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What Is a Case Study?

Weighing the pros and cons of this method of research

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Cara Lustik is a fact-checker and copywriter.

Verywell / Colleen Tighe

• Pros and Cons

What Types of Case Studies Are Out There?

Where do you find data for a case study, how do i write a psychology case study.

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in many different fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.

The point of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or group so that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format similar to other types of psychology writing. If you are writing a case study, we got you—here are some rules of APA format to reference.  

At a Glance

A case study, or an in-depth study of a person, group, or event, can be a useful research tool when used wisely. In many cases, case studies are best used in situations where it would be difficult or impossible for you to conduct an experiment. They are helpful for looking at unique situations and allow researchers to gather a lot of˜ information about a specific individual or group of people. However, it's important to be cautious of any bias we draw from them as they are highly subjective.

What Are the Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies?

A case study can have its strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that are often difficult or impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:

• Allows researchers to capture information on the 'how,' 'what,' and 'why,' of something that's implemented
• Gives researchers the chance to collect information on why one strategy might be chosen over another
• Permits researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research

On the other hand, a case study can have some drawbacks:

• It cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
• Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
• It may not be scientifically rigorous
• It can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they want to explore a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. Through their insights, researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might be explored in future studies.

It's important to remember that the insights from case studies cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. However, case studies may be used to develop hypotheses that can then be addressed in experimental research.

Case Study Examples

There have been a number of notable case studies in the history of psychology. Much of  Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies. Some great examples of case studies in psychology include:

• Anna O : Anna O. was a pseudonym of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim, a patient of a physician named Josef Breuer. While she was never a patient of Freud's, Freud and Breuer discussed her case extensively. The woman was experiencing symptoms of a condition that was then known as hysteria and found that talking about her problems helped relieve her symptoms. Her case played an important part in the development of talk therapy as an approach to mental health treatment.
• Phineas Gage : Phineas Gage was a railroad employee who experienced a terrible accident in which an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull, damaging important portions of his brain. Gage recovered from his accident but was left with serious changes in both personality and behavior.
• Genie : Genie was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation. The case study of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language learning was possible, even after missing critical periods for language development. Her case also served as an example of how scientific research may interfere with treatment and lead to further abuse of vulnerable individuals.

Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to study things that researchers could not replicate in experimental settings. In Genie's case, her horrific abuse denied her the opportunity to learn a language at critical points in her development.

This is clearly not something researchers could ethically replicate, but conducting a case study on Genie allowed researchers to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible to reproduce.

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might use:

• Collective case studies : These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study a group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community. For example, psychologists might explore how access to resources in a community has affected the collective mental well-being of those who live there.
• Descriptive case studies : These involve starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed, and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
• Explanatory case studies : These   are often used to do causal investigations. In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have caused certain things to occur.
• Exploratory case studies : These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses .
• Instrumental case studies : These occur when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
• Intrinsic case studies : This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children are good examples of how an intrinsic case study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.

The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking at several cases simultaneously.

The type of case study that psychology researchers use depends on the unique characteristics of the situation and the case itself.

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by researchers are:

• Archival records : Census records, survey records, and name lists are examples of archival records.
• Direct observation : This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural setting . While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of observers.
• Documents : Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc., are the types of documents often used as sources.
• Interviews : Interviews are one of the most important methods for gathering information in case studies. An interview can involve structured survey questions or more open-ended questions.
• Participant observation : When the researcher serves as a participant in events and observes the actions and outcomes, it is called participant observation.
• Physical artifacts : Tools, objects, instruments, and other artifacts are often observed during a direct observation of the subject.

If you have been directed to write a case study for a psychology course, be sure to check with your instructor for any specific guidelines you need to follow. If you are writing your case study for a professional publication, check with the publisher for their specific guidelines for submitting a case study.

Here is a general outline of what should be included in a case study.

Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information : The first section of your paper will present your client's background. Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem : In the next section of your case study, you will describe the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts, feelings, and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or diagnostic assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis : Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client's symptoms fit the diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to support why this approach was chosen.

