliable than the others.

But the other thing to say is that Curtius is writing as a Roman, a Roman senator, in a period when Roman senators were still coming to terms with autocracy. And, if he’s writing under Claudius, he’s writing in the wake of Caligula’s reign and, if he’s writing under Vespasian, then in the wake of Nero’s reign. Either way, he’s writing soon after the reign of a particularly unpopular and unsuccessful emperor with a very bad reputation, and he seems to be presenting, in the book, some of the faults of Alexander the Great as the kind of faults Caligula and Nero were accused of—arrogance, autocracy, tyranny, lack of freedom, a lack of respect for the aristocracy.

“The Macedonian monarchy was modelled, to some extent, on Persian practices or the practices of other monarchies that emulated Persia”

It’s also worth saying that Curtius is very down on the Greeks. He makes a distinction between Macedonians and Greeks and on the whole the Macedonians are mostly okay, but the Greeks are the real trouble. The Macedonian soldiery come across as sort of proto-Romans and the Greeks come across as these very problematic, wily, untrustworthy figures. I think, for Curtius, the extent to which Alexander is more Greek, and therefore less Macedonian, lies at the root of what causes him to go wrong. Curtius’ book is not short on stories about Alexander and, whereas Arrian talks about Alexander the Great’s self-restraint, Curtius keeps on talking about how he loses control of his appetites. For example, after Alexander’s first battle against Darius at Issus, Alexander captures the Persian camp followers, including all the royal household, Darius’ wife and daughters, and also Darius’ harem of 365 concubines, which gave him a different person to sleep with every day of the year. Curtius implies in his book that Alexander the Great took the harem over but says that maybe Alexander didn’t use it as frequently as Darius. Arrian doesn’t mention this at all.

He is also very keen to emphasise Alexander’s reliance on superstition, again in contrast to Arrian. Arrian has Alexander trusting a wise Greek soothsayer, called Aristander. When Alexander starts trusting the Babylonian astrologer/priests who are an important part of Babylonian royal and religious life, Curtius sees this as an indication that Alexander is succumbing to foreign superstition. He is keen to emphasise how often Alexander relies on these things and, because the Romans have a different approach to divination, Curtius is more scornful of all the divination Alexander uses and much more prepared to think that it is all trickery and fakery.

Was that kind of divination being used by contemporary Roman emperors?

Now to Pierre Briant’s The First European: A History of Alexander in the Age of Empire . This book is about Alexander the Great’s reception in the Enlightenment, isn’t it?

Just to join the gap, the first two books we were looking at are the earliest surviving, or some of the earliest surviving, narratives about Alexander the Great, even though they were written centuries after his time. In the medieval period people didn’t read the Greek texts, Greek wasn’t a language used in western Europe. Maybe Curtius was read a bit, but the dominant stories told about Alexander came from The Alexander Romance . It’s difficult to know how to describe this because it’s an evolving story that starts in Greek in the 3rd century BC, probably. We come across it in a manuscript that dates from the third century AD in Greek, but it’s translated into lots of other languages including Latin and Persian. Ultimately it goes on spreading into the modern period, so you have Scottish Alexander texts, you even have Icelandic stories about Alexander. And this is a story full of fantasy, it’s imaginative and not strict history.

And then in the Enlightenment period you start to get a return to interest in the Greek texts and in a more scientifically historical study of Alexander and this coincides with the periods of European overseas expansion. You have people writing about Alexander in the light of what French Kings like Louis XIV are doing and other European countries embarked on overseas expansion. A series of ideas about Alexander develops. Then, there’s this big change of direction after the American war of independence, with the British and French focusing more on India and indeed Persia and the growth of Russian power to the north, leaving Persia and Afghanistan as the borderlands between Russian interests and British interests.

You’ve also got, at the beginning of the 19th century, Napoleon invading Egypt and the French getting this strong brief interest in Egypt before the British move in. So, at the very end of the 18th century and in the early 19th century the modern battles of empire are taking place in the territories where Alexander had fought, and Alexander’s empire becomes an interesting model for people thinking about their world. Alexander the Great is interpreted in the light of contemporary imperial and colonial ideas and that’s what Briant talks about in this book.

The book was originally written in French and published in France and there’s quite a strong French focus to it, although when the English translation was prepared, this was balanced slightly differently. You have emphases on Alexander as a kind of scholar-King, Alexander as an advocate of trade and the creation of a commercial empire. You also have an interest in Afghanistan as this borderland between British India on the one hand and Russia on the other, and people becoming fascinated by what Alexander did in Afghanistan—where he went, and finding the places that he went to. Alexander gets tied to ideas related to the Great Game, the world of espionage between the British Empire and Russia in the second half of the 19th century.

Briant chooses to end the book talking about German interest in Alexander the Great. This is interesting, because at the time when the reunification of Germany was happening under Bismarck, you have Johann Droysen writing a history of Philip and then of Alexander. Droysen sees Philip as a Bismarck-like figure, uniting the Greeks in the way that Bismarck united the Germans, so these multiple small states are brought together in a useful empire as preparation for Alexander’s imperial achievements.

A lot of modern scholarship has tended to go back to Droysen, and what Briant does is tell the story before Droysen. If you read any modern book about Alexander the Great, although they will say that they’re going back to Arrian and Curtius and the other two or three ancient narratives, their approach is schooled by this tradition of how you write about Alexander that comes to us from Droysen. But before then you have all these other writers—French, English, Scottish—who start to create in their books this 18th- and 19th-century version of Alexander the Great that is, in many ways, the lens through which everyone who writes a biography of Alexander has tended to look.

Louis XIV and Napoleon both to some extent consciously modelled themselves on Alexander, but was there hostility to him it that era, with the widespread reluctance in the Enlightenment to glorify war?

Tell us about Amélie Kuhrt’s The Persian Empire: A Collection of Sources from the Achaemenid Period . Are any of the sources that are gathered in this book closer in time to Alexander the Great than Arrian or Curtius?

The first thing to say is that if we want to get away from the tradition of writing about Alexander the Great that Briant describes in his book, we need to take the Persian evidence seriously and to understand better the empire in which he worked and to recognise that—going back to what I said at the start—it’s not straightforwardly Western Alexander conquers Eastern Persia. It’s Alexander coming from a monarchical tradition that has been influenced by Persia. He moves in and he essentially seizes control of the Achaemenid Persian Empire and he adapts it to his purposes. The other thing to mention is the myth—and again the ancient writers like Arrian, Curtius and others are to some extent the source of this—that Persia was weak, divided, feeble and ripe for conquest. But if we look at the Persian evidence it’s much less clear that it’s as simple as that.

So, the point about Kuhrt’s very very large book is that it gives us a better picture of what Persia was like. I should say, I was torn between suggesting this and suggesting Pierre Briant’s From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire , but I thought I’d already chosen Briant’s The First European and, actually, going back to the ancient evidence is important.

“In the Enlightenment period you start to get a return to interest in the Greek texts and in a more scientifically historical study of Alexander”

The problem we have is that actually evidence about the Persian Empire mainly comes from the sixth and first half of the fifth centuries BC. The major buildings that survive, the inscriptions and other documents, of which there are quite a lot, are mostly from the early period, in particular from the time of Darius and Xerxes. By the time you get to Alexander’s period, for whatever reason, there are fewer inscriptions, or at least fewer surviving. There’s less information about what’s going on. We do have some documents written on leather in the Aramaic language from Bactria—the area of modern Afghanistan—that date from Alexander’s period and that fit in with other stuff that that’s in Kuhrt, but we have relatively little specifically about the empire under Alexander.

What Kuhrt provides us with is a clear idea of how the Empire functioned because, broadly speaking, it carried on much the same throughout the fifth and fourth centuries. Some of the material Kurt includes are Greek reports of Persia, so it’s not all Persian documents. It does include contemporary-ish Greek sources. So, we are reliant to some extent, even when we go back to the sources, on Greek perceptions of Persia. But the whole does allow us to see the Persian Empire as an efficient, well-run state with considerable resources and a highly developed organisation. It’s something that, by defeating Darius, Alexander is able to adopt and take over. And what makes it possible for him to run Persia for the brief time that he does before his death is his maintenance of Persian governmental structures and—what was controversial to people like Arrian and Curtius—his adoption of some of the practices of how to be an Achaemenid King and how he related to the Persian hierarchy by adopting these practices.

Some of the extreme practices that the Greek authors described Alexander taking up, for example getting people to prostrate themselves in front of him, are clearly a misunderstanding of Persian practice. So again, it’s useful to have documentation about the Persian Empire from earlier periods, images of what proskynesis , which Arrian thinks means prostration, actually involves. Descriptions of the practice from Herodotus, writing in the 5th century show that, as far as he was concerned, proskynesis wasn’t about prostration. So, we have these sources which help us to get a more accurate impression of what the Empire that Alexander conquered was like, written by people who were not anxious to sell a particular picture of Alexander.

You say he took over the machinery of the Persian Empire. Was he accepted by the Persians after he defeated them in battle? I mean, did the elite accept him as their monarch or did he face perpetual problems on that front?

‘Both’ is the answer. There was quite a lot of acceptance, but there was resistance, too. After the battle of Gaugamela, which was Alexander’s second and final defeat of Darius, Darius fled to Afghanistan to regroup. There he was assassinated by one of his generals, who then took the throne under the name of Artaxerxes, until he himself was subsequently captured by other Persians. Later on, after campaigning in the Indus Valley, Alexander comes back and finds that, in one or two places, the people he appointed as provincial governors have been replaced and that some of the people who have replaced them are setting themselves up as Persian King. So, there was clearly resistance, but this is from members of the elite trying to re-establish or increase their own status, rather than there being general unpopularity. Probably, for most people in the Empire, it made relatively little difference who was king.

In other parts of his Empire—Egypt, for example—there seems to be no evidence of any problem with having a non-Egyptian king. They’d had that before. Alexander is presented in Egyptian temple sculptures as looking exactly like a traditional Egyptian pharaoh. Similarly, in Babylon the scholar-priests very much start operating their system to work for Alexander. So, broadly speaking, it was possible for him to slot into this new role. Inevitably there were ambitious Persians who didn’t accept it and who wanted to take power for themselves, but I think that that’s better seen as a question of individuals rather than there being a groundswell of opposition to him.

You mentioned that sources directly related to Alexander the Great are quite thin on the ground, but is the picture that the Persian sources paint of him in this book reasonably consistent with what we learn from Greek and Latin sources? Is there anything that’s radically different?

We have no actual Persian information about him. We do have some Babylonian evidence.

There’s a reasonable amount of material and it very much presents him as a typical king of Babylon. So, he’s supposed to do the rituals and they look after him in the same way that they would look after any other king. I think the answer is that, where we do have indigenous sources, which is Babylon and Egypt in particular, he comes across very much as in the mould of how a Babylonian or Egyptian king should behave. In that sense, there is a difference because this—as I was suggesting earlier—is something that the Greek and Roman sources tend to downplay. For example, there are some stories of Persians or Babylonians behaving weirdly when Alexander does something, which are probably either accidental or deliberate misreadings of more typical Babylonian or Persian practice.

Let’s move on to the final book, which is Mary Renault’s Fire from Heaven: A Novel of Alexander the Great. She’s a 20th century novelist. Tell us a bit about why you chose this.

There are quite a lot of novels about Alexander and I think that, of them all, Mary Renault’s is the most readable and the most entertaining. It’s the first of what’s called the Alexander Trilogy , although it’s a slightly odd trilogy and the third volume, Funeral Games takes place after Alexander’s death.

Mary Renault really knew her sources. She really understands the material. She has another particular interest and that’s in homosexuality. So, both in Fire from Heaven and in the second volume The Persian Boy , there’s quite a lot of focus on Alexander and male lovers. In Fire from Heaven , this is Hephaestion who, historically, probably wasn’t significant in Alexander’s life until much later, but who was at the Macedonian court. So what Renault is doing is plausible.

The reason I chose Fire from Heaven rather than The Persian Boy was partly because this is the only book I’ve chosen that depicts Alexander’s childhood. One of the other ancient sources, Plutarch, does have accounts of it and, to a significant extent, this is based on that, although Renault does much more with the material. There’s a wonderful episode when Athenian ambassadors come to Macedon and she presents a negative picture of Demosthenes, who in subsequent periods became that last hero of Greek freedom, a symbol of democracy fighting monarchy. Mary Renault’s Demosthenes is this rather unpleasant, badly spoken Greek and his rival, Aeschines, comes across as a much nicer figure and I think this is a more realistic reading of the two historical figures.

The other thing I’d say—and this sort of takes us back to Arrian—is that what authors in antiquity were doing when they wrote about Alexander was essentially telling a good story. This would include writing speeches for figures in their histories. They would base it as much as possible on the evidence. So Arrian uses Ptolemy and Aristobulus, but they would want to make it more readable and in a higher style, more impressive altogether. And that’s essentially what historical novelists do. So, although this is presented as a novel, it is, in a sense, as useful as Arrian in terms of it being a way of getting us to think about Alexander. Arrian has an agenda and Mary Renault has an agenda. Arrian is using sources and Mary Renault is using sources. Mary Renault is more similar to Arrian than most of the history books written about Alexander. They’ve both got this same interest in telling a good story and getting you to react to Alexander in a particular way.

What is the story that the book tells of Alexander the Great’s youth? What does she tell us about his formation?

She is giving us a picture of his relationship with his parents, the extent to which from an early age, he is engaged in Macedonian politics, but also—and this is where she is her most inventive—this particular interest in his relationships with his young companions, his friends and, in particular, this love story between him and Hephaestion with whom he grew up and for whom, when he died, Alexander is said to have organised extremely lavish funeral celebrations. So, it’s about his development as a character and he comes across as an attractive figure, clever and interesting, again, in contrast to a lot of a lot of modern scholarship. Modern accounts of Alexander tend to be rather negative about him, to emphasise his cruelty and tyranny. These days Curtius, with his emphasis on Alexander’s negative aspects, is a lot more fashionable than Arrian. Mary Renault is much more positive.

I think that the modern tendency to point out how bad Alexander was probably misses the point of what historians should be doing. I think it presents a way of looking at Alexander that is unhelpful. Mary Renault’s novel is possibly slightly innocent, but overall presents him as this loveable figure, I suppose, but in a serious way.

One final question, which leads on from that. Do you think Alexander would have seen himself as a success or did he die a disappointed man?

Well, he died young, from a fever while still planning his next campaign. But, I think he would have seen himself as successful. He won every battle he fought, he had successfully taken over the entire Persian Empire. Again, to be controversial, there is the story that when he reached the river Hyphasis his troops forced him to turn back and prevented him from conquering India. I share the view of those scholars who think that this is probably a myth, that Alexander never really intended to go further. He probably did want to cross the Hyphasis but was prevented by bad omens, but he would not have travelled far to the east of the river. He did march down the eastern side of the Indus when he marched down the Indus Valley and that was effectively the boundary of the Achaemenid Empire. He did get the rulers on the far side of the Indus to support him. So, I think his eastern campaign was an unmitigated success, apart from his own injuries. He had to deal with a certain amount of insurrection when he got back, but basically if his target was to take territory from the Persian king, he ended up taking the whole of the empire of the Persians and replacing the Achaemenid dynasty; so that, I think, was a success and he would have recognised it as a success.

