case study method teaching

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Case Method Teaching and Learning

What is the case method? How can the case method be used to engage learners? What are some strategies for getting started? This guide helps instructors answer these questions by providing an overview of the case method while highlighting learner-centered and digitally-enhanced approaches to teaching with the case method. The guide also offers tips to instructors as they get started with the case method and additional references and resources.

On this page:

What is case method teaching.

• Case Method at Columbia

Why use the Case Method?

Case method teaching approaches, how do i get started.

• Additional Resources

The CTL is here to help!

For support with implementing a case method approach in your course, email [email protected] to schedule your 1-1 consultation .

Cite this resource: Columbia Center for Teaching and Learning (2019). Case Method Teaching and Learning. Columbia University. Retrieved from [today’s date] from https://ctl.columbia.edu/resources-and-technology/resources/case-method/  

Case method 1 teaching is an active form of instruction that focuses on a case and involves students learning by doing 2 3 . Cases are real or invented stories 4  that include “an educational message” or recount events, problems, dilemmas, theoretical or conceptual issue that requires analysis and/or decision-making.

Case-based teaching simulates real world situations and asks students to actively grapple with complex problems 5 6 This method of instruction is used across disciplines to promote learning, and is common in law, business, medicine, among other fields. See Table 1 below for a few types of cases and the learning they promote.

Table 1: Types of cases and the learning they promote.

For a more complete list, see Case Types & Teaching Methods: A Classification Scheme from the National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science.

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Case Method Teaching and Learning at Columbia

The case method is actively used in classrooms across Columbia, at the Morningside campus in the School of International and Public Affairs (SIPA), the School of Business, Arts and Sciences, among others, and at Columbia University Irving Medical campus.

Faculty Spotlight:

Professor Mary Ann Price on Using Case Study Method to Place Pre-Med Students in Real-Life Scenarios

Read more  

Professor De Pinho on Using the Case Method in the Mailman Core

Case method teaching has been found to improve student learning, to increase students’ perception of learning gains, and to meet learning objectives 8 9 . Faculty have noted the instructional benefits of cases including greater student engagement in their learning 10 , deeper student understanding of concepts, stronger critical thinking skills, and an ability to make connections across content areas and view an issue from multiple perspectives 11 . 

Through case-based learning, students are the ones asking questions about the case, doing the problem-solving, interacting with and learning from their peers, “unpacking” the case, analyzing the case, and summarizing the case. They learn how to work with limited information and ambiguity, think in professional or disciplinary ways, and ask themselves “what would I do if I were in this specific situation?”

The case method bridges theory to practice, and promotes the development of skills including: communication, active listening, critical thinking, decision-making, and metacognitive skills 12 , as students apply course content knowledge, reflect on what they know and their approach to analyzing, and make sense of a case. 

Though the case method has historical roots as an instructor-centered approach that uses the Socratic dialogue and cold-calling, it is possible to take a more learner-centered approach in which students take on roles and tasks traditionally left to the instructor. 

Cases are often used as “vehicles for classroom discussion” 13 . Students should be encouraged to take ownership of their learning from a case. Discussion-based approaches engage students in thinking and communicating about a case. Instructors can set up a case activity in which students are the ones doing the work of “asking questions, summarizing content, generating hypotheses, proposing theories, or offering critical analyses” 14 . 

The role of the instructor is to share a case or ask students to share or create a case to use in class, set expectations, provide instructions, and assign students roles in the discussion. Student roles in a case discussion can include: 

• discussion “starters” get the conversation started with a question or posing the questions that their peers came up with; 
• facilitators listen actively, validate the contributions of peers, ask follow-up questions, draw connections, refocus the conversation as needed; 
• recorders take-notes of the main points of the discussion, record on the board, upload to CourseWorks, or type and project on the screen; and 
• discussion “wrappers” lead a summary of the main points of the discussion. 

Prior to the case discussion, instructors can model case analysis and the types of questions students should ask, co-create discussion guidelines with students, and ask for students to submit discussion questions. During the discussion, the instructor can keep time, intervene as necessary (however the students should be doing the talking), and pause the discussion for a debrief and to ask students to reflect on what and how they learned from the case activity. 

Note: case discussions can be enhanced using technology. Live discussions can occur via video-conferencing (e.g., using Zoom ) or asynchronous discussions can occur using the Discussions tool in CourseWorks (Canvas) .

Table 2 includes a few interactive case method approaches. Regardless of the approach selected, it is important to create a learning environment in which students feel comfortable participating in a case activity and learning from one another. See below for tips on supporting student in how to learn from a case in the “getting started” section and how to create a supportive learning environment in the Guide for Inclusive Teaching at Columbia . 

Table 2. Strategies for Engaging Students in Case-Based Learning

Approaches to case teaching should be informed by course learning objectives, and can be adapted for small, large, hybrid, and online classes. Instructional technology can be used in various ways to deliver, facilitate, and assess the case method. For instance, an online module can be created in CourseWorks (Canvas) to structure the delivery of the case, allow students to work at their own pace, engage all learners, even those reluctant to speak up in class, and assess understanding of a case and student learning. Modules can include text, embedded media (e.g., using Panopto or Mediathread ) curated by the instructor, online discussion, and assessments. Students can be asked to read a case and/or watch a short video, respond to quiz questions and receive immediate feedback, post questions to a discussion, and share resources. 

For more information about options for incorporating educational technology to your course, please contact your Learning Designer .

To ensure that students are learning from the case approach, ask them to pause and reflect on what and how they learned from the case. Time to reflect  builds your students’ metacognition, and when these reflections are collected they provides you with insights about the effectiveness of your approach in promoting student learning.

Well designed case-based learning experiences: 1) motivate student involvement, 2) have students doing the work, 3) help students develop knowledge and skills, and 4) have students learning from each other.  

Designing a case-based learning experience should center around the learning objectives for a course. The following points focus on intentional design. 

Identify learning objectives, determine scope, and anticipate challenges. 

• Why use the case method in your course? How will it promote student learning differently than other approaches? 
• What are the learning objectives that need to be met by the case method? What knowledge should students apply and skills should they practice? 
• What is the scope of the case? (a brief activity in a single class session to a semester-long case-based course; if new to case method, start small with a single case). 
• What challenges do you anticipate (e.g., student preparation and prior experiences with case learning, discomfort with discussion, peer-to-peer learning, managing discussion) and how will you plan for these in your design? 
• If you are asking students to use transferable skills for the case method (e.g., teamwork, digital literacy) make them explicit. 

Determine how you will know if the learning objectives were met and develop a plan for evaluating the effectiveness of the case method to inform future case teaching. 

• What assessments and criteria will you use to evaluate student work or participation in case discussion? 
• How will you evaluate the effectiveness of the case method? What feedback will you collect from students? 
• How might you leverage technology for assessment purposes? For example, could you quiz students about the case online before class, accept assignment submissions online, use audience response systems (e.g., PollEverywhere) for formative assessment during class? 

Select an existing case, create your own, or encourage students to bring course-relevant cases, and prepare for its delivery

• Where will the case method fit into the course learning sequence? 
• Is the case at the appropriate level of complexity? Is it inclusive, culturally relevant, and relatable to students? 
• What materials and preparation will be needed to present the case to students? (e.g., readings, audiovisual materials, set up a module in CourseWorks). 