• Cognitive behavioral approach : Explain how a cognitive behavioral therapist would approach treatment. Offer background information on cognitive behavioral therapy and describe the treatment sessions, client response, and outcome of this type of treatment. Make note of any difficulties or successes encountered by your client during treatment.
• Humanistic approach : Describe a humanistic approach that could be used to treat your client, such as client-centered therapy . Provide information on the type of treatment you chose, the client's reaction to the treatment, and the end result of this approach. Explain why the treatment was successful or unsuccessful.
• Psychoanalytic approach : Describe how a psychoanalytic therapist would view the client's problem. Provide some background on the psychoanalytic approach and cite relevant references. Explain how psychoanalytic therapy would be used to treat the client, how the client would respond to therapy, and the effectiveness of this treatment approach.
• Pharmacological approach : If treatment primarily involves the use of medications, explain which medications were used and why. Provide background on the effectiveness of these medications and how monotherapy may compare with an approach that combines medications with therapy or other treatments.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process, and outcomes.

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case study itself, including the strengths and limitiations of the study. You should note how the findings of your case study might support previous research. 

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study. What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

Need More Tips?

Here are a few additional pointers to keep in mind when formatting your case study:

• Never refer to the subject of your case study as "the client." Instead, use their name or a pseudonym.
• Read examples of case studies to gain an idea about the style and format.
• Remember to use APA format when citing references .

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach .  BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011;11:100.

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011 Jun 27;11:100. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Gagnon, Yves-Chantal.  The Case Study as Research Method: A Practical Handbook . Canada, Chicago Review Press Incorporated DBA Independent Pub Group, 2010.

Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . United States, SAGE Publications, 2017.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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CBSE class 11 Psychology study material in PDF format. MyCBSEguide provides solved papers, board question papers, revision notes and NCERT solutions for CBSE class 11 Psychology. The topics included are What is psychology, Methods of Enquiry in Psychology, The Basis of human Behavior, Human Developments, Sensory, Attentional and Perceptual Processes, Learning, Human Memory, Thinking, Motivation and emotions.

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Download CBSE class 11 Psychology study material in PDF format. MyCBSEguide provides solved papers, board question papers, revision notes and NCERT solutions for CBSE class 11 Psychology. The topics included are What is psychology, Methods of Enquiry in Psychology, The Basis of human Behavior, Human Developments, Sensory, Attentional and Perceptual Processes, Learning, Human Memory, Thinking, Motivation and emotions.

Term-I: Foundations of Psychology (170 Periods)

Unit I: What is psychology? (16 Periods)

1. Introduction 2. What is Psychology? (i) Consciousness (From the CBSE Supplementary Reading Material) a) Psychology as a Discipline b) Psychology as a Natural Science c) Psychology as a Social Science 3. Understanding Mind and Behaviour 4. Popular Notions about the Discipline of Psychology 5. Evolution of Psychology 6. Development of Psychology in India 7. Branches of Psychology 8. Themes of Research and Applications 9. Psychology and Other Disciplines 10. Psychologists at Work 11. Psychology in Everyday Life (i) Linkages across psychological processes (From the CBSE Supplementary Reading Material)

Unit II: Methods of Enquiry in Psychology (20 Periods)

The topics in this unit are: 1. Introduction 2. Goals of Psychological Enquiry a) Steps in Conducting Scientific Research b) Alternative Paradigms of Research 3. Nature of Psychological Data 4. Some Important Methods in Psychology a) Observational Method b) Experimental Method c) Correlational Research d) Survey Research e) Psychological Testing f) Case Study 5. Analysis of Data a. Quantitative Method (i) Concepts and computation of the Measures of Central Tendency; GraphicalPresentation of Data : Bar, Histogram, Polygon(From the CBSE Supplementary ReadingMaterial) b. Qualitative Method 6. Limitations of Psychological Enquiry 7. Ethical Issues