He was probably planning to move into Arabia next. He might, had he lived longer, have campaigned further west, but essentially, I think he would have seen himself as having been successful. At the end of the Indus campaign, he has some medals struck in silver, large coins which are called decadrachms, 10 drachma pieces, and they show, on one side, Alexander on horseback fighting a man on an elephant, which is a depiction of one of his battles in India. And, on the other side, Alexander holding a thunderbolt and being crowned by a flying figure of Victory, holding a wreath over his head.

So that’s a symbol of Alexander: victorious, unconquered—a word that sources often use about him. And not only unconquered but, by holding a thunderbolt, equivalent to a god. That image presented of him as the unconquered god was not megalomaniacal, not thinking that he is immortal or anything, but recognising that he has these achievements which are huge, and that only gods and heroes, like Heracles, have ever approached. I think that image is probably how he would have thought about himself at the end of his reign.

February 14, 2020

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Hugh Bowden

Hugh Bowden is Professor of Ancient History at King's College London, where he has taught a wide range of topics to generations of students for over 30 years. His books include Classical Athens and the Delphic Oracle: Divination and Democracy , Mystery Cults in the Ancient World and Alexander the Great: A Very Short Introduction .

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Alexander the Great Top Ten Booklist

Creating a top ten list for books on Alexander the Great is not easy, since few ancient historical figures have been written about as much. Everything from his complex personality and his sexual life to his military and logistical tactics have been analyzed by historians. Alexander, simply put, stands out as unique among ancient historical figures for having so much detailed assessment made on his life and times. Although few primary sources exist from the time of Alexander, we know a lot about him from late Antiquity sources.

Top Ten Books

Naiden, F.S. Soldier, Priest, and God: A Life of Alexander the Great . Oxford, Oxford Univesity Press. Most accounts of Alexander the Great essentially ignored the reality that he was, in addition to soldier and leader, he was also a religious figure. As information of Alexander's campaign in the Near East has come to light over the past 30 years, the religious aspects of his conquests have become clearer. Naiden's work fundamentally shifts the narrative of Alexander's life as a soldier, priest and even god.

Heckel, W., & Tritle, L. A. (Eds.). (2009). Alexander the Great: A New History . Chichester, U.K. ; Malden, Mass: Wiley-Blackwell. This work is a relatively recent revaluation of the popular themes regarding Alexander. This includes his sexuality, military style, and influences.

Cartledge, Paul (2004). Alexander the Great (1st ed) . (Overlook Press, 2004) Paul Cartledge is one of the foremost experts on Ancient Greece. His book focuses on Alexander's ambition and his military campaigns.

Arrian, Mensch, P., & Romm, J. S. (2010). The Landmark Arrian: The Campaigns of Alexander . Anabasis Alexandrous: a new translation (1st ed). New York: Pantheon Books. One of the battlefield books. This exposes in detail the 12 odd years of campaigning that Alexander took to conquer much of the known world.

Briant, Pierre (2010). Alexander the Great and his Empire: A Short Introduction . Princeton: Princeton University Press. One of the best books out there. It looks at the complex influences and history. More than the West dominating the East, Briant shows Alexander learned much from his enemies and that changed the world.

Martin, T. R., & Blackwell, C. W. (2013). Alexander the Great: The Story of an Ancient Life . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Another book that looks at the complexities of Alexander and the totality of his humanity, from warrior to deep thinker.

Engels, D. W. (2007). Alexander the Great and the Logistics of the Macedonian Army (Nachdr.). Berkeley, Calif.: Univ. of California Press. This is a great book for those interested in military warfare. An army wins through its stomach and supplies and this book explains how Alexander conquered this unseen enemy.

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20 Best Books on Alexander The Great (2022 Review)

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If you’ve ever wanted to learn more about Alexander The Great including some of his past experiences and skill as a leader, there are a number of excellent books to start your research. In this article, were going to detail some of the best books that you can get your hands on about Alexander The Great. Be sure to check out these books to further your knowledge of one of the most important historical figures the world has ever known.

What are the Best Alexander The Great Books to read?

The number of books that we surveyed study Alexander The Great from a number of different perspectives. You can learn more about the way that he was as a tactician, his history as well as gain insight into his lifestyle. It is possible that you may not know much on the details of Alexander The Great and some of his upbringing, these books can help to fill in some of the blanks on his lifestyle and help you understand what made him into the man he became.

Best Alexander The Great Books: Our Top 20 Picks

Here are some of the best Alexander The Great books that you can consider to expand your knowledge on the subject:

1. The Storm Before the Storm

The Storm before the storm is a story about the beginning of the end of the Roman Republic. Written by Mike Duncan who serves as the author and narrator for the audio book, this novel explores some of the most remarkable achievements in the history of civilization through the Roman Republic.

With its founding throughout 509 B.C.E., the Republic system was a cooperative government but a series of peaceful transfers. The early stages of this government in 133 to 80 BC was a tale of bloody battles and serves as a stark warning of a grim political climate. Learning more about the beginning and the end of the Roman Republic means studying great figures like Alexander The Great who is covered in this novel.

• Authors : Mike Duncan (Author)
• Publisher : PublicAffairs; 1st Edition (October 24, 2017)
• Pages : 352 pages

2. The Virtues of War: A Novel of Alexander the Great

The virtues of war is a novel on Alexander The Great produced by Stephen press field. This examination of Alexander The Great examines his life as a soldier and the way that he was able to expand his leadership through his knowledge of working as a soldier.

This is a true story of survivorship including his many battles and the brutal assassination of his father. With details on some of the hardships that Alexander faced, we can see the motivations that drove him to conquer new lands. The Virtues war even insiders look on the lifestyle of Alexander as a soldier. As told from a close perspective, this is the journey of Alexander from soldier to a leader of men. This book can provide some unique perspective on his career and the way he developed.

• Authors : Steven Pressfield (Author)
• Publisher : Broadway; 1st edition (October 19, 2004)
• Pages : 368 pages

3. Alexander the Great

Philip Freeman created his own authoritative biography on Alexander The Great that was written for a general audience. Taking a twist on his first traditional biography on Alexander The Great, this biography explores more the impact that Alexander The Great had on history as well as the shaping of a civilization.

With his image found on Greek coins as far east as Afghanistan, the reach of Alexander The Great was mighty and this novel explains more on that reach and what made his 32 year lifespan so powerful. This general audience interpretation of Alexander the great works as a direct timeline of his various accomplishments and helps to showcase some of the changes that he was able to make in government and as a conqueror. Discover how he rose to power and how he was able to affect change across the world.

• Authors : Philip Freeman (Author)
• Publisher : Simon & Schuster (October 18, 2011)
• Pages : 416 pages

4. Alexander the Great

This Alexander The Great book by Philip Freeman studies the inquisitive mind that would serve Alexander The Great throughout his rule over Greece and throughout each of his military campaigns. As a boy that was born into a royal family in Macedonia, we can learn more about his upbringing in this novel as well as its how his inquiring mind was able to plan conquests throughout Egypt and the world.

Philip Freeman included an audio version of this novel as narrated by Michael page and it is one of the best unabridged biographies and memoirs on Alexander The Great. If you have ever been curious to find out more about the mind and inner workings of Alexander the Great, this is a book that you should highly consider as a starting point.

• Publisher : Simon & Schuster; First Edition (January 4, 2011)

5. Ghost on the Throne: The Death of Alexander the Great and the Bloody Fight for His Empire

Ghost Throne by Alexander The Great is a look into the bloody fight over his empire and the way that he died at just the age of 32. Within empire that stretched from the Adriatic Sea all the way to modern-day India, the Bloody Empire focuses in on the many aspects of Alexander The Great that have been previously unknown.

Managing his infant son, working with a mentally damaged half brother and dealing with the assassination of his father were all challenges he faced in his lifestyle. James Romm examines more than the Empires under Alexander but also the general himself. This book is a perfect perspective surrounding the empires that Alexander formed and the way that he faced challenges as he pushed further into his career.

• Authors : James Romm (Author)
• Publisher : Vintage; Illustrated Edition (November 13, 2012)

6. Alexander the Great

Alexander The Great by Robin Lane Fox is a fearless and intense look at the adventure and conquest that Alexander The Great would have taken on threat his vast empire expansion. Detailing his road to expansion up until his death in 323 B.C.E. at 32, we discover how Alexander The Great was able to expand an empire into 2,000,000 mi.² from Greece to India.

Learn more about his leadership style as well as the 18 new cities that he founded. This book details more on the cities that Alexander shaped and not so much on the man himself. The book is an expiration of the way that he expanded his empire and the various cities that he formed. If you have ever been curious as to what it would be like to live in a world dominated by conquerors or live in a city as conquered by Alexander the great, this is an excellent book to pick up.

• Authors : Robin Lane Fox (Author)
• Publisher : Penguin; Tie-In ed. Edition (October 5, 2004)
• Pages : 592 pages

7. The Nature of Alexander

The nature of Alexander is a book by Mary Renault that expands upon her acclaimed biographical research on Alexander The Great. As the previous author of fire from heaven and a Persian boy, Renault expands on her knowledge of Alexander to continue showcasing a life behind the battles and leadership.

This is a true psychological rendering of the man that was and a completely unique perspective on Alexander The Great. This perspective examines more on the mind of the leader rather than his deeds.

• Authors : Mary Renault (Author)
• Publisher : Pantheon; Illustrated Edition (November 12, 1979)
• Pages : 276 pages

8. The Dividing the Spoils: The War for Alexander the Great’s Empire (Ancient Warfare and Civilization)

Dividing the spoils is a novel about Alexander The Great empire including experts on ancient warfare and civilization. Created by Robin Waterfield, this book goes into details on the empire stretching conqueror that was Alexander The Great.

Following his footsteps including the years of war and adventure, we are able to see the path that Alexander The Great took to reach his status of glory. With an in-depth look on the many schemes and tactics that were used to help him rise to power, this is a unique look at what Alexander The Great would have to go to in order to spread his reach. This in-depth academic look dives deeper into how Alexander formed ancient civilizations and how he was able to so quickly conquer. If you are interested in seeing a window into the life of a conquering general, this is an excellent book to consider.

• Authors : Robin Waterfield (Author)
• Publisher : Oxford University Press; Illustrated Edition (November 1, 2012)
• Pages : 304 pages

9. Alexander the Great

Alexander The Great is a book published by Demi and designed for young readers. With a series of illustrative photos inside there are details of Alexander The Great conquering of India as well as his ongoing supremacy.

Alexander’s policies are explored here as well as some of the history of conquering these lands. His full life is detailed over the course of this book and a chronicling of the 12 years that he spent conquering new lands. This is an excellent way to gain perspective on this ancient leader as well as explore some of the ancient teachings of leadership that Alexander The Great had to offer. This is the perfect option for many young readers with its hearty illustrations and easy to read paragraph styles.

• Authors : Demi (Author)
• Publisher : Two Lions; Illustrated Edition (September 1, 2010)
• Pages : 64 pages

10. Alexander the Great and the Logistics of the Macedonian Army

Donald W Engels create his own first edition examination of the logistics of the Macedonian army. There’ve been multiple studies into the battle formations and tactics is used by Alexander The Great but this archaeological work as completed by the University of California examines Alexander’s strategic decisions as well as the many options that were opened Alexander The Great throughout his battle plans. Choosing a perspective of examination on what brought this ancient army to life explores battle tactics in a creative new way.

If you are seeking a more in-depth academic view of the logistics associated with commanding an army, this is a book to consider. The way that it portrays tactics and the in-depth research that was completed for this book can help you to see more into the military mind of Alexander the great and the various ways that he would’ve been responsible for managing his army.

• Authors : Donald W. Engels (Author)
• Publisher : University of California Press; First Edition (December 29, 1980)
• Pages : 208 pages

11. The Campaigns of Alexander (Penguin Classics)

The campaigns of Alexander in Penguin Classics is a book that was authored by Arrian and edited by J.R. Hamilton. The original work was produced 400 years after Alexander’s death with a detail of the campaigns of Alexander.

This is one of the most reliable accounts of the achievements of Alexander through Arrians own experiences which were translated and recorded. This is a complete work detailing the campaigns through India, Babylon and Egypt. Gain an unprecedented look at Alexander as a charismatic leader and unparalleled conqueror. This remains one of the best authorities on the many campaigns and details surrounding the expansion of Alexander the great’s empire.

• Authors : Arrian (Author), J. R. Hamilton (Editor, Introduction), Aubrey de Sélincourt (Translator)
• Publisher : Penguin Classics; Revised Edition (October 28, 1976)
• Pages : 432 pages

12. Alexander the Great: A Life From Beginning to End (Military Biographies Book 2)

Alexander The Great a life from beginning to end is a novel from hourly history that includes a complete military biography of the history of Alexander The Great. The goal of this novel is to ensure that you can gain the quick history of Alexander The Great and his many compliments in a condensed format. Available in audio and Kindle format, this is a direct look into the early life of Alexander The Great as well as the struggles that he faced at the end of his life.

If you are interested in accessing a quick knowledge of Alexander the great and learning in a condensed format, this is an excellent starting point for your journey into discovering Alexander the great.

• Authors : Hourly History (Author)
• Publisher : CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform (November 16, 2017)
• Pages : 44 pages

13. Who Was Alexander the Great?

Kathryn Waterfield and Robin Waterfield created this historical book for kids to learn about one of the most interesting conquerors that ever lived. This is an excellent perspective for young readers to learn more about Alexander as a child and how he was able to learn and thrive as a leader.

The book includes interesting thoughts on leadership as well as the message for Alexander The Great and his supporters. As an easy-to-read biography, this is a tale that is appropriate for many young readers to understand the life and times of Alexander The Great. As a book that is suitable for young readers, this is one of the best introductions to the historical figure for younger historians.

• Authors : Kathryn Waterfield (Author), Robin Waterfield (Author), Who HQ (Author), Andrew Thomson (Illustrator)
• Publisher : Penguin Workshop; Illustrated Edition (June 7, 2016)
• Pages : 112 pages

14. The Generalship Of Alexander The Great

The generalship of Alexander The Great is a novel produced by JFC Fuller. This novel details the extensive life and livelihood of one of the greatest conquerors to ever live. Alexander The Great commander army of no more than 40,000 men and was able to conduct a revolutionary war effort.

In this novel, we can learn more about the nature of his governing style as well as the full extent of his ever stretching Empire. As a masterpiece on the career and military genius about Xander the great, this novel could be an excellent way to gain perspective into the past ofAlexander The Great and his efforts as a conqueror.