Plan for the case discussion and an active role for students

• What will your role be in facilitating case-based learning? How will you model case analysis for your students? (e.g., present a short case and demo your approach and the process of case learning) (Davis, 2009). 
• What discussion guidelines will you use that include your students’ input? 
• How will you encourage students to ask and answer questions, summarize their work, take notes, and debrief the case? 
• If students will be working in groups, how will groups form? What size will the groups be? What instructions will they be given? How will you ensure that everyone participates? What will they need to submit? Can technology be leveraged for any of these areas? 
• Have you considered students of varied cognitive and physical abilities and how they might participate in the activities/discussions, including those that involve technology? 

Student preparation and expectations

• How will you communicate about the case method approach to your students? When will you articulate the purpose of case-based learning and expectations of student engagement? What information about case-based learning and expectations will be included in the syllabus?
• What preparation and/or assignment(s) will students complete in order to learn from the case? (e.g., read the case prior to class, watch a case video prior to class, post to a CourseWorks discussion, submit a brief memo, complete a short writing assignment to check students’ understanding of a case, take on a specific role, prepare to present a critique during in-class discussion).

Andersen, E. and Schiano, B. (2014). Teaching with Cases: A Practical Guide . Harvard Business Press. 

Bonney, K. M. (2015). Case Study Teaching Method Improves Student Performance and Perceptions of Learning Gains†. Journal of Microbiology & Biology Education , 16 (1), 21–28. https://doi.org/10.1128/jmbe.v16i1.846

Davis, B.G. (2009). Chapter 24: Case Studies. In Tools for Teaching. Second Edition. Jossey-Bass. 

Garvin, D.A. (2003). Making the Case: Professional Education for the world of practice. Harvard Magazine. September-October 2003, Volume 106, Number 1, 56-107.

Golich, V.L. (2000). The ABCs of Case Teaching. International Studies Perspectives. 1, 11-29. 

Golich, V.L.; Boyer, M; Franko, P.; and Lamy, S. (2000). The ABCs of Case Teaching. Pew Case Studies in International Affairs. Institute for the Study of Diplomacy. 

Heath, J. (2015). Teaching & Writing Cases: A Practical Guide. The Case Center, UK. 

Herreid, C.F. (2011). Case Study Teaching. New Directions for Teaching and Learning. No. 128, Winder 2011, 31 – 40. 

Herreid, C.F. (2007). Start with a Story: The Case Study Method of Teaching College Science . National Science Teachers Association. Available as an ebook through Columbia Libraries. 

Herreid, C.F. (2006). “Clicker” Cases: Introducing Case Study Teaching Into Large Classrooms. Journal of College Science Teaching. Oct 2006, 36(2). https://search.proquest.com/docview/200323718?pq-origsite=gscholar  

Krain, M. (2016). Putting the Learning in Case Learning? The Effects of Case-Based Approaches on Student Knowledge, Attitudes, and Engagement. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching. 27(2), 131-153. 

Lundberg, K.O. (Ed.). (2011). Our Digital Future: Boardrooms and Newsrooms. Knight Case Studies Initiative. 

Popil, I. (2011). Promotion of critical thinking by using case studies as teaching method. Nurse Education Today, 31(2), 204–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2010.06.002

Schiano, B. and Andersen, E. (2017). Teaching with Cases Online . Harvard Business Publishing. 

Thistlethwaite, JE; Davies, D.; Ekeocha, S.; Kidd, J.M.; MacDougall, C.; Matthews, P.; Purkis, J.; Clay D. (2012). The effectiveness of case-based learning in health professional education: A BEME systematic review . Medical Teacher. 2012; 34(6): e421-44. 

Yadav, A.; Lundeberg, M.; DeSchryver, M.; Dirkin, K.; Schiller, N.A.; Maier, K. and Herreid, C.F. (2007). Teaching Science with Case Studies: A National Survey of Faculty Perceptions of the Benefits and Challenges of Using Cases. Journal of College Science Teaching; Sept/Oct 2007; 37(1). 

Weimer, M. (2013). Learner-Centered Teaching: Five Key Changes to Practice. Second Edition. Jossey-Bass.

Additional resources 

Teaching with Cases , Harvard Kennedy School of Government. 

Features “what is a teaching case?” video that defines a teaching case, and provides documents to help students prepare for case learning, Common case teaching challenges and solutions, tips for teaching with cases. 

Promoting excellence and innovation in case method teaching: Teaching by the Case Method , Christensen Center for Teaching & Learning. Harvard Business School. 

National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science . University of Buffalo. 

A collection of peer-reviewed STEM cases to teach scientific concepts and content, promote process skills and critical thinking. The Center welcomes case submissions. Case classification scheme of case types and teaching methods:

• Different types of cases: analysis case, dilemma/decision case, directed case, interrupted case, clicker case, a flipped case, a laboratory case. 
• Different types of teaching methods: problem-based learning, discussion, debate, intimate debate, public hearing, trial, jigsaw, role-play. 

Columbia Resources

Resources available to support your use of case method: The University hosts a number of case collections including: the Case Consortium (a collection of free cases in the fields of journalism, public policy, public health, and other disciplines that include teaching and learning resources; SIPA’s Picker Case Collection (audiovisual case studies on public sector innovation, filmed around the world and involving SIPA student teams in producing the cases); and Columbia Business School CaseWorks , which develops teaching cases and materials for use in Columbia Business School classrooms.

Center for Teaching and Learning

The Center for Teaching and Learning (CTL) offers a variety of programs and services for instructors at Columbia. The CTL can provide customized support as you plan to use the case method approach through implementation. Schedule a one-on-one consultation. 

Office of the Provost

The Hybrid Learning Course Redesign grant program from the Office of the Provost provides support for faculty who are developing innovative and technology-enhanced pedagogy and learning strategies in the classroom. In addition to funding, faculty awardees receive support from CTL staff as they redesign, deliver, and evaluate their hybrid courses.

The Start Small! Mini-Grant provides support to faculty who are interested in experimenting with one new pedagogical strategy or tool. Faculty awardees receive funds and CTL support for a one-semester period.

Explore our teaching resources.

• Blended Learning
• Contemplative Pedagogy
• Inclusive Teaching Guide
• FAQ for Teaching Assistants
• Metacognition

CTL resources and technology for you.