Unit III: The Bases of Human Behaviour (20 Periods) The topics in this unit are: 1. Introduction 2. Evolutionary Perspective 3. Biological and Cultural Roots 4. Biological Basis of Behaviour a) Neurons 5. Structure and Functions of Nervous System and 6. Endocrine System and their Relationship with 7. Behaviour and Experience a) The Nervous System (i) Sleep and Wakefulness(From the CBSE Supplementary Reading Material) b) The Endocrine System 8. Heredity: Genes and Behaviour 9. Cultural Basis : Socio-Cultural Shaping of Behaviour a) Concept of Culture 10. Enculturation 11. Socialisation 12. Acculturation (i) Globalization (From the CBSE Supplementary Reading Material) (ii) Diversity and Pluralism in the Indian Context (From the CBSE Supplementary ReadingMaterial)

Unit IV: Human Development (16 Periods) The topics in this unit are: 1. Introduction 2. Meaning of Development a) Life-Span Perspective on Development 3. Factors Influencing Development 4. Context of Development 5. Overview of Developmental Stages a) Prenatal Stage 6. Infancy 7. Childhood 8. Challenges of Adolescence 9. Adulthood and Old Age

Term-II Unit-V: Sensory, Attentional, and Perceptual Processes (20 periods) The topics in this unit are: 1. Introduction 2. Knowing the world 3. Nature and varieties of Stimulus 4. Sense Modalities a) Visual Sensation b) Auditory Sensation 5. Attentional Processes a) Selective Attention b) Sustained Attention 6. Perceptual Processes a) Processing Approaches in Perception 7. The Perceiver 8. Principles of Perceptual Organisation 9. Perception of Space, Depth, and Distance a) Monocular Cues and Binocular Cues 10. Perceptual Constancies 11. Illusions 12. Socio-Cultural Influences on Perception (i) Person Perception

Unit-VI: Learning (20 periods) The topics in this unit are: 1. Introduction 2. Nature of Learning 3. Paradigms of Learning 4. Classical Conditioning 5. Determinants of Classical Conditioning 6. Operant/Instrumental Conditioning a) Determinants of Operant Conditioning b) Key Learning Processes 7. Observational Learning 8. Cognitive Learning 9. Verbal Learning 10. Concept Learning 11. Skill Learning 12. Transfer of Learning (i) Learning Curve(From the CBSE Supplementary Reading Material) 13. Factors Facilitating Learning 14. The Learner : Learning Styles 15. Learning Disabilities 16. Applications of Learning Principles

Unit-VII: Human Memory (20 periods) The topics in this unit are: 1. Introduction 2. Nature of memory 3. Information processing Approach : The Stage Model (i) An alternative approach-The Information Processing Perspective (From the CBSESupplementary Reading Material) 4. Memory Systems : Sensory, Short-term and Long-term Memories 5. Levels of Processing 6. Types of Long-term Memory a) Declarative and Procedural; Episodic and Semantic 7. Knowledge Representation and Organisation in Memory 8. Memory as a Constructive Process 9. Nature and Causes of Forgetting a) Forgetting due to Trace Decay, Interference and Retrieval Failure b) Pathologies related to Memory(From the CBSE Supplementary Reading Material) 10. Enhancing Memory a) Mnemonics using Images and Organisation

Unit-VIII: Thinking (20 periods) The topics in this unit are: 1. Introduction 2. Nature of Thinking a) Building Blocks of Thought 3. The Processes of Thinking 4. Problem Solving 5. Reasoning 6. Decision-making 7. Nature and Process of Creative Thinking a) Nature of Creative Thinking b) Process of Creative Thinking 8. Developing Creative Thinking a) Barriers to Creative Thinking b) Strategies for Creative Thinking 9. Thought and Language (i) Stages of Cognitive development Introduction to the ideas of Piaget, and Vygotsky (From the CBSE Supplementary Reading Material) 10. Development of Language and Language Use

Unit-IX: Motivation and Emotion (18 periods) The topics in this unit are: 1. Introduction 2. Nature of Motivation 3. Types of Motives a) Biological Motives b) Psychosocial Motives 4. Maslow?s Hierarchy of Needs 5. Nature of Emotions 6. Physiological Bases of Emotions 7. Cognitive Bases of Emotions 8. Cultural Bases of Emotions 9. Expression of Emotions a) Culture and Emotional Expression b) Culture and Emotional Labelling 10. Managing Negative Emotions 11. Enhancing Positive Emotions (i) Human Existence (From the CBSE Supplementary Reading Material) (ii) Competence (From the CBSE Supplementary Reading Material) (iii) Self-efficacy (From the CBSE Supplementary Reading Material) (iv) Intrinsic motivation (From the CBSE Supplementary Reading Material) (v) Development of positive emotions (From the CBSE Supplementary Reading Material)