• Authors : J. F. C. Fuller (Author)
• Publisher : Da Capo Press (February 5, 2004)

15. Alexander the Great: His Life and His Mysterious Death

It’s been over two millennia since Alexander The Great built an empire and painted a portrait of a skilled magisterial leader.

In this novel from Anthony Everitt, we learn more about the man himself throughout his life as well as the nature of his mysterious death. As he passed away just the age of 33, the empire that he created and the science and exploration that he furthered was truly something magnificent. He continued to glorify war and committed acts of remarkable cruelty but his death remains a mystery. Some suggested that his death was covered up and he was killed by his own men, others suggest that he was felled by a fever and died of natural causes. The explanation of his death is completed quite thoroughly in this novel and is well worth an expiration to understand the nature of the time and his legacy. If you have ever wondered about the life and mysterious death of Alexander the great, this is a wonderful option to pick up to solve the mystery.

• Authors : Anthony Everitt (Author)
• Publisher : Random House; Illustrated Edition (August 27, 2019)
• Pages : 496 pages

16. Alexander the Great: Student of Aristotle, Descendant of Heroes

Alexander The Great student of Aristotle is an examination from the in60Learning team. With a complete examination into his education in a way that he was able to gain his undefeated status, we take a look at his life through the 13 years of extreme conquering and expansion as well as in the early stages before he was in the army. His parents and tutors always raised him with the idea that he had something extra to prove and this was a mindset that he continued long into his life of accomplishments.

With more details on his early life and upbringing, we can gain an appreciation of how Alexander was prepared to be one of the finest warriors and generals that the world has ever knowon.

• Authors : in60Learning (Author)
• Publisher : Independently published (February 1, 2018)
• Pages : 39 pages

17. Alexander the Great

Thomas R Martin publishes a unique perspective on the story of an ancient life with Alexander The Great. This novel explains where Alexander The Great truly earned it’s title and some of the most important aspects of his best that led to his legacy.

Learning more about what motivated him, how he succeeded and how he was able to assert judgment in difficult times are all covered in this perspective on his life. This is a true perspective that looks deep into the legacy of Alexander The Great as well as some of the driving factors that caused his need for expansion. We often hear about the details of his expansion but rarely seek definition on the reasons for his legacy and the need for his expansion. This is what makes this book so unique.

• Authors : Thomas R. Martin (Author)
• Publisher : Cambridge University Press (November 15, 2012)

18. Alexander the Great: Lessons from History’s Undefeated General (World Generals Series)

The story of Alexander The Great would suggest that the Oracle of Delphi once told him that he was invincible. In lessons from history undefeated general from Bille Yenne, we learn just how close to invincible Alexander The Great was. As the son of King Philip the second of Macedonia, Alexander The Great had a number of excellent teachers including his education from Aristotle and his command of the wing of his father’s army. By the time he was a teenager he had risen to the ranks of an astute commander.

Learning more about his past and his empire, we can see just how Alexander The Great has become one of history’s most amazing undefeated generals. This book takes a deep dive into political strategy and his command. With insights into his education and the various strategies that he used, this is a book that showcases the many ways he was able to rise to power and continue success.

• Authors : Bill Yenne (Author)
• Publisher : St. Martin’s Press; Illustrated Edition (April 13, 2010)
• Pages : 224 pages

19. Alexander The Great: Selections From Arrian, Diodorus, Plutarch, And Quintus Curtius

Alexander The Great selections from Arrian, Diodorus, Plutarch and Quintus Curtius is a collection of relevant sections from four ancient writers who were responsible for chronicling the life and accomplishments of Alexander The Great. These are some of the closest firsthand accounts of Alexander The Great’s rise to power, his historical impact as well as his conquest of Asia. This is one of the most detailed and accurate historical examples of Alexander The Great’s conquests.

The book is also filled with a series of important additions like timelines, maps, glossaries and more. All of the data in this book has been translated and produced from experts from ancient texts and it is one of the best historical accounts of the deeds of Alexander The Great.

• Authors : Arrian (Author), Diodorus Siculus (Author), Plutarch (Author), Quintus Curtius Rufus (Author), Pamela Mensch (Editor), James S. Romm (Editor)
• Publisher : Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.; paperback / softback Edition (March 15, 2005)

20. Leadership & Strategy: Lessons From Alexander The Great

Leadership and strategy is a book that is written by Leonardo P. Martino and it serves as a quintessential guide from a business perspective on lessons from Alexander The Great.

As an unmatched leader for nearly 2000 years, Alexander has some of the greatest demonstrations of leadership and strength from any modern leader. His behaviors and traits have become increasingly more relevant for the modern business world and this could be a book that could teach you some of the most important aspects of Alexander The Great that you could adopt into your own lifestyle. If you have ever been curious about the nature of Alexander the Great and adopting some of his own leadership strategies into your life, this could be an excellent novel to consider.

• Authors : Leandro P. Martino (Author)
• Publisher : BookSurge Publishing (February 14, 2008)
• Pages : 273 pages

Choosing the Best Alexander The Great Books

If you are interested in learning more about Alexander The Great, any of these top books can be the perfect starting point.  There is a wealth of knowledge that you can draw from on this subject with first-hand accounts from ancient historians all the way to modern historical looks at Alexander The Great. Whether you’re curious in the mysterious cause of his death or in the lifestyle that Alexander The Great lived, these are some excellent ways that you can start your research and gain a newfound perspective on Alexander The Great.

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Beginnings of the Persian expedition

Asia minor and the battle of issus, conquest of the mediterranean coast and egypt, campaign eastward to central asia, invasion of india, consolidation of the empire.

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• Table Of Contents

Although king of ancient Macedonia for less than 13 years, Alexander the Great changed the course of history. One of the world’s greatest military generals, he created a vast empire that stretched from Macedonia to Egypt and from Greece to part of India. This allowed for Hellenistic culture to become widespread.

Alexander was the son of Philip II and Olympias (daughter of King Neoptolemus of Epirus). From age 13 to 16 he was taught by the Greek philosopher Aristotle , who inspired his interest in philosophy, medicine, and scientific investigation. As a teenager, Alexander became known for his exploits on the battlefield.

While in Babylon , Alexander became ill after a prolonged banquet and drinking bout, and on June 13, 323, he died at age 33. There was much speculation about the cause of death, and the most popular theories claim that he either contracted malaria or typhoid fever or that he was poisoned.

While he could be ruthless and impulsive, Alexander was also charismatic and sensible. His troops were extremely loyal, believing in him throughout all hardships. Hugely ambitious, Alexander drew inspiration from the gods Achilles , Heracles , and Dionysus . He also displayed a deep interest in learning and encouraged the spread of Hellenistic culture.

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Alexander the Great (born 356 bce , Pella, Macedonia [northwest of Thessaloníki, Greece]—died June 13, 323 bce , Babylon [near Al-Ḥillah, Iraq]) was the king of Macedonia (336–323 bce ), who overthrew the Persian empire , carried Macedonian arms to India , and laid the foundations for the Hellenistic world of territorial kingdoms. Already in his lifetime the subject of fabulous stories, he later became the hero of a full-scale legend bearing only the sketchiest resemblance to his historical career.

He was born in 356 bce at Pella in Macedonia, the son of Philip II and Olympias (daughter of King Neoptolemus of Epirus ). From age 13 to 16 he was taught by Aristotle , who inspired him with an interest in philosophy , medicine , and scientific investigation , but he was later to advance beyond his teacher’s narrow precept that non-Greeks should be treated as slaves. Left in charge of Macedonia in 340 during Philip’s attack on Byzantium , Alexander defeated the Maedi, a Thracian people. Two years later he commanded the left wing at the Battle of Chaeronea , in which Philip defeated the allied Greek states, and displayed personal courage in breaking the Sacred Band of Thebes , an elite military corps composed of 150 pairs of lovers. A year later Philip divorced Olympias, and, after a quarrel at a feast held to celebrate his father’s new marriage, Alexander and his mother fled to Epirus, and Alexander later went to Illyria . Shortly afterward, father and son were reconciled and Alexander returned, but his position as heir was jeopardized.

In 336, however, on Philip’s assassination , Alexander, acclaimed by the army, succeeded without opposition. He at once executed the princes of Lyncestis, alleged to be behind Philip’s murder, along with all possible rivals and the whole of the faction opposed to him. He then marched south, recovered a wavering Thessaly , and at an assembly of the Greek League of Corinth was appointed generalissimo for the forthcoming invasion of Asia , already planned and initiated by Philip. Returning to Macedonia by way of Delphi (where the Pythian priestess acclaimed him “invincible”), he advanced into Thrace in spring 335 and, after forcing the Shipka Pass and crushing the Triballi , crossed the Danube to disperse the Getae ; turning west, he then defeated and shattered a coalition of Illyrians who had invaded Macedonia. Meanwhile, a rumour of his death had precipitated a revolt of Theban democrats; other Greek states favoured Thebes , and the Athenians , urged on by Demosthenes , voted help. In 14 days Alexander marched 240 miles from Pelion (near modern Korçë , Albania ) in Illyria to Thebes. When the Thebans refused to surrender, he made an entry and razed their city to the ground, sparing only temples and Pindar ’s house; 6,000 were killed and all survivors sold into slavery . The other Greek states were cowed by this severity, and Alexander could afford to treat Athens leniently. Macedonian garrisons were left in Corinth , Chalcis , and the Cadmea (the citadel of Thebes).

From his accession Alexander had set his mind on the Persian expedition . He had grown up to the idea. Moreover, he needed the wealth of Persia if he was to maintain the army built by Philip and pay off the 500 talents he owed. The exploits of the Ten Thousand, Greek soldiers of fortune, and of Agesilaus of Sparta , in successfully campaigning in Persian territory had revealed the vulnerability of the Persian empire . With a good cavalry force Alexander could expect to defeat any Persian army. In spring 334 he crossed the Dardanelles , leaving Antipater , who had already faithfully served his father, as his deputy in Europe with over 13,000 men; he himself commanded about 30,000 foot and over 5,000 cavalry, of whom nearly 14,000 were Macedonians and about 7,000 allies sent by the Greek League. This army was to prove remarkable for its balanced combination of arms. Much work fell on the lightarmed Cretan and Macedonian archers, Thracians, and the Agrianian javelin men. But in pitched battle the striking force was the cavalry , and the core of the army, should the issue still remain undecided after the cavalry charge, was the infantry phalanx , 9,000 strong, armed with 13-foot spears and shields, and the 3,000 men of the royal battalions, the hypaspists. Alexander’s second in command was Parmenio , who had secured a foothold in Asia Minor during Philip’s lifetime; many of his family and supporters were entrenched in positions of responsibility. The army was accompanied by surveyors, engineers, architects, scientists, court officials, and historians; from the outset Alexander seems to have envisaged an unlimited operation.

After visiting Ilium ( Troy ), a romantic gesture inspired by Homer , he confronted his first Persian army, led by three satraps , at the Granicus (modern Kocabaş) River, near the Sea of Marmara (May/June 334). The Persian plan to tempt Alexander across the river and kill him in the melee almost succeeded; but the Persian line broke, and Alexander’s victory was complete. Darius ’s Greek mercenaries were largely massacred, but 2,000 survivors were sent back to Macedonia in chains. This victory exposed western Asia Minor to the Macedonians, and most cities hastened to open their gates. The tyrants were expelled and (in contrast to Macedonian policy in Greece) democracies were installed. Alexander thus underlined his Panhellenic policy, already symbolized in the sending of 300 panoplies (sets of armour) taken at the Granicus as an offering dedicated to Athena at Athens by “Alexander son of Philip and the Greeks (except the Spartans) from the barbarians who inhabit Asia.” (This formula, cited by the Greek historian Arrian in his history of Alexander’s campaigns, is noteworthy for its omission of any reference to Macedonia.) But the cities remained de facto under Alexander, and his appointment of Calas as satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia reflected his claim to succeed the Great King of Persia. When Miletus , encouraged by the proximity of the Persian fleet, resisted, Alexander took it by assault, but, refusing a naval battle, he disbanded his own costly navy and announced that he would “defeat the Persian fleet on land,” by occupying the coastal cities. In Caria , Halicarnassus resisted and was stormed, but Ada , the widow and sister of the satrap Idrieus, adopted Alexander as her son and, after expelling her brother Pixodarus, Alexander restored her to her satrapy. Some parts of Caria held out, however, until 332.

In winter 334–333 Alexander conquered western Asia Minor, subduing the hill tribes of Lycia and Pisidia , and in spring 333 he advanced along the coastal road to Perga , passing the cliffs of Mount Climax, thanks to a fortunate change of wind. The fall in the level of the sea was interpreted as a mark of divine favour by Alexander’s flatterers, including the historian Callisthenes . At Gordium in Phrygia , tradition records his cutting of the Gordian knot , which could only be loosed by the man who was to rule Asia; but this story may be apocryphal or at least distorted. At this point Alexander benefitted from the sudden death of Memnon , the competent Greek commander of the Persian fleet. From Gordium he pushed on to Ancyra (modern Ankara ) and thence south through Cappadocia and the Cilician Gates (modern Külek Boğazi); a fever held him up for a time in Cilicia . Meanwhile, Darius with his Grand Army had advanced northward on the eastern side of Mount Amanus. Intelligence on both sides was faulty, and Alexander was already encamped by Myriandrus (near modern İskenderun , Turkey ) when he learned that Darius was astride his line of communications at Issus , north of Alexander’s position (autumn 333). Turning, Alexander found Darius drawn up along the Pinarus River. In the battle that followed, Alexander won a decisive victory. The struggle turned into a Persian rout and Darius fled, leaving his family in Alexander’s hands; the women were treated with chivalrous care.

From Issus Alexander marched south into Syria and Phoenicia , his object being to isolate the Persian fleet from its bases and so to destroy it as an effective fighting force. The Phoenician cities Marathus and Aradus came over quietly, and Parmenio was sent ahead to secure Damascus and its rich booty, including Darius ’s war chest. In reply to a letter from Darius offering peace, Alexander replied arrogantly, recapitulating the historic wrongs of Greece and demanding unconditional surrender to himself as lord of Asia. After taking Byblos (modern Jubayl) and Sidon (Arabic Ṣaydā), he met with a check at Tyre , where he was refused entry into the island city. He thereupon prepared to use all methods of siegecraft to take it, but the Tyrians resisted, holding out for seven months. In the meantime (winter 333–332) the Persians had counterattacked by land in Asia Minor—where they were defeated by Antigonus , the satrap of Greater Phrygia—and by sea, recapturing a number of cities and islands.

While the siege of Tyre was in progress, Darius sent a new offer: he would pay a huge ransom of 10,000 talents for his family and cede all his lands west of the Euphrates . “I would accept,” Parmenio is reported to have said, “were I Alexander”; “I too,” was the famous retort, “were I Parmenio.” The storming of Tyre in July 332 was Alexander’s greatest military achievement; it was attended with great carnage and the sale of the women and children into slavery . Leaving Parmenio in Syria, Alexander advanced south without opposition until he reached Gaza on its high mound; there bitter resistance halted him for two months, and he sustained a serious shoulder wound during a sortie. There is no basis for the tradition that he turned aside to visit Jerusalem .