• Overview of all CTL Resources and Technology
• The origins of this method can be traced to Harvard University where in 1870 the Law School began using cases to teach students how to think like lawyers using real court decisions. This was followed by the Business School in 1920 (Garvin, 2003). These professional schools recognized that lecture mode of instruction was insufficient to teach critical professional skills, and that active learning would better prepare learners for their professional lives. ↩
• Golich, V.L. (2000). The ABCs of Case Teaching. International Studies Perspectives. 1, 11-29. ↩
• Herreid, C.F. (2007). Start with a Story: The Case Study Method of Teaching College Science . National Science Teachers Association. Available as an ebook through Columbia Libraries. ↩
• Davis, B.G. (2009). Chapter 24: Case Studies. In Tools for Teaching. Second Edition. Jossey-Bass. ↩
• Andersen, E. and Schiano, B. (2014). Teaching with Cases: A Practical Guide . Harvard Business Press. ↩
• Lundberg, K.O. (Ed.). (2011). Our Digital Future: Boardrooms and Newsrooms. Knight Case Studies Initiative. ↩
• Heath, J. (2015). Teaching & Writing Cases: A Practical Guide. The Case Center, UK. ↩
• Bonney, K. M. (2015). Case Study Teaching Method Improves Student Performance and Perceptions of Learning Gains†. Journal of Microbiology & Biology Education , 16 (1), 21–28. https://doi.org/10.1128/jmbe.v16i1.846 ↩
• Krain, M. (2016). Putting the Learning in Case Learning? The Effects of Case-Based Approaches on Student Knowledge, Attitudes, and Engagement. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching. 27(2), 131-153. ↩
• Thistlethwaite, JE; Davies, D.; Ekeocha, S.; Kidd, J.M.; MacDougall, C.; Matthews, P.; Purkis, J.; Clay D. (2012). The effectiveness of case-based learning in health professional education: A BEME systematic review . Medical Teacher. 2012; 34(6): e421-44. ↩
• Yadav, A.; Lundeberg, M.; DeSchryver, M.; Dirkin, K.; Schiller, N.A.; Maier, K. and Herreid, C.F. (2007). Teaching Science with Case Studies: A National Survey of Faculty Perceptions of the Benefits and Challenges of Using Cases. Journal of College Science Teaching; Sept/Oct 2007; 37(1). ↩
• Popil, I. (2011). Promotion of critical thinking by using case studies as teaching method. Nurse Education Today, 31(2), 204–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2010.06.002 ↩
• Weimer, M. (2013). Learner-Centered Teaching: Five Key Changes to Practice. Second Edition. Jossey-Bass. ↩
• Herreid, C.F. (2006). “Clicker” Cases: Introducing Case Study Teaching Into Large Classrooms. Journal of College Science Teaching. Oct 2006, 36(2). https://search.proquest.com/docview/200323718?pq-origsite=gscholar ↩

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Using Case Studies to Teach

Why Use Cases?

Many students are more inductive than deductive reasoners, which means that they learn better from examples than from logical development starting with basic principles. The use of case studies can therefore be a very effective classroom technique.

Case studies are have long been used in business schools, law schools, medical schools and the social sciences, but they can be used in any discipline when instructors want students to explore how what they have learned applies to real world situations. Cases come in many formats, from a simple “What would you do in this situation?” question to a detailed description of a situation with accompanying data to analyze. Whether to use a simple scenario-type case or a complex detailed one depends on your course objectives.

Most case assignments require students to answer an open-ended question or develop a solution to an open-ended problem with multiple potential solutions. Requirements can range from a one-paragraph answer to a fully developed group action plan, proposal or decision.

Common Case Elements

Most “full-blown” cases have these common elements:

• A decision-maker who is grappling with some question or problem that needs to be solved.
• A description of the problem’s context (a law, an industry, a family).
• Supporting data, which can range from data tables to links to URLs, quoted statements or testimony, supporting documents, images, video, or audio.

Case assignments can be done individually or in teams so that the students can brainstorm solutions and share the work load.

The following discussion of this topic incorporates material presented by Robb Dixon of the School of Management and Rob Schadt of the School of Public Health at CEIT workshops. Professor Dixon also provided some written comments that the discussion incorporates.

Advantages to the use of case studies in class

A major advantage of teaching with case studies is that the students are actively engaged in figuring out the principles by abstracting from the examples. This develops their skills in:

• Problem solving
• Analytical tools, quantitative and/or qualitative, depending on the case
• Decision making in complex situations
• Coping with ambiguities

Guidelines for using case studies in class

In the most straightforward application, the presentation of the case study establishes a framework for analysis. It is helpful if the statement of the case provides enough information for the students to figure out solutions and then to identify how to apply those solutions in other similar situations. Instructors may choose to use several cases so that students can identify both the similarities and differences among the cases.

Depending on the course objectives, the instructor may encourage students to follow a systematic approach to their analysis.  For example:

• What is the issue?
• What is the goal of the analysis?
• What is the context of the problem?
• What key facts should be considered?
• What alternatives are available to the decision-maker?
• What would you recommend — and why?

An innovative approach to case analysis might be to have students  role-play the part of the people involved in the case. This not only actively engages students, but forces them to really understand the perspectives of the case characters. Videos or even field trips showing the venue in which the case is situated can help students to visualize the situation that they need to analyze.

Accompanying Readings

Case studies can be especially effective if they are paired with a reading assignment that introduces or explains a concept or analytical method that applies to the case. The amount of emphasis placed on the use of the reading during the case discussion depends on the complexity of the concept or method. If it is straightforward, the focus of the discussion can be placed on the use of the analytical results. If the method is more complex, the instructor may need to walk students through its application and the interpretation of the results.

Leading the Case Discussion and Evaluating Performance

Decision cases are more interesting than descriptive ones. In order to start the discussion in class, the instructor can start with an easy, noncontroversial question that all the students should be able to answer readily. However, some of the best case discussions start by forcing the students to take a stand. Some instructors will ask a student to do a formal “open” of the case, outlining his or her entire analysis.  Others may choose to guide discussion with questions that move students from problem identification to solutions.  A skilled instructor steers questions and discussion to keep the class on track and moving at a reasonable pace.

In order to motivate the students to complete the assignment before class as well as to stimulate attentiveness during the class, the instructor should grade the participation—quantity and especially quality—during the discussion of the case. This might be a simple check, check-plus, check-minus or zero. The instructor should involve as many students as possible. In order to engage all the students, the instructor can divide them into groups, give each group several minutes to discuss how to answer a question related to the case, and then ask a randomly selected person in each group to present the group’s answer and reasoning. Random selection can be accomplished through rolling of dice, shuffled index cards, each with one student’s name, a spinning wheel, etc.

Tips on the Penn State U. website: https://sites.psu.edu/pedagogicalpractices/case-studies/

If you are interested in using this technique in a science course, there is a good website on use of case studies in the sciences at the National Science Teaching Association.

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The Case Study Teaching Method

It is easy to get confused between the case study method and the case method , particularly as it applies to legal education. The case method in legal education was invented by Christopher Columbus Langdell, Dean of Harvard Law School from 1870 to 1895. Langdell conceived of a way to systematize and simplify legal education by focusing on previous case law that furthered principles or doctrines. To that end, Langdell wrote the first casebook, entitled A Selection of Cases on the Law of Contracts , a collection of settled cases that would illuminate the current state of contract law. Students read the cases and came prepared to analyze them during Socratic question-and-answer sessions in class.

The Harvard Business School case study approach grew out of the Langdellian method. But instead of using established case law, business professors chose real-life examples from the business world to highlight and analyze business principles. HBS-style case studies typically consist of a short narrative (less than 25 pages), told from the point of view of a manager or business leader embroiled in a dilemma. Case studies provide readers with an overview of the main issue; background on the institution, industry, and individuals involved; and the events that led to the problem or decision at hand. Cases are based on interviews or public sources; sometimes, case studies are disguised versions of actual events or composites based on the faculty authors’ experience and knowledge of the subject. Cases are used to illustrate a particular set of learning objectives; as in real life, rarely are there precise answers to the dilemma at hand.