Practicals (Projects, experiments, small studies, etc.) (60 Periods)

The students shall be required to undertake one project and conduct two experiments. The project wouldinvolve the use of different methods of enquiry and related skills. Practicals would involve conductingexperiments and undertaking small studies, exercises, related to the topics covered in the course (e.g.Human development, Learning, Memory, Motivation, Perception, Attention and Thinking).

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• Class 11 Psychology Chapter 1 Important Questions

Class 11 Psychology Chapter 1 Important Questions What is Psychology designed for CBSE 2024-25. Get here important questions and Extra Question Answers of 11th Psychology chapter 1 along with the NCERT question answers.

Class 11 Psychology Chapter 1 Extra Question Answers

• Class 11 Psychology Chapter 1 NCERT Solutions
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• Class 11 Psychology all Chpaters Solutions
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Humanistic psychology could be a psychological perspective that emphasizes the study of the entire person. Humanistic psychologists observe human behavior not only through the eyes of the observer, but through the eyes of the person doing the behaving. An example of humanistic psychology may be a therapist seeing a client for the primary time for a therapy session and utilizing Maslow’s hierarchy of must determine where the client was on the hierarchy and to work out what needs were and weren’t being met.

Humanistic psychology could be a perspective that emphasizes viewing the full individual and stresses concepts like powerfulness, self-efficacy, and self-actualization. instead of concentrating on dysfunction, humanistic psychology strives to assist people fulfill their potential and maximize their well-being.

Define Constructivism. Constructivism is that the theory that says learners construct knowledge instead of just passively soak up information. As people experience the globe and reflect upon those experiences, they build their own representations and incorporate new information into their pre-existing knowledge (schemas).

Constructivism relies on the concept that individuals actively construct or make their own knowledge, which reality is decided by your experiences as a learner. Basically, learners use their previous knowledge as a foundation and hinge upon it with new things that they learn.

Write short notes on Biological psychology. Biological psychology, also called psychological science, is that the study of the biology of behavior; it focuses on the system nervous, hormones and genetics. Biological psychology examines the connection between mind and body, neural mechanisms, and therefore the influence of heredity on behavior.

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Biological psychology as a field emerged from a spread of scientific and philosophical traditions within the 18th and 19th centuries. within the Principles of Psychology (1890), William James argued that the scientific study of psychology should be grounded in an understanding of biology.

What are the 7 principles of ethics in psychology? This approach – that specialize in the appliance of seven mid-level principles to cases (non-maleficence, beneficence, health maximization, efficiency, respect for autonomy, justice, proportionality) – is presented during this paper.

Developmental psychology is that the scientific study of how and why humans grow, changes, and adapt across the course of their lives. Originally concerned with infants and kids, the sphere has expanded to incorporate adolescence, adult development, aging, and also the entire lifespan.

What does one understand by Industrial psychology? Industrial psychology refers to the applied organizational psychology accustomed study, analyze and understand human behavior within the workplace, mainly how business works and the way employees function. psychological science uses a variety of scientific methods, including quantitative and qualitative research.

Explain Educational psychology. Educational psychology is that the study of how people learn, including teaching methods, instructional processes, and individual differences in learning. The goal is to grasp how people learn and retain information.

Following are the points which shows the link between mind and behaviour:

• Using positive visualization techniques and feeling positive emotions, one can give birth to significant changes in bodily processes.
• Use of representational process, i.e. images generated by an individual in her/his mind, are wont to cure various sorts of phobias.
• A new discipline called Psychoneuroimmunology has emerged which emphasizes the role played by the mind in strengthening the system.
• One example which shows mind behaviour relationship may be a person with blocked arteries was made to visualize that blood was flowing through her/ his blocked arteries. After practicing this over a period of your time, significant relief was obtained by these patients because the degree of blockage became significantly less.