In November 332 he reached Egypt . The people welcomed him as their deliverer, and the Persian satrap Mazaces wisely surrendered. At Memphis Alexander sacrificed to Apis , the Greek term for Hapi, the sacred Egyptian bull, and was crowned with the traditional double crown of the pharaohs ; the native priests were placated and their religion encouraged. He spent the winter organizing Egypt , where he employed Egyptian governors, keeping the army under a separate Macedonian command. He founded the city of Alexandria near the western arm of the Nile on a fine site between the sea and Lake Mareotis, protected by the island of Pharos, and had it laid out by the Rhodian architect Deinocrates. He is also said to have sent an expedition to discover the causes of the flooding of the Nile. From Alexandria he marched along the coast to Paraetonium and from there inland to visit the celebrated oracle of the god Amon (at Sīwah ); the difficult journey was later embroidered with flattering legends . On his reaching the oracle in its oasis , the priest gave him the traditional salutation of a pharaoh , as son of Amon; Alexander consulted the god on the success of his expedition but revealed the reply to no one. Later the incident was to contribute to the story that he was the son of Zeus and, thus, to his “deification.” In spring 331 he returned to Tyre, appointed a Macedonian satrap for Syria, and prepared to advance into Mesopotamia . His conquest of Egypt had completed his control of the whole eastern Mediterranean coast.

In July 331 Alexander was at Thapsacus on the Euphrates . Instead of taking the direct route down the river to Babylon , he made across northern Mesopotamia toward the Tigris , and Darius, learning of this move from an advance force sent under Mazaeus to the Euphrates crossing, marched up the Tigris to oppose him. The decisive battle of the war was fought on October 31, on the plain of Gaugamela between Nineveh and Arbela. Alexander pursued the defeated Persian forces for 35 miles to Arbela, but Darius escaped with his Bactrian cavalry and Greek mercenaries into Media .

Alexander now occupied Babylon , city and province; Mazaeus, who surrendered it, was confirmed as satrap in conjunction with a Macedonian troop commander, and quite exceptionally was granted the right to coin . As in Egypt, the local priesthood was encouraged. Susa , the capital, also surrendered, releasing huge treasures amounting to 50,000 gold talents; here Alexander established Darius’s family in comfort. Crushing the mountain tribe of the Ouxians, he now pressed on over the Zagros range into Persia proper and, successfully turning the Pass of the Persian Gates, held by the satrap Ariobarzanes , he entered Persepolis and Pasargadae . At Persepolis he ceremonially burned down the palace of Xerxes , as a symbol that the Panhellenic war of revenge was at an end; for such seems the probable significance of an act that tradition later explained as a drunken frolic inspired by Thaïs , an Athenian courtesan. In spring 330 Alexander marched north into Media and occupied its capital. The Thessalians and Greek allies were sent home; henceforward he was waging a purely personal war.

As Mazaeus’s appointment indicated, Alexander’s views on the empire were changing. He had come to envisage a joint ruling people consisting of Macedonians and Persians, and this served to augment the misunderstanding that now arose between him and his people. Before continuing his pursuit of Darius, who had retreated into Bactria , he assembled all the Persian treasure and entrusted it to Harpalus , who was to hold it at Ecbatana as chief treasurer. Parmenio was also left behind in Media to control communications; the presence of this older man had perhaps become irksome.

In midsummer 330 Alexander set out for the eastern provinces at a high speed via Rhagae (modern Rayy , near Tehrān ) and the Caspian Gates, where he learned that Bessus , the satrap of Bactria, had deposed Darius. After a skirmish near modern Shāhrūd, the usurper had Darius stabbed and left him to die. Alexander sent his body for burial with due honours in the royal tombs at Persepolis.

Darius ’s death left no obstacle to Alexander’s claim to be Great King, and a Rhodian inscription of this year (330) calls him “lord of Asia”—i.e., of the Persian empire; soon afterward his Asian coins carry the title of king. Crossing the Elburz Mountains to the Caspian , he seized Zadracarta in Hyrcania and received the submission of a group of satraps and Persian notables, some of whom he confirmed in their offices; in a diversion westward, perhaps to modern Āmol , he reduced the Mardi, a mountain people who inhabited the Elburz Mountains. He also accepted the surrender of Darius’s Greek mercenaries. His advance eastward was now rapid. In Aria he reduced Satibarzanes, who had offered submission only to revolt, and he founded Alexandria of the Arians (modern Herāt ). At Phrada in Drangiana (either near modern Nad-e ʿAli in Seistan or farther north at Farah ), he at last took steps to destroy Parmenio and his family. Philotas , Parmenio’s son, commander of the elite Companion cavalry, was implicated in an alleged plot against Alexander’s life, condemned by the army, and executed; and a secret message was sent to Cleander , Parmenio’s second in command, who obediently assassinated him. This ruthless action excited widespread horror but strengthened Alexander’s position relative to his critics and those whom he regarded as his father’s men. All Parmenio’s adherents were now eliminated and men close to Alexander promoted. The Companion cavalry was reorganized in two sections, each containing four squadrons (now known as hipparchies); one group was commanded by Alexander’s oldest friend, Hephaestion , the other by Cleitus , an older man. From Phrada, Alexander pressed on during the winter of 330–329 up the valley of the Helmand River , through Arachosia , and over the mountains past the site of modern Kābul into the country of the Paropamisadae, where he founded Alexandria by the Caucasus .

Bessus was now in Bactria raising a national revolt in the eastern satrapies with the usurped title of Great King. Crossing the Hindu Kush northward over the Khawak Pass (11,650 feet [3,550 metres]), Alexander brought his army, despite food shortages, to Drapsaca (sometimes identified with modern Banu [Andarab], probably farther north at Qunduz); outflanked, Bessus fled beyond the Oxus (modern Amu Darya ), and Alexander, marching west to Bactra-Zariaspa (modern Balkh [ Wazirabad ] in Afghanistan ), appointed loyal satraps in Bactria and Aria. Crossing the Oxus, he sent his general Ptolemy in pursuit of Bessus, who had meanwhile been overthrown by the Sogdian Spitamenes. Bessus was captured, flogged, and sent to Bactra, where he was later mutilated after the Persian manner (losing his nose and ears); in due course he was publicly executed at Ecbatana .

From Maracanda (modern Samarkand ) Alexander advanced by way of Cyropolis to the Jaxartes (modern Syrdarya), the boundary of the Persian empire. There he broke the opposition of the Scythian nomads by his use of catapults and, after defeating them in a battle on the north bank of the river, pursued them into the interior. On the site of modern Leninabad ( Khojent ) on the Jaxartes, he founded a city, Alexandria Eschate, “the farthest.” Meanwhile, Spitamenes had raised all Sogdiana in revolt behind him, bringing in the Massagetai , a people of the Shaka confederacy. It took Alexander until the autumn of 328 to crush the most determined opponent he encountered in his campaigns. Later in the same year he attacked Oxyartes and the remaining barons who held out in the hills of Paraetacene (modern Tajikistan ); volunteers seized the crag on which Oxyartes had his stronghold, and among the captives was his daughter, Roxana . In reconciliation Alexander married her, and the rest of his opponents were either won over or crushed.

An incident that occurred at Maracanda widened the breach between Alexander and many of his Macedonians. He murdered Cleitus, one of his most-trusted commanders, in a drunken quarrel, but his excessive display of remorse led the army to pass a decree convicting Cleitus posthumously of treason . The event marked a step in Alexander’s progress toward Eastern absolutism, and this growing attitude found its outward expression in his use of Persian royal dress. Shortly afterward, at Bactra , he attempted to impose the Persian court ceremonial, involving prostration ( proskynesis ), on the Greeks and Macedonians too, but to them this custom, habitual for Persians entering the king’s presence, implied an act of worship and was intolerable before a human. Even Callisthenes , historian and nephew of Aristotle , whose ostentatious flattery had perhaps encouraged Alexander to see himself in the role of a god, refused to abase himself. Macedonian laughter caused the experiment to founder, and Alexander abandoned it. Shortly afterward, however, Callisthenes was held to be privy to a conspiracy among the royal pages and was executed (or died in prison; accounts vary); resentment of this action alienated sympathy from Alexander within the Peripatetic school of philosophers, with which Callisthenes had close connections.

In early summer 327 Alexander left Bactria with a reinforced army under a reorganized command. If Plutarch ’s figure of 120,000 men has any reality, however, it must include all kinds of auxiliary services, together with muleteers, camel drivers, medical corps, peddlers, entertainers, women, and children; the fighting strength perhaps stood at about 35,000. Recrossing the Hindu Kush , probably by Bamiyan and the Ghorband Valley, Alexander divided his forces. Half the army with the baggage under Hephaestion and Perdiccas , both cavalry commanders, was sent through the Khyber Pass , while he himself led the rest, together with his siege train, through the hills to the north. His advance through Swāt and Gandhāra was marked by the storming of the almost impregnable pinnacle of Aornos , the modern Pir-Sar, a few miles west of the Indus and north of the Buner River, an impressive feat of siegecraft. In spring 326, crossing the Indus near Attock, Alexander entered Taxila , whose ruler, Taxiles, furnished elephants and troops in return for aid against his rival Porus , who ruled the lands between the Hydaspes (modern Jhelum ) and the Acesines (modern Chenāb ). In June Alexander fought his last great battle on the left bank of the Hydaspes . He founded two cities there, Alexandria Nicaea (to celebrate his victory) and Bucephala (named after his horse Bucephalus , which died there); and Porus became his ally.

How much Alexander knew of India beyond the Hyphasis (probably the modern Beas ) is uncertain; there is no conclusive proof that he had heard of the Ganges . But he was anxious to press on farther, and he had advanced to the Hyphasis when his army mutinied, refusing to go farther in the tropical rain; they were weary in body and spirit, and Coenus, one of Alexander’s four chief marshals, acted as their spokesman. On finding the army adamant , Alexander agreed to turn back.

On the Hyphasis he erected 12 altars to the 12 Olympian gods, and on the Hydaspes he built a fleet of 800 to 1,000 ships. Leaving Porus, he then proceeded down the river and into the Indus, with half his forces on shipboard and half marching in three columns down the two banks. The fleet was commanded by Nearchus , and Alexander’s own captain was Onesicritus; both later wrote accounts of the campaign. The march was attended with much fighting and heavy, pitiless slaughter; at the storming of one town of the Malli near the Hydraotes ( Ravi ) River, Alexander received a severe wound which left him weakened.

On reaching Patala, located at the head of the Indus delta, he built a harbour and docks and explored both arms of the Indus, which probably then ran into the Rann of Kachchh . He planned to lead part of his forces back by land, while the rest in perhaps 100 to 150 ships under the command of Nearchus, a Cretan with naval experience, made a voyage of exploration along the Persian Gulf . Local opposition led Nearchus to set sail in September (325), and he was held up for three weeks until he could pick up the northeast monsoon in late October. In September Alexander too set out along the coast through Gedrosia (modern Baluchistan), but he was soon compelled by mountainous country to turn inland, thus failing in his project to establish food depots for the fleet. Craterus , a high-ranking officer, already had been sent off with the baggage and siege train, the elephants, and the sick and wounded, together with three battalions of the phalanx , by way of the Mulla Pass, Quetta , and Kandahar into the Helmand Valley ; from there he was to march through Drangiana to rejoin the main army on the Amanis (modern Minab) River in Carmania. Alexander’s march through Gedrosia proved disastrous; waterless desert and shortage of food and fuel caused great suffering, and many, especially women and children, perished in a sudden monsoon flood while encamped in a wadi. At length, at the Amanis, he was rejoined by Nearchus and the fleet, which also had suffered losses.

Alexander now proceeded farther with the policy of replacing senior officials and executing defaulting governors on which he had already embarked before leaving India. Between 326 and 324 over a third of his satraps were superseded and six were put to death, including the Persian satraps of Persis , Susiana, Carmania, and Paraetacene; three generals in Media , including Cleander , the brother of Coenus (who had died a little earlier), were accused of extortion and summoned to Carmania, where they were arrested, tried, and executed. How far the rigour that from now onward Alexander displayed against his governors represents exemplary punishment for gross maladministration during his absence and how far the elimination of men he had come to distrust (as in the case of Philotas and Parmenio ) is debatable; but the ancient sources generally favourable to him comment adversely on his severity.

In spring 324 he was back in Susa , capital of Elam and administrative centre of the Persian empire; the story of his journey through Carmania in a drunken revel, dressed as Dionysus , is embroidered, if not wholly apocryphal. He found that his treasurer, Harpalus , evidently fearing punishment for peculation, had absconded with 6,000 mercenaries and 5,000 talents to Greece; arrested in Athens , he escaped and later was murdered in Crete . At Susa Alexander held a feast to celebrate the seizure of the Persian empire, at which, in furtherance of his policy of fusing Macedonians and Persians into one master race, he and 80 of his officers took Persian wives; he and Hephaestion married Darius ’s daughters Barsine (also called Stateira) and Drypetis, respectively, and 10,000 of his soldiers with native wives were given generous dowries.

This policy of racial fusion brought increasing friction to Alexander’s relations with his Macedonians, who had no sympathy for his changed concept of the empire. His determination to incorporate Persians on equal terms in the army and the administration of the provinces was bitterly resented. This discontent was now fanned by the arrival of 30,000 native youths who had received a Macedonian military training and by the introduction of Asian peoples from Bactria , Sogdiana , Arachosia , and other parts of the empire into the Companion cavalry ; whether Asians had previously served with the Companions is uncertain, but if so they must have formed separate squadrons. In addition, Persian nobles had been accepted into the royal cavalry bodyguard. Peucestas, the new governor of Persis , gave this policy full support to flatter Alexander; but most Macedonians saw it as a threat to their own privileged position.

The issue came to a head at Opis (324), when Alexander’s decision to send home Macedonian veterans under Craterus was interpreted as a move toward transferring the seat of power to Asia. There was an open mutiny involving all but the royal bodyguard; but when Alexander dismissed his whole army and enrolled Persians instead, the opposition broke down. An emotional scene of reconciliation was followed by a vast banquet with 9,000 guests to celebrate the ending of the misunderstanding and the partnership in government of Macedonians and Persians—but not, as has been argued, the incorporation of all the subject peoples as partners in the commonwealth. Ten thousand veterans were now sent back to Macedonia with gifts, and the crisis was surmounted.

In summer 324 Alexander attempted to solve another problem, that of the wandering mercenaries, of whom there were thousands in Asia and Greece, many of them political exiles from their own cities. A decree brought by Nicanor to Europe and proclaimed at Olympia (September 324) required the Greek cities of the Greek League to receive back all exiles and their families (except the Thebans), a measure that implied some modification of the oligarchic regimes maintained in the Greek cities by Alexander’s governor Antipater . Alexander now planned to recall Antipater and supersede him by Craterus , but he was to die before this could be done.