Our suite of free materials offers a great introduction to the case study method. We also offer review copies of our products free of charge to educators and staff at degree-granting institutions.

For more information on the case study teaching method, see:

• Martha Minow and Todd Rakoff: A Case for Another Case Method
• HLS Case Studies Blog: Legal Education’s 9 Big Ideas
• Teaching Units: Problem Solving , Advanced Problem Solving , Skills , Decision Making and Leadership , Professional Development for Law Firms , Professional Development for In-House Counsel
• Educator Community: Tips for Teachers

Watch this informative video about the Problem-Solving Workshop:

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Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health Case-Based Teaching & Learning Initiative

Teaching cases & active learning resources for public health education, teaching & learning with the case method.

2023. Case Compendium, University of California Berkeley Haas School of Business Center for Equity, Gender & Leadership . Visit website This resource, compiled by the Berkeley Haas Center for Equity, Gender & Leadership, is "a case compendium that includes: (a) case studies with diverse protagonists, and (b) case studies that build “equity fluency” by focusing on DEI-related issues and opportunities. The goal of the compendium is to support professors at Haas, and business schools globally, to identify cases they can use in their own classrooms, and ultimately contribute to advancing DEI in education and business."

Kane, N.M. , 2014. Benefits of Case-Based Teaching . Watch video Watch a demonstration of Prof. Nancy Kane teaching public health with the case method. (Part 3 of 3, 3 minutes)

Kane, N.M. , 2014. Case teaching demonstration: Should a health plan cover medical tourism? . Watch video Watch a demonstration of Prof. Nancy Kane teaching public health with the case method. (Part 2 of 3, 17 minutes)

Kane, N.M. , 2014. Case-based teaching at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health . Watch video Watch a demonstration of Prof. Nancy Kane teaching public health with the case method. (Part 1 of 3, 10 minutes)

2019. The Case Centre . Visit website A non-profit clearing house for materials on the case method, the Case Centre holds a large and diverse collection of cases, articles, book chapters and teaching materials, including the collections of leading business schools across the globe.

Austin, S.B. & Sonneville, K.R. , 2013. Closing the "know-do" gap: training public health professionals in eating disorders prevention via case-method teaching. International Journal of Eating Disorders , 46 (5) , pp. 533-537. Read online Abstract Expansion of our societies' capacity to prevent eating disorders will require strategic integration of the topic into the curricula of professional training programs. An ideal way to integrate new content into educational programs is through the case-method approach, a teaching method that is more effective than traditional teaching techniques. The Strategic Training Initiative for the Prevention of Eating Disorders has begun developing cases designed to be used in classroom settings to engage students in topical, high-impact issues in public health approaches to eating disorders prevention and screening. Dissemination of these cases will provide an opportunity for students in public health training programs to learn material in a meaningful context by actively applying skills as they are learning them, helping to bridge the "know-do" gap. The new curriculum is an important step toward realizing the goal that public health practitioners be fully equipped to address the challenge of eating disorders prevention. "Expansion of our societies' capacity to prevent eating disorders will require strategic integration of the topic into the curricula of professional training programs. An ideal way to integrate new content into educational programs is through the case-method approach, a teaching method that is more effective than traditional teaching techniques." Access full article with HarvardKey . 

Ellet, W. , 2018. The Case Study Handbook, Revised Edition: A Student's Guide , Harvard Business School Publishing. Publisher's Version "If you're like many people, you may find interpreting and writing about cases mystifying and time-consuming. In The Case Study Handbook, Revised Edition , William Ellet presents a potent new approach for efficiently analyzing, discussing, and writing about cases."

Andersen, E. & Schiano, B. , 2014. Teaching with Cases: A Practical Guide , Harvard Business School Publishing. Publisher's Version "The class discussion inherent in case teaching is well known for stimulating the development of students' critical thinking skills, yet instructors often need guidance on managing that class discussion to maximize learning. Teaching with Cases focuses on practical advice for instructors that can be easily implemented. It covers how to plan a course, how to teach it, and how to evaluate it." 

Honan, J. & Sternman Rule, C. , 2002. Case Method Instruction Versus Lecture-Based Instruction R. Reis, ed. Tomorrow's Professor . Read online "Faculty and discussion leaders who incorporate the case study method into their teaching offer various reasons for their enthusiasm for this type of pedagogy over more traditional, such as lecture-based, instructional methods and routes to learning." Exerpt from the book Using Cases in Higher Education: A Guide for Faculty and Administrators , by James P. Honan and Cheryl Sternman Rule.

Austin, J. , 1993. Teaching Notes: Communicating the Teacher's Wisdom , Harvard Business School Publishing. Publisher's Version "Provides guidance for the preparation of teaching notes. Sets forth the rationale for teaching notes, what they should contain and why, and how they can be prepared. Based on the experiences of Harvard Business School faculty."

Abell, D. , 1997. What makes a good case? . ECCHO–The Newsletter of the European Case Clearing House , 17 (1) , pp. 4-7. Read online "Case writing is both art and science. There are few, if any, specific prescriptions or recipes, but there are key ingredients that appear to distinguish excellent cases from the run-of-the-mill. This technical note lists ten ingredients to look for if you are teaching somebody else''s case - and to look out for if you are writing it yourself."

Herreid, C.F. , 2001. Don't! What not to do when teaching cases. Journal of College Science Teaching , 30 (5) , pp. 292. Read online "Be warned, I am about to unleash a baker’s dozen of 'don’ts' for aspiring case teachers willing to try running a classroom discussion armed with only a couple of pages of a story and a lot of chutzpah."

Garvin, D.A. , 2003. Making the case: Professional education for the world of practice . Harvard Magazine , 106 (1) , pp. 56-65. Read online A history and overview of the case-method in professional schools, which all “face the same difficult challenge: how to prepare students for the world of practice. Time in the classroom must somehow translate directly into real-world activity: how to diagnose, decide, and act."

• Writing a case (8)
• Writing a teaching note (4)
• Active learning (12)
• Active listening (1)
• Asking effective questions (5)
• Assessing learning (1)
• Engaging students (5)
• Leading discussion (10)
• Managing the classroom (4)
• Planning a course (1)
• Problem-based learning (1)
• Teaching & learning with the case method (14)
• Teaching inclusively (3)

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What the Case Study Method Really Teaches

• Nitin Nohria

Seven meta-skills that stick even if the cases fade from memory.

It’s been 100 years since Harvard Business School began using the case study method. Beyond teaching specific subject matter, the case study method excels in instilling meta-skills in students. This article explains the importance of seven such skills: preparation, discernment, bias recognition, judgement, collaboration, curiosity, and self-confidence.

During my decade as dean of Harvard Business School, I spent hundreds of hours talking with our alumni. To enliven these conversations, I relied on a favorite question: “What was the most important thing you learned from your time in our MBA program?”

• Nitin Nohria is the George F. Baker Jr. and Distinguished Service University Professor. He served as the 10th dean of Harvard Business School, from 2010 to 2020.

Partner Center

A brief guide to case teaching

In this introductory guide to teaching with cases we'll ask why teach with cases, explore how to preparing for case teaching, and introduce some tools and techniques. 

Why teach with cases?