Psychology is that the scientific study and usage of observable behavior and mental processes of organisms. the topic matter of psychology is, affect, behavior, and cognition. The affect for psychology is that the actual mental processes that make up: moods, feeling, and spirit. humanistic psychology, a movement in psychology supporting the idea that humans, as individuals, are unique beings and may be recognized and treated intrinsically by psychologists and psychiatrists. The movement grew con to the 2 mainstream 20th-century trends in psychology, behaviorism and psychoanalysis. The humanistic approach emphasizes the private worth of the individual, the centrality of human values, and therefore the creative, active nature of kinsfolk.

The approach is optimistic and focuses on the noble human capacity to beat hardship, pain and despair. Sensitivity training at an area of employment is an example of the humanistic perspective. Individuals are taught to value and respect their coworkers for who they’re, irrespective of differences. This results in stronger workplace relationships and a more inclusive work environment.

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• Psychology /

Methods of Enquiry in Psychology: Free PDF

• Updated on  
• Jan 19, 2024

We know that psychologists study behaviours, mental processes, and experiences in different contexts but have you ever given thought to what methods psychologists use to understand these phenomena? Psychologists use a variety of research methods such as experiments, observation, interviews, case studies, surveys, etc. It is the methodology used that makes psychology a scientific endeavour. Let’s further understand and explore these interesting and illuminating methods that make psychology a scientific endeavour. In this blog, you will find some of the most crucial notes on Methods of Enquiry in Psychology- Class 11 Psychology .

This Blog Includes:

Methods of enquiry in psychology: goals, steps in conducting scientific research, nature of psychological data, different methods of enquiry in psychology, psychological testing, analysis of data, limitations in methods of enquiry in psychology, ethical issues with methods of enquiry in psychology.

Download the Full NCERT Chapter on Methods of Enquiry in Psychology Here.

Description

• The description requires recording a particular behaviour and describing it accurately so as to attain a comprehensive understanding of the same
• For example, morning habits may have a diverse range of behaviours like reading positive literature, meditation, exercise, journaling etc.
• It is the second goal of psychological enquiry 
• Here we attempt to understand the relationship between the behaviour we are describing with the other types of behaviour.

Explanation

• It is the third goal of psychological enquiry
• It attempts to explain the causal factors of behaviour and attain an understanding of the conditions in which the behaviour occurs or not.
• It is the fourth goal of psychological inquiry
• Making a particular behaviour happen
• Reducing it
• Enhancing it

Application 

• It is the fifth goal of psychological enquiry
• focuses on bringing out a positive change in people’s lives 

Conceptualizing a problem

• It is the first step of conducting a scientific research
• The researcher selects a topic for study which is done on basis of either review of past research, observations, personal experience

Identification of problem

• It is the second step of scientific research
• Development of a tentative statement about the topic takes place which is termed a hypothesis
• For example, “ greater is the amount of time spent by children in playing violent video games, the greater is the degree of impatience and anger developed by them”

Collection of data

• This step focuses on developing a research design or blueprint of the entire study.
• Participants in the study
• Methods of study
• Tools to be used in research
• Procedure for data collection

Drawing conclusions

• The next step of scientific research is to analyse data through statistical procedures
• It can be achieved through  measures of central tendency like mean, median, mode and graphical presentations like pie charts, bar diagram

Revising research conclusions

• The researcher revises the whole study and the hypothesis being taken is analysed thoroughly to see whether it stands true or not 

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Demographic information

It includes personal information like name, age, gender, education, occupation etc.

Physical information

Includes information about ecological conditions, housing conditions, size of rooms, facilities available at home, in the neighbourhood, in the school etc.

Psychological information

The information focuses on areas like intelligence, personality, interests etc.

Observation 

• It is a very powerful method of psychological enquiry
• It involves the selection of  a particular behaviour, recording the selected behaviour using symbols, photographs and analysis of the recorded behaviour

Merits 

• enables the researcher to study people and their behaviour.
• Can provide in-depth information about behaviour to be observed
• It is time-consuming
• It can be labour-intensive at times
• Poor method for establishing cause and effect relationship.              