In autumn 324 Hephaestion died in Ecbatana , and Alexander indulged in extravagant mourning for his closest friend; he was given a royal funeral in Babylon with a pyre costing 10,000 talents. His post of chiliarch (grand vizier) was left unfilled. It was probably in connection with a general order now sent out to the Greeks to honour Hephaestion as a hero that Alexander linked the demand that he himself should be accorded divine honours. For a long time his mind had dwelt on ideas of godhead. Greek thought drew no very decided line of demarcation between god and man, for legend offered more than one example of men who, by their achievements, acquired divine status. Alexander had on several occasions encouraged favourable comparison of his own accomplishments with those of Dionysus or Heracles . He now seems to have become convinced of the reality of his own divinity and to have required its acceptance by others. There is no reason to assume that his demand had any political background (divine status gave its possessor no particular rights in a Greek city); it was rather a symptom of growing megalomania and emotional instability. The cities perforce complied, but often ironically: the Spartan decree read, “Since Alexander wishes to be a god, let him be a god.”

In the winter of 324 Alexander carried out a savage punitive expedition against the Cossaeans in the hills of Luristan. The following spring at Babylon he received complimentary embassies from the Libyans and from the Bruttians, Etruscans , and Lucanians of Italy; but the story that embassies also came from more distant peoples, such as Carthaginians, Celts , Iberians , and even Romans, is a later invention. Representatives of the cities of Greece also came, garlanded as befitted Alexander’s divine status. Following up Nearchus’s voyage , he now founded an Alexandria at the mouth of the Tigris and made plans to develop sea communications with India, for which an expedition along the Arabian coast was to be a preliminary. He also dispatched Heracleides, an officer, to explore the Hyrcanian (i.e., Caspian ) Sea. Suddenly, in Babylon , while busy with plans to improve the irrigation of the Euphrates and to settle the coast of the Persian Gulf , Alexander was taken ill after a prolonged banquet and drinking bout; 10 days later, on June 13, 323, he died in his 33rd year; he had reigned for 12 years and eight months. His body, diverted to Egypt by Ptolemy , the later king, was eventually placed in a golden coffin in Alexandria . Both in Egypt and elsewhere in the Greek cities he received divine honours.

No heir had been appointed to the throne, and his generals adopted Philip II ’s half-witted illegitimate son, Philip Arrhidaeus , and Alexander’s posthumous son by Roxana, Alexander IV , as kings, sharing out the satrapies among themselves, after much bargaining. The empire could hardly survive Alexander’s death as a unit. Both kings were murdered, Arrhidaeus in 317 and Alexander in 310/309. The provinces became independent kingdoms, and the generals , following Antigonus ’s lead in 306, took the title of king.

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Alexander the Great

By: History.com Editors

Updated: February 5, 2024 | Original: November 9, 2009

Alexander the Great was an ancient Macedonian ruler and one of history’s greatest military minds who, as King of Macedonia and Persia, established the largest empire the ancient world had ever seen. By turns charismatic and ruthless, brilliant and power hungry, diplomatic and bloodthirsty, Alexander inspired such loyalty in his men they’d follow him anywhere and, if necessary, die in the process. Though Alexander the Great died before realizing his dream of uniting a new realm, his influence on Greek and Asian culture was so profound that it inspired a new historical epoch—the Hellenistic Period.

Where Was Alexander the Great From?

Alexander III was born in Pella, Macedonia , in 356 B.C. to King Philip II and Queen Olympias—although legend had it his father was none other than Zeus, the ruler of the Greek gods .

Philip II was an impressive military man in his own right. He turned Macedonia (a region on the northern part of the Greek peninsula) into a force to be reckoned with, and he fantasized about conquering the massive Persian Empire .

At age 12, Alexander showed impressive courage when he tamed the wild horse Bucephalus, an enormous stallion with a furious demeanor. The horse became his battle companion for most of Alexander’s life.

When Alexander was 13, Philip called on the great philosopher Aristotle to tutor his son. Aristotle sparked and fostered Alexander’s interest in literature, science, medicine and philosophy.

Alexander was just 16 when Philip went off to battle and left his son in charge of Macedonia. In 338 B.C., Alexander saw the opportunity to prove his military worth and led a cavalry against the Sacred Band of Thebes—a supposedly unbeatable, select army made up entirely of male lovers—during the Battle of Chaeronea.

Alexander put his vigor and bravery on display, and his cavalry decimated the Sacred Band of Thebes.

Ancient Empires

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Alexander Becomes King

In 336 B.C., Alexander’s father Philip was assassinated by his bodyguard Pausanias. Just 20 years old, Alexander claimed the Macedonian throne and killed his rivals before they could challenge his sovereignty.

He also quashed rebellions for independence in northern Greece. Once he’d cleaned house, Alexander left to follow in his father’s footsteps and continue Macedonia’s world domination.

Alexander appointed the general Antipater as regent and headed for Persia with his army. They crossed the Hellespont, a narrow strait between the Aegean Sea and the Sea of Marmara, and faced Persian and Greek forces at the Granicus River. Victory went to Alexander and the Macedonians.

Alexander then headed south and easily took the city of Sardes. But his army encountered resistance in the cities of Miletus, Mylasa and Halicarnassus. Under siege yet not beaten, Halicarnassus held out long enough for King Darius III, the newest Persian king, to amass a substantial army.

Gordian Knot

From Halicarnassus, Alexander headed north to Gordium, home of the fabled Gordian knot , a group of tightly-entwined knots yoked to an ancient wagon. Legend had it whoever unwound the knot would conquer all of Asia.

As the story goes, Alexander took on the challenge but was unable to unravel the knot by hand. He took another approach and sliced through the knot with his sword, claiming triumph.

Battle of Issus

In 333 B.C., Alexander and his men encountered a massive Persian army led by King Darius III near the town of Issus in southern Turkey. Alexander’s forces were greatly outnumbered in men but not in experience or the determination for revenge and to claim Persia’s great wealth, much of it plundered.

As it became clear Alexander would win the Battle of Issus, Darius fled with what remained of his troops, leaving his wife and family behind. His mother, Sisygambis, was so upset she disowned him and adopted Alexander as her son.

By now it was clear that Alexander was a shrewd, ruthless and brilliant military leader—in fact, he never lost a battle in his life. He would build an empire on the back of his motto, “there is nothing impossible to him who will try.”

Battle of Tyre

Next, Alexander took over the Phoenician cities of Marathus and Aradus. He rejected a plea from Darius for peace and took the towns of Byblos and Sidon.

He then laid siege to the heavily fortified island of Tyre in January 332 B.C., after the Tyrians refused him entry. But Alexander had no navy to speak of and Tyre was surrounded by water.

Alexander instructed his men to build a causeway to reach Tyre. All went well until they came within striking distance of the Tyrians. Again and again, Tyrian forces thwarted Alexander’s clever attempts to gain entry, and he realized he needed a strong navy to penetrate their defenses.

He amassed a large fleet, finally breached the city’s walls in July 332 B.C. and executed thousands of Tyrians for daring to defy him; many others were sold into slavery.

Alexander Enters Egypt

After rejecting another peace offer from Darius, Alexander set out for Egypt . He was sidelined at Gaza, however, and forced to endure another lengthy siege. After several weeks, he took the town and entered Egypt where he established the city that still bears his name: Alexandria.

Alexander traveled to the desert to consult the oracle of Ammon, a god of supposed good counsel. Legends abound about what transpired at the oracle, but Alexander kept mum about the experience. Still, the visit furthered speculation Alexander was a deity.

Alexander Becomes King of Persia

After conquering Egypt, Alexander faced Darius and his massive troops at Gaugamela in October 331 B.C. Following fierce fighting and heavy losses on both sides, Darius fled and was assassinated by his own troops. It’s said Alexander was sad when he found Darius’s body and he gave him a royal burial.

Finally rid of Darius, Alexander proclaimed himself King of Persia. But another Persian leader, Bessus (also thought to be Darius’s murderer), had also claimed the Persian throne. Alexander couldn’t let the claim stand.

After relentless pursuit by Alexander, Bessus’s troops handed Bessus over to Ptolemy, Alexander’s good friend, and he was mutilated and executed. With Bessus out of the way, Alexander had full control of Persia.

Proskynesis

To gain credibility with the Persians, Alexander took on many Persian customs. He began dressing like a Persian and adopted the practice of proskynesis, a Persian court custom that involved bowing down and kissing the hand of others, depending on their rank.

The Macedonians were less than thrilled with the changes in Alexander and his attempt to be viewed as a deity. They refused to practice proskynesis and some plotted his death.

Increasingly paranoid, Alexander ordered the death of one of his most esteemed generals, Parmenio, in 330 B.C., after Parmenio's son Philotas was convicted of plotting an assassination attempt against Alexander (and also killed).

Alexander Kills Cleitus

In 328 B.C., Cleitus, another general and close friend of Alexander, also met a violent end. Fed up with Alexander’s new Persian-like persona, a drunk Cleitus continually insulted Alexander and minimized his achievements.

Pushed too far, Alexander killed Cleitus with a spear, a spontaneous act of violence that anguished him. Some historians believe Alexander killed his general in a fit of drunkenness—a persistent problem that plagued him through much of his life.

Alexander struggled to capture Sogdia, a region of the Persian Empire that remained loyal to Bessus. The Sogdians found a refuge at the pinnacle of a rock and refused Alexander’s demand to surrender.

Not one to take “no” for an answer, Alexander sent some of his men to scale the rock and take the Sogdians by surprise. Supposedly, one of those on the rock was a girl named Roxane.

As the story goes, Alexander fell in love with Roxane on sight. He married her despite her Sogdian heritage and she joined him on his journey.

Alexander Enters India

In 327 B.C., Alexander marched on Punjab, India. Some tribes surrendered peacefully; others did not. In 326 B.C., Alexander met King Porus of Paurava at the Hydaspes River.

Porus’s army was less experienced than Alexander’s, but they had a secret weapon—elephants. Even so, after a fierce battle in a raging thunderstorm, Porus was defeated.

One event took place at Hydaspes which devastated Alexander: the death of his beloved horse, Bucephalus. It’s unclear if he died from battle wounds or of old age, but Alexander named the city of Bucephala after him.

Alexander wanted to press on and attempt to conquer all of India, but his war-weary soldiers refused, and his officers convinced him to return to Persia. So Alexander led his troops down the Indus River and was severely wounded during a battle with the Malli.

After recovering, he divided his troops, sending half of them back to Persia and half to Gedrosia, a desolate area west of the Indus River.

A Mass Wedding

In early 324 B.C., Alexander reached the city of Susa in Persia. Wanting to unite the Persians and Macedonians and create a new race loyal only to him, he ordered many of his officers to marry Persian princesses at a mass wedding. He also took two more wives for himself.

The Macedonian army resented Alexander’s attempt to change their culture and many mutinied. But after Alexander took a firm stand and replaced Macedonian officers and troops with Persians, his army backed down.

To further diffuse the situation, Alexander returned their titles and hosted a huge reconciliation banquet.

How Did Alexander the Great Die?

By 323 B.C., Alexander was head of an enormous empire and had recovered from the devastating loss of his friend Hephaestion—who was also reputed to be one of Alexander’s homosexual male lovers.

Thanks to his insatiable urge for world supremacy, he started plans to conquer Arabia. But he’d never live to see it happen. Some historians say Alexander died of malaria or other natural causes; others believe he was poisoned. Either way, he never named a successor.

His death—and the bloody infighting for control that happened afterwards—unraveled the empire he’d fought so hard to create.

How Old Was Alexander the Great When He Died?

After surviving battle after fierce battle, Alexander the Great died in June 323 B.C. at age 32.

Why Was Alexander the Great ‘Great’?

Many conquered lands retained the Greek influence Alexander introduced, and several cities he founded remain important cultural centers even today. The period of history from his death to 31 B.C., when his empire folded, would come to be known as the Hellenistic period , from “Hellazein,” which means, “to speak Greek or identify with the Greeks.” Alexander the Great is revered as one of the most powerful and influential leaders the ancient world ever produced.

Alexander the Great. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Alexander the Great. Livius.org. Alexander the Great of Macedon Biography. Historyofmacedonia.org . Alexander of Macedonia. San Jose State University . Bucephalus. Ancient History Encyclopedia. The Battle of Issus. Livius.org. The Sacred Band of Thebes, from Plutarch, Life of Pelopidas . Fordham University . The Siege of Tyre (332 BCE). Livius.org.

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Alexander the Great

Who Was Alexander the Great?

Conqueror and king of Macedonia, Alexander the Great was born on July 20, 356 B.C., in Pella, in the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia. During his leadership, from 336 to 323 B.C., he united the Greek city-states and led the Corinthian League. He also became the king of Persia, Babylon and Asia, and created Macedonian colonies in the region. While considering the conquests of Carthage and Rome, Alexander died of malaria in Babylon (now Iraq), on June 13, 323 B.C.

Alexander the Great was born in the Pella region of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia on July 20, 356 B.C., to parents King Philip II of Macedon and Queen Olympia, daughter of King Neoptolemus. The young prince and his sister were raised in Pella's royal court. Growing up, the dark-eyed and curly-headed Alexander hardly ever saw his father, who spent most of his time engaged in military campaigns and extra-marital affairs. Although Olympia served as a powerful role model for the boy, Alexander grew to resent his father's absence and philandering.

Alexander received his earliest education under the tutelage of his relative, the stern Leonidas of Epirus. Leonidas, who had been hired by King Phillip to teach Alexander math, horsemanship and archery, struggled to control his rebellious student. Alexander's next tutor was Lysimachus, who used role-playing to capture the restless boy's attention. Alexander particularly delighted in impersonating the warrior Achilles.

In 343 B.C., King Philip II hired the philosopher Aristotle to tutor Alexander at the Temple of the Nymphs at Meiza. Over the course of three years, Aristotle taught Alexander and a handful of his friends philosophy, poetry, drama, science and politics. Seeing that Homer's Iliad inspired Alexander to dream of becoming a heroic warrior, Aristotle created an abridged version of the tome for Alexander to carry with him on military campaigns.

Alexander completed his education at Meiza in 340 B.C. A year later, while still just a teen, he became a soldier and embarked on his first military expedition, against the Thracian tribes. In 338, Alexander took charge of the Companion Cavalry and aided his father in defeating the Athenian and Theban armies at Chaeronea. Once Philip II had succeeded in his campaign to unite all the Greek states (minus Sparta) into the Corinthian League, the alliance between father and son soon disintegrated. Philip married Cleopatra Eurydice, niece of General Attalus, and ousted Alexander's mother, Olympia. Alexander and Olympia were forced to flee Macedonia and stay with Olympia's family in Epirus until Alexander and King Philip II were able to reconcile their differences.