The case method combines the power of storytelling with critical discussion, shared experiences, and rigorous academic practice and theory.

Students find their most fundamental beliefs and assertions being challenged as they learn to think differently and more effectively. They will take on board new ideas and concepts, developing the philosophical, theoretical and practical bedrock for their subsequent management careers.

The case method is well-known for being used on postgraduate and executive programmes, but it also increases student engagement and develops a wide range of vital professional and life skills for students at other levels, for example on high school and undergraduate programmes.

Find out more about the case method 

Choosing a case

Choose a case that meets your learning objectives and is suitable for the experience and knowledge of your class.

We provide a range of tools to help you select the right case for your teaching needs, including free online educator preview copies and instructor materials.

Discover more about choosing the right case 

Preparing to teach

Abraham Lincoln said: "Give me six hours to chop down a tree and I will spend the first four sharpening the axe." You can never quite predict what will happen during a teaching session, but careful preparation is key.

You must be clear about the learning objectives, know the case inside-out, and have at least some idea of who your students will be, both as individuals and as a group. How old are they? How experienced? From what cultural backgrounds?

Many cases will have an accompanying teaching note and other materials for instructors. These can be a great help when preparing to teach the case, so make the most of them.

Starting the discussion

A lively discussion can be started in a number of ways. An individual student can be ‘cold-called’, or a general question can be asked of the whole class – for example, ‘What would you do next?’ or ‘What is the problem here?’.

Students can be asked to vote on an issue, and then find out if their views have changed by the end of the session. Alternatively, all the students can be asked to jot down their thoughts with a few invited to share their ideas with the class.

Tools and techniques

A successful case teaching session often involves a range of different activities, helping to maintain interest and appeal to different learning styles. These can include role play, group discussion, breakout sessions, and student presentations while in character as the case protagonist.

Using multimedia

Multimedia can help to engage and inspire students – particularly those resistant to traditional written cases. Online discussion groups, virtual worlds, social media, video clips, and web-based cases can all be introduced as part of the mix.

The possibilities are endless – from live tweeting during a case session to pre-class online discussion. With a little thought and imagination you can transform your case teaching sessions.

Online case teaching

One of the key benefits of the case method is its ability to engage students, and this naturally lends itself to increasing the interactivity of online sessions.

For many years individuals and organisations have explored teaching with cases online. However, the COVID-19 pandemic saw in person classes worldwide being moved, with great speed, to online. To support the case community with this rapid shift in teaching, a wide range of resources were produced by case experts around the world.

Browse the online case teaching resources 

Feedback and improvement

Even the most experienced case teachers can learn from constructive feedback. Ask a colleague to sit in on one of your case teaching sessions, and get feedback from your students. Video a session and watch it through with a fellow case teacher – this is a great way to see yourself in action and make improvements.

Those new to case teaching may prefer to begin with a short case as part of a longer teaching session to gain some initial confidence. Another approach is to teach as a team with a colleague or colleagues until you become more experienced.

We provide a range of services and support for case teachers. The sections below will point you in the right direction, but please do get in touch if you need any further help.

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Our Customer Services Team are here to help, please do get in touch if you have a query.

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Cases describe real-life business situations.

Usually the main character in the case is facing a tricky challenge or decision. Class participants discuss possible solutions and analyse the pros and cons of various approaches to the problem.

Most cases are written documents (distributed electronically or in print), but there are an increasing number of video and multimedia cases.

More about the case method

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• Teaching with Cases

At professional schools (like Harvard’s Law, Business, Education, or Medical Schools), courses often adopt the so-called "case method" of teaching , in which students are confronted with real-world problems or scenarios involving multiple stakeholders and competing priorities. Most of the cases which faculty use with their students are written by professionals who have expertise in researching and writing in that genre, and for good reason—writing a truly masterful case, one which can engage students in hours of debate and deliberation, takes a lot of time and effort. It can be effective, nevertheless, for you to try implementing some aspects of the case-teaching approach in your class. Among the benefits which accrue to using case studies are the following:

• the fact that it gives your students the opportunity to "practice" a real-world application;
• the fact that it compels them (and you!) to reconstruct all of the divergent and convergent perspectives which different parties might bring to the scenario;
• the fact that it motivates your students to anticipate a wide range of possible responses which a reader might have; and
• the fact that it invites your students to indulge in metacognition as they revisit the process by which they became more knowledgeable about the scenario.

Features of an Effective Teaching Case

While no two case studies will be exactly alike, here are some of those principles:

• The case should illustrate what happens when a concept from the course could be, or has been, applied in the real world. Depending on the course, a “concept” might mean any one among a range of things, including an abstract principle, a theory, a tension, an issue, a method, an approach, or simply a way of thinking characteristic of an academic field. Whichever you choose, you should make sure to “ground” the case in a realistic setting early in the narrative, so that participants understand their role in the scenario.
• The case materials should include enough factual content and context to allow students to explore multiple perspectives. In order for participants to feel that they are encountering a real-world application of the course material, and that they have some freedom and agency in terms of how they interpret it, they need to be able to see the issue or problem from more than one perspective. Moreover, those perspectives need to seem genuine, and to be sketched in enough detail to seem complex. (In fact, it’s not a bad idea to include some “extraneous” information about the stakeholders involved in the case, so that students have to filter out things that seem relevant or irrelevant to them.) Otherwise, participants may fall back on picking obvious “winners” and “losers” rather than seeking creative, negotiated solutions that satisfy multiple stakeholders.
• The case materials should confront participants with a range of realistic constraints, hard choices, and authentic outcomes. If the case presumes that participants will all become omniscient, enjoy limitless resources, and succeed, they won’t learn as much about themselves as team-members and decision-makers as if they are forced to confront limitations, to make tough decisions about priorities, and to be prepared for unexpected results. These constraints and outcomes can be things which have been documented in real life, but they can also be things which the participants themselves surface in their deliberations.

• The activity should include space to reflect upon the decision-making process and the lessons of the case. Writing a case offers an opportunity to engage in multiple layers of reflection. For you, as the case writer, it is an occasion to anticipate how you (if you were the instructor) might create scenarios that are aligned with, and likely to meet the learning objectives of, a given unit of your course. For the participants whom you imagine using your case down the road, the case ideally should help them (1) to understand their own hidden assumptions, priorities, values, and biases better; and (2) to close the gap between their classroom learning and its potential real-world applications.

For more information...

Kim, Sara et al. 2006. "A Conceptual Framework for Developing Teaching Cases: A Review and Synthesis of the Literature across Disciplines." Medical Education 40: 867–876.

Herreid, Clyde Freeman. 2011. "Case Study Teaching." New Directions for Teaching and Learning 128: 31–40.

Nohria, Nitin. 2021. "What the Case Study Method Really Teaches." Harvard Business Review .

Swiercz, Paul Michael. "SWIF Learning: A Guide to Student Written-Instructor Facilitated Case Writing."

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Teaching With Cases

Included here are resources to learn more about case method and teaching with cases.

What Is A Teaching Case?

This video explores the definition of a teaching case and introduces the rationale for using case method.

Narrated by Carolyn Wood, former director of the HKS Case Program

Learning by the Case Method

Questions for class discussion, common case teaching challenges and possible solutions, teaching with cases tip sheet, teaching ethics by the case method.