Experimental method

• Experiments are generally conducted to establish cause-and-effect relationships between two or more variables in a controlled setting.
• Independent variables are manipulated and their effects are measured on the dependent variable.
• The optimal method for establishing cause and effect relationship between two or more variables
• The extraneous variables can be controlled thus, no scope for an alternative explanation
• The experimenter’s bias may affect the
• The authenticity of the experiment

Correlational research 

• The strength and direction of the relationship between two variables are represented by a number, termed the correlation coefficient
• Its value may range from +1.0 through 0.0 to -1.0
• Correlation helps in the prediction between the given variables
• Can examine issues that cannot be studied ethically or practically in experiments
• Fails to establish cause and effect relationship between variables

 Survey research

• It came into existence to study opinions, attitudes, and social facts by use of techniques such as questionnaires, interviews, etc.
• A properly selected representative sample may yield an accurate result
• It is flexible and adaptable to individual situations
•  Information can be gathered quickly and efficiently
• Unrepresentative  samples may yield misleading results
• Interviewer bias and social desirability bias may distort the findings
• Inaccurate information may be obtained at times
• It is an in-depth study of a particular case.
• It employs multiple methods for collecting information such as interviews, observations and psychological tests from a variety of respondents who in some way or the other might be associated with the case and can provide useful information.
• Provides rich descriptive information
• Helps in an in-depth study of a rare phenomenon.
• Fails to establish a cause-and-effect relationship 
• It may be subject to the biases of the researcher.
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• A psychological test is a standardized and objective instrument that is used to assess an individual’s standing about others on some mental or behavioural characteristics
• Reliability refers to the consistency of scores obtained by an individual on the same test on two different occasions
• Validity refers to the question, “Does the test measure what it claims to measure?”
• Norms help in making a test standardised. Norm is referred to as the average performance of the group.

Quantitative Method

Psychological tests, interviews, questionnaires contain a series of close-ended questions and the probable response to these questions are given in a scaled manner and that clearly illustrates the strength and magnitude of the response.

Qualitative Method

Human experiences are very complex. This complexity is lost when one elicits information from a respondent based on a question. 

Lack of true zero-point

Psychological measurements lack an absolute zero point. For example, even after scoring zero on a vocabulary test, it can’t be said that the respondent has zero knowledge of vocabulary.

Relative nature of psychological tools

The nature of psychological tools is relative, not absolute and they are developed keeping in view the important features of a particular context.

Subjective interpretation of qualitative data

The interpretation of the qualitative data used in the research is characterized by subjective interpretation which means that it varies from individual to individual.

Informed consent

The principle of informed consent states that potential participants must understand what will happen in the experiment and to them during the study so that they can make an informed decision about their participation in the study.

Confidentiality of data source

Participants of the study have the right to privacy and the researcher must safeguard the privacy of the participants by keeping the information provided by them confidential.

Voluntary participation

As per this principle, the participants must have the freedom to decide whether to participate in the study or not.

Debriefing 

Once the study is over, the participants are provided with the necessary information to complete their understanding of the research. The researcher should make efforts to remove any sort of anxiety which may have taken place as a result of the experiment

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The relationship between the client and the therapist requires a lot of trust, empathy, and non-judgemental behaviour, and keeping that in mind the ethical guidelines to be kept in consideration are informed consent, the confidentiality of data source, voluntary participation, and debriefing.

The method used by Dr Ram is the observation method. In this method, the to be observed is selected, recorded and then analysed properly to draw relevant conclusions. The advantage of this method is that phenomena can be observed in real-time but the disadvantage is it can be time-consuming at times.

The psychological data basically comprises demographic information, psychological and physical information

The goals of psychological enquiry are description, prediction, explanation, control and application.

Scientific inquiry is a lengthy and detailed process that involves conceptualizing a problem, identification of the problem, collecting data, drawing conclusions, and revising research conclusions.

Hence, we hope that this blog summarizing Methods of Enquiry in Psychology notes helped you cover the key topics and concepts in this chapter of the Class 11 Syllabus . For more information on such informative topics for your school, visit our school education page and follow Leverage Edu .

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