King of Macedonia

In 336, Alexander's sister wed the Molossian king, an uncle who was also called Alexander. During the festival that followed, King Philip II was murdered at the hands of Pausanias, a Macedonian noble.

In the wake of his father's death, Alexander, then 19, was determined to seize the throne by any means necessary. He quickly garnered the support of the Macedonian army, including the general and troops he had had fought with at Chaeronea. The army proclaimed Alexander the feudal king and proceeded to help him murder other potential heirs to the throne. Ever a loyal mother, Olympia further ensured her son's claim to the throne by slaughtering the daughter of King Philip II and Cleopatra and driving Cleopatra herself to suicide.

Even though Alexander was the feudal king of Macedonia, he didn't obtain automatic control of the Corinthian League. In fact, the southern states of Greece were celebrating Philip II's death and expressed divided interests. Athens had its own agenda: Under the leadership of democratic Demosthenes, the state hoped to take charge of the league. As they launched independence movements, Alexander sent his army south and coerced the region of Thessaly into acknowledging him as the leader of the Corinthian League. Then during a meeting of league members at Thermopylae, Alexander elicited their acceptance of his leadership. By the fall of 336, he reissued treaties with the Greek city-states that belonged to the Corinthian League — with Athens still refusing membership — and was granted full military power in the campaign against the Persian Empire. But, before preparing for war with Persia, Alexander first conquered the Thracian Triballians in 335, securing Macedonia's northern borders.

Campaigns and Conquests

As Alexander was nearing the end of his northern campaign, he was delivered the news that Thebes, a Greek city-state, had forced out the Macedonian troops that were garrisoned there. Fearing a revolt among the other city-states, Alexander leapt into action, marching his massive army—consisting of 3,000 cavalry and 30,000 infantry—southward all the way to the tip of the Greek peninsula. Meanwhile, Alexander's general, Parmenion, had already made his way to Asia Minor.

Alexander and his forces arrived in Thebes so quickly that the city-state didn't have a chance to pull together allies for its defense. Three days after his arrival, Alexander led the massacre of Thebes. It was Alexander's hope that the destruction of Thebes would serve as a warning to city-states contemplating revolt. His intimidation tactic proved effective; the other Greek city-states, including Athens, chose to pledge their alliance to the Macedonian Empire or opted to remain neutral.

In 334, Alexander embarked on his Asiatic expedition, arriving in Troy that spring. Alexander then faced Persian King Darius III's army near the Grancius River; Darius' forces were swiftly defeated. By fall, Alexander and his army had made it across the southern coast of Asia Minor to Gordium, where they took the winter to rest. In the summer of 333, the troops of Alexander and Darius once again went head to head in battle at Issus. Although Alexander's army was outnumbered, he used his flair for military strategy to create formations that defeated the Persians again and caused Darius to flee. In November of 333, Alexander declared himself the king of Persia after capturing Darius and making him a fugitive.

Next up on Alexander's agenda was his campaign to conquer Egypt. After besieging Gaza on his way to Egypt, Alexander easily achieved his conquest; Egypt fell without resistance. In 331, he created the city of Alexandria, designed as a hub for Greek culture and commerce. Later that year, Alexander defeated the Persians at the Battle of Gaugamela. With the collapse of the Persian army, Alexander became "King of Babylon, King of Asia, King of the Four Quarters of the World."

Alexander's next conquest was eastern Iran, where he created Macedonian colonies and in 327 seized the fortress in Ariamazes. After capturing Prince Oxyartes, Alexander married the prince's daughter, Rhoxana.

In 328, Alexander defeated King Porus' armies in northern India. Finding himself impressed by Porus, Alexander reinstated him as king and won his loyalty and forgiveness. Alexander forged eastward to the Ganges but headed back when his armies refused to advance any farther. On their way back along the Indus, Alexander was wounded by Malli warriors.

In 325, after Alexander had recovered, he and his army headed north along the rugged Persian Gulf, where many fell prey to illness, injury and death. In February 324, Alexander at last reached the city of Susa. Desperate to retain his leadership and recruit more soldiers, he tried to connect Persian nobles to Macedonians in order to create a ruling class. To this end, at Susa he commanded that a large number of Macedonians marry Persian princesses. After Alexander managed to recruit tens of thousands of Persian soldiers into his army, he dismissed many of his existing Macedonian soldiers. This enraged the soldiers, who spoke critically of Alexander's new troops and condemned him for adopting Persian customs and manners. Alexander appeased the Macedonian soldiers by killing 13 Persian military leaders. The Thanksgiving Feast at Susa, which had been geared towards solidifying the bond between Persians and Macedonians, shaped up to be quite the opposite.

While considering the conquests of Carthage and Rome, Alexander the Great died of malaria in Babylon (now Iraq), on June 13, 323 B.C. He was just 32 years old. Rhoxana gave birth to his son a few months later.

After Alexander died, his empire collapsed and the nations within it battled for power. Over time, the cultures of Greece and the Orient synthesized and thrived as a side effect of Alexander's empire, becoming part of his legacy and spreading the spirit of Panhellenism.

QUICK FACTS

• Birth Year: 356
• Birth date: July 20, 356
• Birth City: Pella
• Birth Country: Greece
• Gender: Male
• Best Known For: Alexander the Great served as king of Macedonia from 336 to 323 B.C. During his time of leadership, he united Greece, reestablished the Corinthian League and conquered the Persian Empire.
• Astrological Sign: Cancer
• Death Year: 323
• Death date: June 13, 323
• Death City: Babylon, Persia (now Iraq)
• Death Country: Iraq

CITATION INFORMATION

• Article Title: Alexander the Great Biography
• Author: Biography.com Editors
• Website Name: The Biography.com website
• Url: https://www.biography.com/political-figures/alexander-the-great
• Access Date:
• Publisher: A&E; Television Networks
• Last Updated: June 29, 2021
• Original Published Date: April 3, 2014
• Remember upon the conduct of each depends the fate of all.
• I am not afraid of an army of lions led by a sheep; I am afraid of an army of sheep led by a lion.
• I had rather excel others in the knowledge of what is excellent, than in the extent of my power and dominion.
• There is nothing impossible to him who will try.
• How great are the dangers I face to win a good name in Athens.
• I am dying from the treatment of too many physicians.
• Heaven cannot brook two suns, nor earth two masters.

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Alexander the Great: A New Life of Alexander

"Alexander the Great: A New Life of Alexander" by Paul Cartledge offers a detailed yet accessible exploration of the legendary figure's life and legacy. The author's expertise and engaging storytelling provide fresh insights into Alexander the Great's conquests and their historical significance. This book is recommended for scholars and general readers alike.

Alexander the Great 's profound impact on Roman culture is undeniable, particularly when considering the fusion of Greco-Oriental influences during the Hellenistic era, which permeated Rome and, subsequently, Western Europe . His conquests paved the way for cultural diffusion and laid the groundwork for religious and imperial ideologies. His ideological legacies include figures like Pompey and Caesar . The territories Alexander the Great once controlled formed the foundation of Rome's eastern dominion, often considered the culturally and economically richer half of the empire .

However, understanding Alexander himself proves challenging due to conflicting ancient sources and continuous reinterpretations throughout history, often reflecting the agendas of interpreters.

In Alexander the Great: A New Life of Alexander , Paul Cartledge offers a captivating and comprehensive new examination of Alexander the Great. With his trademark storytelling prowess, Cartledge, chair of Cambridge University's Classics Department, guides readers through the life and conquests of Alexander with precise detail and an engaging narrative that balances discussion on Alexander's achievements with acknowledgment of places where we lack historical evidence.

Cartledge challenges prevailing notions about Alexander's motivations, particularly regarding Alexander's aim of spreading Hellenism. Cartledge argues that while Alexander was indeed attached to Hellenism, his driving force was personal glory and conquest . This nuanced perspective adds depth to our understanding of Alexander, presenting him as a complex figure driven by ambition and a thirst for success.

Central to Cartledge's exploration is Alexander's military genius. Through detailed chronicles of Alexander's battles with the Persians, Tyrians, and Babylonians, Cartledge highlights the young leader's strategic brilliance and innovative tactics. He demonstrates how Alexander's love of hunting served as a metaphor for his approach to warfare , as he adapted hunting strategies such as the surprise attack to achieve military success. This analysis sheds light on Alexander's mindset and sheds new light on his military achievements.

The book is enriched by many appendixes, including a glossary and an extensive bibliography, which enhance the reader's understanding and provide valuable resources for further exploration. Cartledge's skillful storytelling brings history to life, making the ancient world feel vivid and immediate. His vivid descriptions and storytelling make for an absorbing read that will appeal to both scholars and general readers alike.

Overall, Alexander the Great: A New Life of Alexander is a masterful biography that offers fresh insights into the life and legacy of one of history's most iconic figures. With its diligent research, engaging narrative, and nuanced analysis, this book is sure to become a definitive work on Alexander the Great for years to come. Whether the audience is a seasoned scholar or a casual reader with an interest in ancient Greece , this book is a must-read.

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Cite this work.

Panagi, K. (2024, April 15). Alexander the Great: A New Life of Alexander . World History Encyclopedia . Retrieved from https://www.worldhistory.org/review/403/alexander-the-great-a-new-life-of-alexander/

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Panagi, Katerina. " Alexander the Great: A New Life of Alexander ." World History Encyclopedia . Last modified April 15, 2024. https://www.worldhistory.org/review/403/alexander-the-great-a-new-life-of-alexander/.

Panagi, Katerina. " Alexander the Great: A New Life of Alexander ." World History Encyclopedia . World History Encyclopedia, 15 Apr 2024. Web. 03 Jul 2024.

• HISTORY & CULTURE

Who was Alexander the Great?

The son of a king, Alexander was a brilliant military leader who conquered most of the known world—but he wasn't much of a diplomat.

Alexander the Great slices the Gordian Knot with his sword in 333 B.C. The legend—depicted in this painting by Jean-Simon Berthelemy—has it that the knot  in the city of Gordium (present-day Turkey) was only to be untied by the future conquerer of Asia.

The vast Eurasian empire that Alexander the Great (356–323 B.C.) forged was not long-lasting, but his heroic deeds were legendary. Alexander was the son of King Philip II of Macedonia , a realm north of Greece. When Athens was left unstable by the interminable Peloponnesian War, Philip saw an opening and took it; he subdued Greece around 339 B.C.

While Philip was at war, Alexander studied math, archery, and other subjects with tutors, including the renowned philosopher Aristotle. According to Greek author Plutarch, Alexander kept a copy of Homer’s   Iliad,   annotated by Aristotle, “with his dagger under his pillow, declaring that he esteemed it a perfect portable treasure of all military virtue and knowledge.” ( Were Alexander the Great and Hephaestion more than friends? )

The precocious Alexander was already a seasoned commander in the Macedonian army when he became king at the age of 20 in 336 B.C., after his father’s assassination. In one of his most decisive moves, the young monarch forcefully proved his authority over rebellious Greeks by storming the defiant city of Thebes, slaughtering thousands of residents and enslaving the rest.

Persian conquest

In 334 B.C., Alexander set out to conquer the Persian Empire, which had waned in power but remained a behemoth. Alexander’s army numbered fewer than 40,000 men, mostly Macedonian and fiercely loyal. The versatile force included cavalry and heavily armed foot soldiers, who wielded spears and formed a phalanx, advancing relentlessly behind raised shields. Alexander deployed his troops with great skill and earned their devotion by leading them in battle and suffering several wounds.

Alexander visited the fabled city of Troy as he crossed the Bosporus into Asia Minor and routed the Persian forces there. Greek cities in Asia Minor that had been under Persian control welcomed his rule. At the Gulf of Issus in 333 B.C., Alexander soundly defeated Persian emperor Darius III, who retreated so hastily, he left behind family members to be taken hostage.

Refusing to make peace unless Darius yielded to him as emperor, Alexander swept south along the sea toward Egypt. He seized strategic ports, including the defiant Phoenician port of Tyre. He met with more reverence in Egypt, where he was honored as a god-king like the pharaohs of old—veneration he considered his due.

From the Mediterranean, Alexander advanced east into Mesopotamia and engaged Darius’s replenished troops on the plain of Gaugamela in 331 B.C. Once again, Alexander demonstrated that a small army acting in concert was superior to a sprawling, disorganized one. When a gap opened in the Persian ranks, he and his elite cavalrymen dashed into the breach, splitting the opposing army in two. He had conquered the Persians at last.

Alexander the Great's fall—and death

By adding the vast Persian realm to his Balkan kingdom, Alexander forged a Eurasian empire of unprecedented scope. Yet that wasn’t enough. He didn’t heed the Greek lesson about the danger of hubris , striving arrogantly for more than any man could realistically achieve. He subdued Bactria (in modern-day Afghanistan) and wed Roxana, the daughter of a Bactrian chief. He then invaded India in 327 B.C. and crossed the Indus River, the farthest frontier of the old Persian Empire. But monsoons made his troops feverish and mutinous; in 325 B.C., they turned back.

( How suspicion and intrigue eroded Alexander's empire .)

Alexander’s genius was military, not political or diplomatic. He made fitful efforts to organize his huge empire in the style of the Persians; he hired Persian officials and wed Persian princesses (as did dozens of his commanders). Many Macedonians felt he placed too much trust in people they still viewed as enemies, and Greeks consented only reluctantly to his demand to be recognized as divine like some Near Eastern monarchs. “If Alexander wishes to be a god,” Spartans observed skeptically, “let him be a god.”

The mortal Alexander died suddenly (perhaps from typhoid fever) in Babylon in 323 B.C. His empire fractured after his death, but those lands were forever changed, infused with the culture and cosmopolitan spirit of a larger Greek world that Alexander brought into being.

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Alexander the Great Paperback – October 18, 2011

• Print length 416 pages
• Language English
• Publisher Simon & Schuster
• Publication date October 18, 2011
• Dimensions 5.5 x 1 x 8.44 inches
• ISBN-10 1416592814
• ISBN-13 978-1416592815
• See all details

Editorial Reviews

About the author, product details.

• Publisher ‏ : ‎ Simon & Schuster (October 18, 2011)
• Language ‏ : ‎ English
• Paperback ‏ : ‎ 416 pages
• ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 1416592814
• ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-1416592815
• Item Weight ‏ : ‎ 12.6 ounces
• Dimensions ‏ : ‎ 5.5 x 1 x 8.44 inches
• #1 in Historical Greece Biographies
• #15 in Ancient Greek History (Books)
• #94 in Traveler & Explorer Biographies

About the author

Philip freeman.

Philip Freeman is a Professor of Humanities at Pepperdine University in Malibu, California. He earned his Ph.D. from Harvard University in Classical Philology and Celtic Languages and Literatures. His books have been reviewed in the New York Times, Wall Street Journal, and other national publications.