The case method is an effective way to increase student engagement and challenge students to integrate and apply skills to real-world problems. In these videos,  Using the Case Method to Teach Public Policy , you'll find invaluable insights into the art of case teaching from one of HKS’s most respected professors, Jose A. Gomez-Ibanez.

Chapter 1: Preparing for Class (2:29)

Chapter 2: How to begin the class and structure the discussion blocks (1:37)

Chapter 3: How to launch the discussion (1:36)

Chapter 4: Tools to manage the class discussion (2:23)

Chapter 5: Encouraging participation and acknowledging students' comments (1:52)

Chapter 6: Transitioning from one block to the next / Importance of body (2:05)

Chapter 7: Using the board plan to feed the discussion (3:33)

Chapter 8: Exploring the richness of the case (1:42)

Chapter 9: The wrap-up. Why teach cases? (2:49)

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• v.16(1); 2015 May

Case Study Teaching Method Improves Student Performance and Perceptions of Learning Gains †

Associated data.

• Appendix 1: Example assessment questions used to assess the effectiveness of case studies at promoting learning
• Appendix 2: Student learning gains were assessed using a modified version of the SALG course evaluation tool

Following years of widespread use in business and medical education, the case study teaching method is becoming an increasingly common teaching strategy in science education. However, the current body of research provides limited evidence that the use of published case studies effectively promotes the fulfillment of specific learning objectives integral to many biology courses. This study tested the hypothesis that case studies are more effective than classroom discussions and textbook reading at promoting learning of key biological concepts, development of written and oral communication skills, and comprehension of the relevance of biological concepts to everyday life. This study also tested the hypothesis that case studies produced by the instructor of a course are more effective at promoting learning than those produced by unaffiliated instructors. Additionally, performance on quantitative learning assessments and student perceptions of learning gains were analyzed to determine whether reported perceptions of learning gains accurately reflect academic performance. The results reported here suggest that case studies, regardless of the source, are significantly more effective than other methods of content delivery at increasing performance on examination questions related to chemical bonds, osmosis and diffusion, mitosis and meiosis, and DNA structure and replication. This finding was positively correlated to increased student perceptions of learning gains associated with oral and written communication skills and the ability to recognize connections between biological concepts and other aspects of life. Based on these findings, case studies should be considered as a preferred method for teaching about a variety of concepts in science courses.

INTRODUCTION

The case study teaching method is a highly adaptable style of teaching that involves problem-based learning and promotes the development of analytical skills ( 8 ). By presenting content in the format of a narrative accompanied by questions and activities that promote group discussion and solving of complex problems, case studies facilitate development of the higher levels of Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive learning; moving beyond recall of knowledge to analysis, evaluation, and application ( 1 , 9 ). Similarly, case studies facilitate interdisciplinary learning and can be used to highlight connections between specific academic topics and real-world societal issues and applications ( 3 , 9 ). This has been reported to increase student motivation to participate in class activities, which promotes learning and increases performance on assessments ( 7 , 16 , 19 , 23 ). For these reasons, case-based teaching has been widely used in business and medical education for many years ( 4 , 11 , 12 , 14 ). Although case studies were considered a novel method of science education just 20 years ago, the case study teaching method has gained popularity in recent years among an array of scientific disciplines such as biology, chemistry, nursing, and psychology ( 5 – 7 , 9 , 11 , 13 , 15 – 17 , 21 , 22 , 24 ).

Although there is now a substantive and growing body of literature describing how to develop and use case studies in science teaching, current research on the effectiveness of case study teaching at meeting specific learning objectives is of limited scope and depth. Studies have shown that working in groups during completion of case studies significantly improves student perceptions of learning and may increase performance on assessment questions, and that the use of clickers can increase student engagement in case study activities, particularly among non-science majors, women, and freshmen ( 7 , 21 , 22 ). Case study teaching has been shown to improve exam performance in an anatomy and physiology course, increasing the mean score across all exams given in a two-semester sequence from 66% to 73% ( 5 ). Use of case studies was also shown to improve students’ ability to synthesize complex analytical questions about the real-world issues associated with a scientific topic ( 6 ). In a high school chemistry course, it was demonstrated that the case study teaching method produces significant increases in self-reported control of learning, task value, and self-efficacy for learning and performance ( 24 ). This effect on student motivation is important because enhanced motivation for learning activities has been shown to promote student engagement and academic performance ( 19 , 24 ). Additionally, faculty from a number of institutions have reported that using case studies promotes critical thinking, learning, and participation among students, especially in terms of the ability to view an issue from multiple perspectives and to grasp the practical application of core course concepts ( 23 ).

Despite what is known about the effectiveness of case studies in science education, questions remain about the functionality of the case study teaching method at promoting specific learning objectives that are important to many undergraduate biology courses. A recent survey of teachers who use case studies found that the topics most often covered in general biology courses included genetics and heredity, cell structure, cells and energy, chemistry of life, and cell cycle and cancer, suggesting that these topics should be of particular interest in studies that examine the effectiveness of the case study teaching method ( 8 ). However, the existing body of literature lacks direct evidence that the case study method is an effective tool for teaching about this collection of important topics in biology courses. Further, the extent to which case study teaching promotes development of science communication skills and the ability to understand the connections between biological concepts and everyday life has not been examined, yet these are core learning objectives shared by a variety of science courses. Although many instructors have produced case studies for use in their own classrooms, the production of novel case studies is time-consuming and requires skills that not all instructors have perfected. It is therefore important to determine whether case studies published by instructors who are unaffiliated with a particular course can be used effectively and obviate the need for each instructor to develop new case studies for their own courses. The results reported herein indicate that teaching with case studies results in significantly higher performance on examination questions about chemical bonds, osmosis and diffusion, mitosis and meiosis, and DNA structure and replication than that achieved by class discussions and textbook reading for topics of similar complexity. Case studies also increased overall student perceptions of learning gains and perceptions of learning gains specifically related to written and oral communication skills and the ability to grasp connections between scientific topics and their real-world applications. The effectiveness of the case study teaching method at increasing academic performance was not correlated to whether the case study used was authored by the instructor of the course or by an unaffiliated instructor. These findings support increased use of published case studies in the teaching of a variety of biological concepts and learning objectives.

Student population

This study was conducted at Kingsborough Community College, which is part of the City University of New York system, located in Brooklyn, New York. Kingsborough Community College has a diverse population of approximately 19,000 undergraduate students. The student population included in this study was enrolled in the first semester of a two-semester sequence of general (introductory) biology for biology majors during the spring, winter, or summer semester of 2014. A total of 63 students completed the course during this time period; 56 students consented to the inclusion of their data in the study. Of the students included in the study, 23 (41%) were male and 33 (59%) were female; 40 (71%) were registered as college freshmen and 16 (29%) were registered as college sophomores. To normalize participant groups, the same student population pooled from three classes taught by the same instructor was used to assess both experimental and control teaching methods.