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Customers find the narrative compelling, informative, and entertaining. They also appreciate the historical timeline and map. Readers describe the book as excellent, masterful, and fearless. Opinions are mixed on the detail level, with some finding it fantastic and others complaining about a lack of details.

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Customers find the book readable, easy to understand, and keep track of. They say it's a terrific book with brilliant pacing and vivid descriptions. Readers also mention that the book holds their attention and keeps them interested.

"...And it is told in a familiar, non-academic way that makes the prose very accessible , although the names of places and people will not be familiar to..." Read more

"...A great starting point and fantastically accessible . Highly recommend." Read more

"...Reads like a novel. It will hold your attention and keep you interested from beginning to end...." Read more

"...Freeman's Alexander is keenly intelligent , capable of quick, decisive action, and brave to the point of recklessness...." Read more

Customers find the book compelling, interesting, and educational. They say it's told in a familiar, non-academic way that makes the prose very readable. Readers also appreciate the good battle scenes and explanation of war tactics. They mention the book reveals the ambition of the historical figure.

"...And it is told in a familiar , non-academic way that makes the prose very accessible, although the names of places and people will not be familiar to..." Read more

"...Reads like a novel. It will hold your attention and keep you interested from beginning to end ...." Read more

"...But he builds a lively narrative that reads like an exciting adventure...." Read more

"...but thanks to Freeman's deft writing, it was instead a page-turner of an adventure story , handled with such skill that you feel you're almost..." Read more

Customers find the book's content informative, entertaining, and gratifying. They also appreciate the great mix of history and interpretation, with historical texts provided as alternative. Readers also mention that the military tactics and skill are astonishing, amazing, and remarkable.

"...And it is told in a familiar, non-academic way that makes the prose very accessible, although the names of places and people will not be familiar to..." Read more

"... No dry battle tactics here . Freeman has clearly mastered a vast array of sources, but feels no need to throw in arcane bits here and there...." Read more

"...I am not exaggerating when I say it was it was one of the finest histories I've read in ages...." Read more

" Great mix of history and interpretation- often with historical texts provided as alternative..." Read more

Customers find the biography excellent, fascinating, and honest in trying to present Alexander. They also say the book has astute observations and a military mind.

"...Freeman wrote a fantastic biography here. A great starting point and fantastically accessible. Highly recommend." Read more

"This is the best biography of Alexander that I’ve read. Reads like a novel...." Read more

"...For me this was a good refresher book on Alexander and I would not hesitate to recommend this book to someone who knows little or nothing about..." Read more

"...this with some very astute observations, and is very honest in trying to present Alexander , flaws and all, through the prism of cultural norms in..." Read more

Customers find the author an expert craftsman when it comes to storytelling. They also say the book is easy to read and handled with skill.

"...writing, it was instead a page-turner of an adventure story, handled with such skill that you feel you're almost there beside him in those exotic..." Read more

"...His accomplishments were remarkable , and he details them in a very interesting and easy to read way...." Read more

"... An amazing man , and the way the author covers the Greek mythology, interesting facts about the lands and other pertinent details of the time is..." Read more

"Incredible book about an incredible leader . Philip Freeman brings Alexander to life in a sweeping narrative that reads like a thriller...." Read more

Customers are mixed about the detail level. Some mention that the book provides fantastic details and gives a clearer picture of what the world was like back in Alexander's time. However, others say that there are a lack of details about some of Alexanders and very little source material.

"This was a nice over view of Alexander from start to finish...." Read more

"...Sometimes there is very little source material . In others, what source material exists cannot be certified as accurate...." Read more

"...This book does a great job of providing a good picture of this powerful and intelligent person...." Read more

"My only gripe would be the lack of details about some of Alexanders battles. But this author's writing style I love...." Read more

Customers have mixed opinions about the character depth. Some find the characters bring to life and absolutely human. Others say the names of characters are challenging.

"...He was, however, also stunningly, absolutely human and had plenty of flaws...." Read more

"...The names of characters is a bit challenging , but reading on a kindle is very helpful for looking up the names of people and the ancient names of..." Read more

"... You connect with each character and it reads like a novel." Read more

"...There were too many names to remember ." Read more

Customers find the plot complex and boring at times. They also say it can be overwhelming and difficult to follow the story.

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"Tough read, very Bland . Not enough stories just basically a history of the path he took throughout the world on his conquests...." Read more

"...A waste of time to the hands of a native Greek who studied this era at school. A distorted picture for the first time scholar...." Read more

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Alexander the Great Study Guide

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Alexander the Great, King of Macedon from 336 - 323 B.C., may claim the title of the greatest military leader the world has ever known. His empire spread from Gibraltar to the Punjab, and he made Greek the lingua franca of his world, the language that helped spread early Christianity.

After his father, Philip II, unified most of the reluctant city-states of Greece, Alexander continued his conquests by taking Thrace and Thebes (in the area of Greece), Syria, Phoenicia, Mesopotamia, Assyria, Egypt, and on to the Punjab, in northern India.

Alexander Assimilated and Adopted Foreign Customs

Alexander founded possibly more than 70 cities throughout the Mediterranean region and east to India, spreading trade and the culture of the Greeks wherever he went. Along with spreading Hellenism, he sought to interbreed with the native populations, and set an example for his followers by marrying local women. This required adaptation to the local customs -- as we see very clearly in Egypt, where his successor Ptolemy's descendants adopted the local custom of pharaonic marriage to siblings [although, in his excellent Antony and Cleopatra , Adrian Goldsworthy says this was done for other reasons than the Egyptian example]. As was true in Egypt, so it was also true in the East (among Alexander's Seleucid successors) that Alexander's goal of racial fusion met resistance. The Greeks remained dominant.

Larger-Than-Life

The story of Alexander is told in terms of oracles, myths, and legends, including his taming of the wild horse Bucephalus, and Alexander's pragmatic approach to severing the Gordian Knot.

Alexander was and still is compared with Achilles, the Greek hero of the Trojan War . Both men chose a life that guaranteed immortal fame even at the cost of an early death. Unlike Achilles, who was subordinate to the great king Agamemnon, it was Alexander who was in charge, and it was his personality that kept his army on the march while holding together domains that were very diverse geographically and culturally.

Problems With His Men

Alexander's Macedonian troops were not always in sympathy with their leader. His apparent adoption of Persian customs antagonized his men who were not apprised of his motives. Did Alexander want to become a Great King, like Darius? Did he want to be worshiped as a living god? When, in 330, Alexander sacked Persepolis, Plutarch says his men thought it a sign Alexander was ready to return home. When they learned otherwise, some threatened to mutiny. In 324, on the banks of the Tigris River , at Opis, Alexander executed the leaders of a mutiny. Soon the disaffected soldiers, thinking they were being replaced with Persians, asked Alexander to accept them back again. [Reference: Pierre Briant's Alexander the Great and His Empire ]

Alexander was ambitious, capable of fierce anger, ruthless, willful, an innovative strategist, and charismatic. People continue to debate his motives and capabilities.

Alexander died suddenly, in Babylon, on June 11, 323 B.C. The cause of death is not known. It could have been poison (possibly arsenic) or natural causes. Alexander the Great was 33

13 Facts About Alexander the Great

Use Your judgment: Remember that Alexander is a larger than life figure so what is attributed to him could be propaganda mixed with fact.

• Birth Alexander was born around July 19/20, 356 B.C.
• Parents Alexander was the son of King Philip II of Macedon and Olympias , daughter of King Neoptolemus I of Epirus. Olympias was not the only wife of Philip and there was much conflict between Alexander's parents. There are other contenders for the father of Alexander, but they're mush less believable.
• Education Alexander was tutored by Leonidas (possibly his uncle) and the great Greek philosopher Aristotle . (Hephaestion is thought to have been educated along with Alexander.)
• Who Was Bucephalus? During his youth, Alexander tamed the wild horse Bucephalus . Later, when his beloved horse died, Alexander renamed a city in India for Bucephalus.
• The Promise Shown When Alexander Was Regent In 340 B.C., while father Philip went off to fight rebels, Alexander was made regent in Macedonia. During Alexander's regency, the Maedi of northern Macedonia revolted. Alexander put down the revolt and renamed their city Alexandropolis.
• His Early Military Prowess In August 338 Alexander showed his mettle helping Philip win the Battle of Chaeronea.
• Alexander Succeeds His Father to the Throne In 336 B.C. his father Philip was assassinated, and Alexander the Great became ruler of Macedonia.
• Alexander Was Wary of Those Around Him Alexander had potential rivals executed in order to secure the throne.
• Statiera, and
• Herakles, son of Alexander's mistress Barsine,[Sources: Alexander the Great and His Empire , by Pierre Briant and Alexander the Great , by Philip Freeman]
• Alexander IV, son of Roxane.
• Alexander Solved the Gordian Knot They say that when Alexander the Great was in Gordium (modern Turkey), in 333 B.C., he undid the Gordian Knot. This is the fabled knot tied by the father of the legendary ass-eared King Midas. The same "they" said that the person who untied the Gordian Knot would rule all of Asia. Alexander the Great may have undone the knot by the simple expedience of slashing through it with a sword.
• Death of Alexander In 323 B.C. Alexander the Great returned from the area of modern India and Pakistan to Babylonia, where he became ill suddenly, and died at age 33. We don't now why he died. It could have been disease or poison.
• Who Were Alexander's Successors? The successors of Alexander are known as the Diadochi .

Timeline of Alexander the Great

• Biography of Olympias, Mother of Alexander the Great
• Bucephalus: The Horse of Alexander the Great
• Was Alexander the Great a Greek?
• Alexander the Great Pictures
• King Porus of Paurava
• King Philip II of Macedonia
• Points About Ancient Greek History
• Wars of the Alexander the Great: Battle of Chaeronea
• The Battle at Issus
• Seleucus, the Successor of Alexander
• Major Events in the Life of Alexander the Great
• The Start of the Persian Wars
• Political Aspects of the Classical Age of Greece
• 30 Maps of Ancient Greece Show How a Country Became an Empire
• Why Did Alexander Burn Persepolis?
• Cleopatra Study Guide

ENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRY

Alexander the great.

Alexander the Great, a Macedonian king, conquered the eastern Mediterranean, Egypt, the Middle East, and parts of Asia in a remarkably short period of time. His empire ushered in significant cultural changes in the lands he conquered and changed the course of the region’s history.

Geography, Human Geography, Social Studies, Ancient Civilizations

Photo of a marble bust of a man.

Photograph by Kenneth Garrett, National Geographic

Alexander the Great , also known as Alexander III or Alexander of Macedonia is known as one of the greatest generals in all history.

Alexander was born in 356 B.C.E. in Pella, Macedonia, to King Philip II. As a young boy, Alexander was taught to read, write, and play the lyre. He developed a life-long love of reading and music. When Alexander was a teenager, his father hired Aristotle to be his private tutor. He studied with Aristotle for three years and from Aristotle ’s teachings, Alexander developed a love of science, particularly of medicine and botany . Alexander included  botanists and scientists in his army to study the lands he conquered .

In 336 B.C.E., at age 20, Alexander became king of Macedonia when a political rival assassinated his father. Alexander began his reign by subduing rivals in the Greek and Macedonian regions. At a council of the League of Corinth, he was chosen as the commander of a military invasion of Asia. King Alexander began his invasion of the Middle East in 334 B.C.E. He spent most of his reign on a military campaign through northeast Africa and southwestern Asia.

Alexander built many new cities in the lands he conquered , including Alexandria in Egypt. He went on to conquer the lands of the Persian Empire, establishing more cities, and like Alexandria, often naming them after himself. His conquest continued through Asia until he reached the shores of the Ganga (Ganges) River in India. At this point, his army refused to continue further into India, exhausted and discouraged by heavy rains.

Alexander was 32 when he died in 323 B.C.E.

During his 13-year reign as the king of Macedonia, Alexander created one of the largest empires of the ancient world, stretching from Greece to northwestern India.

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Alexander the Great: Facts, biography and accomplishments

Alexander the Great's empire stretched from the Balkans to modern-day Pakistan.

Where was Alexander the Great from?

Conquering the persian empire, pharaoh of egypt, battle of gaugamela, why did alexander kill his friends, alexander's final battles, the journey home, return to persia and death, alexander's legacy.

Alexander the Great was king of Macedonia from 336 B.C. to 323 B.C. and conquered a huge empire that stretched from the Balkans to modern-day Pakistan. 

During his reign, Alexander the Great had a massive impact in his time and sent ripples into the future. "In a reign of 13 years Alexander shot across the Greek and Middle Eastern firmament like a meteor, transforming whatever he — often brutally — touched and ensuring the ancient world and so eventually our world could never be the same again," Paul Cartledge, A.G. Leventis professor of Greek culture at Cambridge University, wrote in All About History magazine.

Alexander's triumphs also made him a legendary figure and an inspiration for future generations. "Until the internet age, Alexander the Great was probably the most famous human being who ever lived," Cartledge wrote. "His astounding career of conquest inspired not just Caesar and Augustus but also Mark Antony, Napoleon , Hitler and other would-be world conquerors from the West."

Related: Has the tomb of Alexander the Great's mom been found?  

Yet, despite his military accomplishments, ancient records say that he failed to win the respect of some of his subjects, wrote Pierre Briant, emeritus professor of history at Collège de France, in " Alexander the Great and His Empire " (Princeton University Press, 2010) and, furthermore, he had some of the people closest to him murdered.

"The personality of Alexander the Great was a paradox," Susan Abernethy of The Freelance History Writer told Live Science. "He had great charisma and force of personality but his character was full of contradictions, especially in his later years (his early 30s). However, he had the ability to motivate his army to do what seemed to be impossible."

Alexander was born around July 20, 356 B.C., in Pella in modern-day northern Greece, which was the administrative capital of ancient Macedonia. He was the son of King Philip II and Olympias (one of Philip's seven or eight wives) and was brought up with the belief that he was of divine birth. "From his earliest days, Olympias had encouraged him to believe that he was a descendent of heroes and gods. Nothing he had accomplished would have discouraged this belief," wrote Guy MacLean Rogers, a professor of classics at Wellesley College, Massachusetts, in his book " Alexander " (Random House, 2004). 

Alexander's father was often away, conquering neighboring territories and putting down revolts. Nevertheless, King Philip II of Macedon was one of Alexander's most influential role models, Abernethy said. "Philip ensured Alexander was given a noteworthy and significant education. He arranged for Alexander to be tutored by Aristotle himself … His education infused him with a love of knowledge, logic, philosophy, music and culture. The teachings of Aristotle [would later aid] him in the treatment of his new subjects in the empires he invaded and conquered, allowing him to admire and maintain these disparate cultures."

Alexander watched his father campaign nearly every year and win victory after victory. Philip remodeled the Macedonian army from citizen-warriors into a professional organization, wrote Ian Worthington, professor of history and archaeology at Macquarie University, in " Philip II of Macedonia " (Yale University Press, 2010). Philip suffered serious wounds in battle, such as the loss of an eye, a broken shoulder and a damaged leg, according to Worthington.

Philip decided to leave his 16-year-old son in charge of Macedonia while he was away on campaign, Cartledge wrote in his book " Alexander the Great " (Overlook Press, 2004). Alexander took advantage of the opportunity by defeating a Thracian people called the Maedi and founding "Alexandroupolis," a city he named after himself. 

"Alexander felt the need to challenge his father's authority and superiority and wished to out-do his father," Abernethy said. 

Ancient records, such as Plutarch's " Lives ," indicate that Alexander and Philip became estranged later in Alexander's teenage years. "Alexander may have resented his father's many marriages and the children born from them, seeing them as a threat to his own position," said Abernethy. At one point his mother Olympia was exiled to Epirus in western Greece.

Philip was assassinated in 336 B.C. while celebrating the wedding of his daughter Cleopatra (not the famous Egyptian pharaoh ). The person who stabbed him was said to have been one of Philip's former male lovers, named Pausanias. While the ancient Greek historian Cleitarchus pointed to jealousy and betrayal as the motive, as outlined by Diodorus Siculus in " Library of History ," other ancient sources like Justin in " Epitome of the Philippic History Of Pompeius Trogus " suspected that Pausanias may have been part of a larger plot to kill the king — one that may have included Alexander and his mother. 

At the time of his death, Philip was contemplating invading the Persian Empire, also known as the Achaemenid Empire, which at its peak stretched from the Balkan peninsula to modern-day Pakistan and had repeatedly attempted to conquer the Greek world. Philip’s dream was passed onto Alexander, partly via his mother Olympias, according to Abernethy. "She fostered in him a burning dynastic ambition and told him it was his destiny to invade Persia."

Upon his father's death, Alexander moved quickly to consolidate power. He gained the support of the Macedonian army and intimidated the Greek city states that Philip had conquered into accepting his rule. After campaigns in the Balkans and Thrace, Alexander moved against Thebes, a city in Greece that had risen up in rebellion. He conquered it in 335 B.C. and had the city destroyed.

With Greece and the Balkans pacified, he was ready to launch a campaign against the Persian Empire.

While Alexander may have had his own reasons for expanding eastward, "his official reason for wanting to conquer the Achaemenid Persian Empire… was to lead the allied Greeks in a war of liberation: to free forever from Persian control the Greek cities along the Anatolian coast and on the island of Cyprus, and in so doing also to exact revenge for the Persians' invasion of Greece under Great King Xerxes in 480-479 BCE," Cartledge wrote. 

But ironically, Alexander often fought Greek mercenaries while campaigning against Darius III, the king of Persia. Even more ironically, Sparta , a city that had famously lost its king and 300 warriors in the Battle of Thermopylae during a Persian invasion attempt, also opposed Alexander, going so far as to seek Persian help in the Spartans’ efforts to overthrow him, according to Siculus.

Nevertheless, Alexander was hugely successful against Persia. The first major battle he won against the Perisans was in 334 B.C. at the Battle of Granicus, fought in modern-day western Turkey, not far from the ancient city of Troy . The ancient Greek historian Arrian wrote that Alexander defeated a force of 20,000 Persian horsemen and an equal number of foot soldiers. He then advanced down the coast of west Turkey, taking cities and depriving the Persian navy of bases.

The second key battle he won — and perhaps the most important — was the Battle of Issus, fought in 333 B.C. near the ancient town of Issus in southern Turkey, close to modern-day Syria. In that battle, the Persians were led by Darius III himself. Arrian estimated that Darius had a force of 600,000 troops (probably wildly exaggerated) and initially positioned himself on a great plain where he could mass his force effectively against Alexander, who hesitated to give battle.

Darius is said to have thought this as a sign of timidity. "One courtier after another incited Darius, declaring that he would trample down the Macedonian army with his cavalry," Arrian wrote. So, Darius gave up his position and chased Alexander. At first this went well, and Darius’s soldiers got in the rear of Alexander's force. However, Darius’s army had been led to a narrow spot where the Persians could not use their superior numbers effectively, and at that point Alexander moved his force against the Persians. Alexander’s experienced army proved too strong for the Persian force, and eventually Darius fled, along with his army.

In his haste, Darius left much of his family behind, including his mother, wife, infant son and two daughters. Alexander ordered that they be "honored, and addressed as royalty," Arrian wrote. After the battle, Darius offered Alexander a ransom for his family and alliance, through marriage.

Arrian wrote that Alexander rebuked Darius in writing, saying "in the future whenever you send word to me, address yourself to me as King of Asia and not as an equal, and let me know, as the master of all that belonged to you, if you have need of anything." 

Alexander then moved south along the eastern Mediterranean, continuing a strategy designed to deprive the Persians of their naval bases. Many cities surrendered, but some, such as Tyre , which was on an island in modern-day Lebanon, put up a fight and forced Alexander to lay siege.

In 332 B.C., after Gaza was taken by siege, Alexander entered Egypt, a country that had experienced on-and-off periods of Persian rule for two centuries. On its northern coast, he founded Alexandria , the most successful city he ever built. Arrian wrote that "a sudden passion for the project seized him, and he himself marked out where the agora was to be built and decided how many temples were to be erected and to which gods they were to be dedicated…".

Alexander claimed the title of pharaoh, and according to Cartledge, looked to attach himself to the line of Egyptian rulers through a traditional ceremony. "Almost certainly he had himself crowned pharaoh in the old Egyptian capital of Memphis, thereby not only ingratiating himself with the Egyptian masses but also enfolding the old and still powerful Egyptian priesthood in the embrace of his new Egyptian monarchy," Cartledge wrote.

With the eastern Mediterranean and Egypt under his control, , Alexander successfully deprived the Persians of naval bases and was free to move inland to conquer the eastern half of the Persian Empire.

At the Battle of Gaugamela, fought in 331 B.C. in northern Iraq near present-day Erbil, Alexander faced as many as 1 million troops, according to Arrian (modern scholars’ estimates vary but put the total closer to 100,000 against roughly 50,000 soldiers for Alexander). Darius brought soldiers from all over his empire, and even beyond. Scythian horsemen from the Persian Empire’s northern borders faced Alexander, as did "Indian" troops (as the ancient writers called them) who were probably from modern-day Pakistan.

The battle soon became a war of nerves. "For a brief period the fighting was hand to hand, but when Alexander and his horseman pressed the enemy hard, shoving the Persians and striking their faces with spears, and the Macedonian phalanx, tightly arrayed and bristling with pikes, was already upon them, Darius, who had long been in a state of dread, now saw terrors all around him; he wheeled about — the first to do so — and fled," Arrian wrote. From that point on the Persian army started to collapse and the Persian king fled, with Alexander in hot pursuit.

Darius was later betrayed by one of his satraps, or regional governors, named Bessus (who then claimed kingship over what was left of Persia), and was killed by his own troops in 330 B.C..

Alexander wanted a peaceful transition of power in Persia following Darius’s defeat. He needed to have the appearance of legitimacy to appease the people, so Alexander provided a noble burial for Darius.

"[Providing noble burials] was a common practice by Alexander and his generals when they took over the rule of different areas of the empire," Abernethy said.

Alexander was influenced by the teachings of his tutor, Aristotle, whose philosophy of Greek ethos did not require forcing Greek culture on the colonized. "Alexander would take away the political autonomy of those he conquered but not their culture or way of life. In this way, he would gain their loyalty by honoring their culture, even after the conquest was complete, creating security and stability. Alexander himself even adopted Persian dress and certain Persian customs," Abernethy said.

Wishing to incorporate the most easterly portions of the Persian Empire into his own, Alexander campaigned in central Asia from 330 and 327 B.C.. It was a rocky, frost-bitten conflict, which raised tensions within his own army, and led to Alexander killing two of his closest friends.

Alexander killing Parmenio, his former second in command, and Cleitus, the Macedonian king’s close friend who is said to have saved his life at the Battle of Granicus, may be seen as a sign of how Alexander’s men were becoming tired of campaigning, and how Alexander was becoming increasingly paranoid.

At some point during Alexander's campaign in central Asia, Parmenio's son, Philotas, allegedly failed to report a plot against Alexander's life. The king, incensed, decided to kill not only Philotas and the other men deemed conspirators, but also Parmenio, even though he apparently had nothing to do with the alleged plot.

According to the first-century A.D. writer Quintus Curtius (as found in " Alexander The Great: Selections from Arrian, Diodorus, Plutarch, and Quintus Curtius ," Hackett Publishing, 1800), Alexander tasked a man named Polydamas, a friend of Parmenio, to perform the deed, holding his brothers hostage until he murdered Parmenio. Arriving in Parmenio's tent in the city where he was stationed, Polydamas handed him two letters: one from Alexander and one from Parmenio’s son.

When Parmenio was reading the letter from his son, a general named Cleander, who aided Polydamas with his mission, "opened him (Parmenio) up with a sword thrust to his side, then struck him a second blow in the throat…" killing him, Quintus Curtius wrote. 

A second casualty of Alexander's fury was his friend Cleitus, who was angry at Alexander for adopting Persian dress and customs. After an episode where the two were drinking, Cleitus scolded the king, telling him, in essence, that he should follow Macedonian ways, not Persian customs.

Cleitus lifted up his right hand and said, "this is the hand, Alexander, that saved you then (at the Battle of Granicus)," according to Arrian. Alexander, infuriated, killed him with a spear or pike.

Alexander took his act of murder terribly. "Again and again, he called himself his friend's murderer and went without food and drink for three days and completely neglected his person." Arrian wrote.

Alexander's days in central Asia were not all unhappy. After his troops had captured a fortress at a place called Sogdian Rock in modern-day Uzbekistan in 327 B.C. he met Roxana, the daughter of a local ruler. The two married, and they had an unborn son at the time of Alexander’s death.

Despite his men’s fatigue, and the fact that he was far from home, Alexander pressed on into a land that the Greeks called "India" (what is now present-day Pakistan). Plutarch explained in " The Life of Alexander the Great " that he made an alliance with a local ruler named Taxiles, who agreed to allow Alexander to use his city, Taxila, as a base of operations. He also agreed to give Alexander all the supplies he needed — which was very useful given Alexander's long supply lines.

In exchange, Alexander agreed to fight Porus, a local ruler who set out against Alexander with an army that reportedly included 200 elephants . The two armies met at the Hydaspes River in 326 B.C. Alexander bided his time; he scouted the area, built up a fleet of ships and lulled Porus into a false sense of security.

When Porus mobilized his forces he found himself in a predicament; his cavalry was not as experienced as Alexander's. As such, he put his 200 elephants — animals the Macedonians had never faced in large numbers — up front.

Alexander responded by using his cavalry to attack the wings of Porus's forces, quickly putting Porus's cavalry to flight. The result was that Porus's cavalry, foot soldiers and elephants eventually became jumbled together. Making matters worse for Porus, Alexander's soldiers attacked the elephants with javelins, and the wounded elephants went on a rampage, stomping on both Alexander and Porus's troops.

With his army falling apart, Porus stayed until the end and was captured. Arrian wrote that Porus was brought to the Macedonian king and said, "treat me like a king, Alexander." Alexander, impressed with his bravery and words, made him an ally.

In 324 B.C., Alexander's close friend, general and bodyguard Haphaestion died suddenly from fever. Haphaestion's death caused a drastic change in Alexander's personality, Abernethy said. "Alexander had always been a heavy drinker and the substance abuse began to take its toll. He lost his self-control and his compassion for his men. He became reckless, self-indulgent and inconsistent, causing a loss of loyalty by his men and officers. He had always had a violent temper and been rash, impulsive and stubborn. The drinking made these traits worse."

Under such conditions, many of his men insisted that Alexander turn back home, according to Abernethy. Sailing south down the Indus River, he fought a group called the Malli and was severely wounded after he led an attack against their city wall. After reaching the Indian Ocean he split his force in three. One element, with the heavy equipment, would take a relatively safe route to Persia, the second, under his command, would traverse Gedrosia, a largely uninhabited deserted area that no large force had ever crossed before. A third force, embarked on ships, would support Alexander's force and sail alongside them.

The Gedrosia crossing was a miserable failure, and upto three-quarters of Alexander's troops died along the way. His fleet was unable to keep up with the main force due to bad winds. "The burning heat and the lack of water destroyed a great part of the army and particularly the pack animals," Arrian wrote.

Why Alexander chose to lead part of his force through Gedrosia is a mystery. It could simply be because no one had ever attempted to bring such a large force through it before and Alexander wanted to be the first.

Alexander returned to Persia, this time as the ruler of a kingdom that stretched from the Balkans to Egypt to modern-day Pakistan. In 324 B.C., he arrived in Susa in present-day Iran, where a number of his innermost advisers got married.

Alexander got married to two other women, in addition to Roxana, whom he had married in central Asia. One was Barsine, daughter of Darius III, and the other was a Persian woman Arrian identified as Parysatis. Roxana likely did not take kindly to her two new co-wives and, after Alexander's death, she may have had them both killed, Plutarch wrote.

In 323 B.C., Alexander was in Babylon in modern-day Iraq, and his next major military target was apparently to be Arabia on the southern end of his empire. In June 323 B.C., while he was readying troops, he caught a fever that would not go away. He soon had trouble speaking and eventually died, with some suggesting he was poisoned . However, his death may have been announced prematurely, according Katherine Hall , a senior lecturer in the Department of General Practice and Rural Health at the University of Otago in New Zealand.

Shortly before his death, Alexander was supposedly asked who his empire should go to. His answer was said to be "to the strongest man," although he had an unborn son. However, there was nobody strong enough to hold his empire together. "Alexander's untimely death, without any provision having been made for a smooth succession (if such were indeed possible), opened the floodgates for two generations of warfare among his marshals, generals and lieutenants for their slice of his hypertrophied empire," Cartledge wrote.

"Perhaps the most significant legacy of Alexander was the range and extent of the proliferation of Greek culture," Abernethy said. "The reign of Alexander the Great signaled the beginning of a new era in history known as the Hellenistic Age. Greek culture had a powerful influence on the areas Alexander conquered."

Many of the cities that Alexander founded were named Alexandria, including the Egyptian city that is now home to more than 4.5 million people. The many Alexandrias were located on trade routes, which increased the flow of commodities between the East and the West. 

Alexander's legacy remains alive today, according to Cartledge, and is reimagined and reinterpreted by each generation; "There have been many Alexanders, as many as there have been observers, enemies, admirers, worshippers or serious students of the man, and hero, and god."

Additional reporting by Jessie Szalay, Live Science contributor, and Jonathan Gordon, Editor of All About History.

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Owen Jarus is a regular contributor to Live Science who writes about archaeology and humans' past. He has also written for The Independent (UK), The Canadian Press (CP) and The Associated Press (AP), among others. Owen has a bachelor of arts degree from the University of Toronto and a journalism degree from Ryerson University. 

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