Course material

The four biological concepts assessed during this study (chemical bonds, osmosis and diffusion, mitosis and meiosis, and DNA structure and replication) were selected as topics for studying the effectiveness of case study teaching because they were the key concepts addressed by this particular course that were most likely to be taught in a number of other courses, including biology courses for both majors and nonmajors at outside institutions. At the start of this study, relevant existing case studies were freely available from the National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science (NCCSTS) to address mitosis and meiosis and DNA structure and replication, but published case studies that appropriately addressed chemical bonds and osmosis and diffusion were not available. Therefore, original case studies that addressed the latter two topics were produced as part of this study, and case studies produced by unaffiliated instructors and published by the NCCSTS were used to address the former two topics. By the conclusion of this study, all four case studies had been peer-reviewed and accepted for publication by the NCCSTS ( http://sciencecases.lib.buffalo.edu/cs/ ). Four of the remaining core topics covered in this course (macromolecules, photosynthesis, genetic inheritance, and translation) were selected as control lessons to provide control assessment data.

To minimize extraneous variation, control topics and assessments were carefully matched in complexity, format, and number with case studies, and an equal amount of class time was allocated for each case study and the corresponding control lesson. Instruction related to control lessons was delivered using minimal slide-based lectures, with emphasis on textbook reading assignments accompanied by worksheets completed by students in and out of the classroom, and small and large group discussion of key points. Completion of activities and discussion related to all case studies and control topics that were analyzed was conducted in the classroom, with the exception of the take-home portion of the osmosis and diffusion case study.

Data collection and analysis

This study was performed in accordance with a protocol approved by the Kingsborough Community College Human Research Protection Program and the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the City University of New York (CUNY IRB reference 539938-1; KCC IRB application #: KCC 13-12-126-0138). Assessment scores were collected from regularly scheduled course examinations. For each case study, control questions were included on the same examination that were similar in number, format, point value, and difficulty level, but related to a different topic covered in the course that was of similar complexity. Complexity and difficulty of both case study and control questions were evaluated using experiential data from previous iterations of the course; the Bloom’s taxonomy designation and amount of material covered by each question, as well as the average score on similar questions achieved by students in previous iterations of the course was considered in determining appropriate controls. All assessment questions were scored using a standardized, pre-determined rubric. Student perceptions of learning gains were assessed using a modified version of the Student Assessment of Learning Gains (SALG) course evaluation tool ( http://www.salgsite.org ), distributed in hardcopy and completed anonymously during the last week of the course. Students were presented with a consent form to opt-in to having their data included in the data analysis. After the course had concluded and final course grades had been posted, data from consenting students were pooled in a database and identifying information was removed prior to analysis. Statistical analysis of data was conducted using the Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance and calculation of the R 2 coefficient of determination.

Teaching with case studies improves performance on learning assessments, independent of case study origin

To evaluate the effectiveness of the case study teaching method at promoting learning, student performance on examination questions related to material covered by case studies was compared with performance on questions that covered material addressed through classroom discussions and textbook reading. The latter questions served as control items; assessment items for each case study were compared with control items that were of similar format, difficulty, and point value ( Appendix 1 ). Each of the four case studies resulted in an increase in examination performance compared with control questions that was statistically significant, with an average difference of 18% ( Fig. 1 ). The mean score on case study-related questions was 73% for the chemical bonds case study, 79% for osmosis and diffusion, 76% for mitosis and meiosis, and 70% for DNA structure and replication ( Fig. 1 ). The mean score for non-case study-related control questions was 60%, 54%, 60%, and 52%, respectively ( Fig. 1 ). In terms of examination performance, no significant difference between case studies produced by the instructor of the course (chemical bonds and osmosis and diffusion) and those produced by unaffiliated instructors (mitosis and meiosis and DNA structure and replication) was indicated by the Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance. However, the 25% difference between the mean score on questions related to the osmosis and diffusion case study and the mean score on the paired control questions was notably higher than the 13–18% differences observed for the other case studies ( Fig. 1 ).

Case study teaching method increases student performance on examination questions. Mean score on a set of examination questions related to lessons covered by case studies (black bars) and paired control questions of similar format and difficulty about an unrelated topic (white bars). Chemical bonds, n = 54; Osmosis and diffusion, n = 54; Mitosis and meiosis, n = 51; DNA structure and replication, n = 50. Error bars represent the standard error of the mean (SEM). Asterisk indicates p < 0.05.

Case study teaching increases student perception of learning gains related to core course objectives

Student learning gains were assessed using a modified version of the SALG course evaluation tool ( Appendix 2 ). To determine whether completing case studies was more effective at increasing student perceptions of learning gains than completing textbook readings or participating in class discussions, perceptions of student learning gains for each were compared. In response to the question “Overall, how much did each of the following aspects of the class help your learning?” 82% of students responded that case studies helped a “good” or “great” amount, compared with 70% for participating in class discussions and 58% for completing textbook reading; only 4% of students responded that case studies helped a “small amount” or “provided no help,” compared with 2% for class discussions and 22% for textbook reading ( Fig. 2A ). The differences in reported learning gains derived from the use of case studies compared with class discussion and textbook readings were statistically significant, while the difference in learning gains associated with class discussion compared with textbook reading was not statistically significant by a narrow margin ( p = 0.051).

The case study teaching method increases student perceptions of learning gains. Student perceptions of learning gains are indicated by plotting responses to the question “How much did each of the following activities: (A) Help your learning overall? (B) Improve your ability to communicate your knowledge of scientific concepts in writing? (C) Improve your ability to communicate your knowledge of scientific concepts orally? (D) Help you understand the connections between scientific concepts and other aspects of your everyday life?” Reponses are represented as follows: Helped a great amount (black bars); Helped a good amount (dark gray bars); Helped a moderate amount (medium gray bars); Helped a small amount (light gray bars); Provided no help (white bars). Asterisk indicates p < 0.05.

To elucidate the effectiveness of case studies at promoting learning gains related to specific course learning objectives compared with class discussions and textbook reading, students were asked how much each of these methods of content delivery specifically helped improve skills that were integral to fulfilling three main course objectives. When students were asked how much each of the methods helped “improve your ability to communicate knowledge of scientific concepts in writing,” 81% of students responded that case studies help a “good” or “great” amount, compared with 63% for class discussions and 59% for textbook reading; only 6% of students responded that case studies helped a “small amount” or “provided no help,” compared with 8% for class discussions and 21% for textbook reading ( Fig. 2B ). When the same question was posed about the ability to communicate orally, 81% of students responded that case studies help a “good” or “great” amount, compared with 68% for class discussions and 50% for textbook reading, while the respective response rates for helped a “small amount” or “provided no help,” were 4%, 6%, and 25% ( Fig. 2C ). The differences in learning gains associated with both written and oral communication were statistically significant when completion of case studies was compared with either participation in class discussion or completion of textbook readings. Compared with textbook reading, class discussions led to a statistically significant increase in oral but not written communication skills.

Students were then asked how much each of the methods helped them “understand the connections between scientific concepts and other aspects of your everyday life.” A total of 79% of respondents declared that case studies help a “good” or “great” amount, compared with 70% for class discussions and 57% for textbook reading ( Fig. 2D ). Only 4% stated that case studies and class discussions helped a “small amount” or “provided no help,” compared with 21% for textbook reading ( Fig. 2D ). Similar to overall learning gains, the use of case studies significantly increased the ability to understand the relevance of science to everyday life compared with class discussion and textbook readings, while the difference in learning gains associated with participation in class discussion compared with textbook reading was not statistically significant ( p = 0.054).

Student perceptions of learning gains resulting from case study teaching are positively correlated to increased performance on examinations, but independent of case study author

To test the hypothesis that case studies produced specifically for this course by the instructor were more effective at promoting learning gains than topically relevant case studies published by authors not associated with this course, perceptions of learning gains were compared for each of the case studies. For both of the case studies produced by the instructor of the course, 87% of students indicated that the case study provided a “good” or “great” amount of help to their learning, and 2% indicated that the case studies provided “little” or “no” help ( Table 1 ). In comparison, an average of 85% of students indicated that the case studies produced by an unaffiliated instructor provided a “good” or “great” amount of help to their learning, and 4% indicated that the case studies provided “little” or “no” help ( Table 1 ). The instructor-produced case studies yielded both the highest and lowest percentage of students reporting the highest level of learning gains (a “great” amount), while case studies produced by unaffiliated instructors yielded intermediate values. Therefore, it can be concluded that the effectiveness of case studies at promoting learning gains is not significantly affected by whether or not the course instructor authored the case study.

Case studies positively affect student perceptions of learning gains about various biological topics.

Finally, to determine whether performance on examination questions accurately predicts student perceptions of learning gains, mean scores on examination questions related to case studies were compared with reported perceptions of learning gains for those case studies ( Fig. 3 ). The coefficient of determination (R 2 value) was 0.81, indicating a strong, but not definitive, positive correlation between perceptions of learning gains and performance on examinations, suggesting that student perception of learning gains is a valid tool for assessing the effectiveness of case studies ( Fig. 3 ). This correlation was independent of case study author.

Perception of learning gains but not author of case study is positively correlated to score on related examination questions. Percentage of students reporting that each specific case study provided “a great amount of help” to their learning was plotted against the point difference between mean score on examination questions related to that case study and mean score on paired control questions. Positive point differences indicate how much higher the mean scores on case study-related questions were than the mean scores on paired control questions. Black squares represent case studies produced by the instructor of the course; white squares represent case studies produced by unaffiliated instructors. R 2 value indicates the coefficient of determination.

The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that teaching with case studies produced by the instructor of a course is more effective at promoting learning gains than using case studies produced by unaffiliated instructors. This study also tested the hypothesis that the case study teaching method is more effective than class discussions and textbook reading at promoting learning gains associated with four of the most commonly taught topics in undergraduate general biology courses: chemical bonds, osmosis and diffusion, mitosis and meiosis, and DNA structure and replication. In addition to assessing content-based learning gains, development of written and oral communication skills and the ability to connect scientific topics with real-world applications was also assessed, because these skills were overarching learning objectives of this course, and classroom activities related to both case studies and control lessons were designed to provide opportunities for students to develop these skills. Finally, data were analyzed to determine whether performance on examination questions is positively correlated to student perceptions of learning gains resulting from case study teaching.

Compared with equivalent control questions about topics of similar complexity taught using class discussions and textbook readings, all four case studies produced statistically significant increases in the mean score on examination questions ( Fig. 1 ). This indicates that case studies are more effective than more commonly used, traditional methods of content delivery at promoting learning of a variety of core concepts covered in general biology courses. The average increase in score on each test item was equivalent to nearly two letter grades, which is substantial enough to elevate the average student performance on test items from the unsatisfactory/failing range to the satisfactory/passing range. The finding that there was no statistical difference between case studies in terms of performance on examination questions suggests that case studies are equally effective at promoting learning of disparate topics in biology. The observations that students did not perform significantly less well on the first case study presented (chemical bonds) compared with the other case studies and that performance on examination questions did not progressively increase with each successive case study suggests that the effectiveness of case studies is not directly related to the amount of experience students have using case studies. Furthermore, anecdotal evidence from previous semesters of this course suggests that, of the four topics addressed by cases in this study, DNA structure and function and osmosis and diffusion are the first and second most difficult for students to grasp. The lack of a statistical difference between case studies therefore suggests that the effectiveness of a case study at promoting learning gains is not directly proportional to the difficulty of the concept covered. However, the finding that use of the osmosis and diffusion case study resulted in the greatest increase in examination performance compared with control questions and also produced the highest student perceptions of learning gains is noteworthy and could be attributed to the fact that it was the only case study evaluated that included a hands-on experiment. Because the inclusion of a hands-on kinetic activity may synergistically enhance student engagement and learning and result in an even greater increase in learning gains than case studies that lack this type of activity, it is recommended that case studies that incorporate this type of activity be preferentially utilized.

Student perceptions of learning gains are strongly motivating factors for engagement in the classroom and academic performance, so it is important to assess the effect of any teaching method in this context ( 19 , 24 ). A modified version of the SALG course evaluation tool was used to assess student perceptions of learning gains because it has been previously validated as an efficacious tool ( Appendix 2 ) ( 20 ). Using the SALG tool, case study teaching was demonstrated to significantly increase student perceptions of overall learning gains compared with class discussions and textbook reading ( Fig. 2A ). Case studies were shown to be particularly useful for promoting perceived development of written and oral communication skills and for demonstrating connections between scientific topics and real-world issues and applications ( Figs. 2B–2D ). Further, student perceptions of “great” learning gains positively correlated with increased performance on examination questions, indicating that assessment of learning gains using the SALG tool is both valid and useful in this course setting ( Fig. 3 ). These findings also suggest that case study teaching could be used to increase student motivation and engagement in classroom activities and thus promote learning and performance on assessments. The finding that textbook reading yielded the lowest student perceptions of learning gains was not unexpected, since reading facilitates passive learning while the class discussions and case studies were both designed to promote active learning.

Importantly, there was no statistical difference in student performance on examinations attributed to the two case studies produced by the instructor of the course compared with the two case studies produced by unaffiliated instructors. The average difference between the two instructor-produced case studies and the two case studies published by unaffiliated instructors was only 3% in terms of both the average score on examination questions (76% compared with 73%) and the average increase in score compared with paired control items (14% compared with 17%) ( Fig. 1 ). Even when considering the inherent qualitative differences of course grades, these differences are negligible. Similarly, the effectiveness of case studies at promoting learning gains was not significantly affected by the origin of the case study, as evidenced by similar percentages of students reporting “good” and “great” learning gains regardless of whether the case study was produced by the course instructor or an unaffiliated instructor ( Table 1 ).

The observation that case studies published by unaffiliated instructors are just as effective as those produced by the instructor of a course suggests that instructors can reasonably rely on the use of pre-published case studies relevant to their class rather than investing the considerable time and effort required to produce a novel case study. Case studies covering a wide range of topics in the sciences are available from a number of sources, and many of them are free access. The National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science (NCCSTS) database ( http://sciencecases.lib.buffalo.edu/cs/ ) contains over 500 case studies that are freely available to instructors, and are accompanied by teaching notes that provide logistical advice and additional resources for implementing the case study, as well as a set of assessment questions with a password-protected answer key. Case study repositories are also maintained by BioQUEST Curriculum Consortium ( http://www.bioquest.org/icbl/cases.php ) and the Science Case Network ( http://sciencecasenet.org ); both are available for use by instructors from outside institutions.

It should be noted that all case studies used in this study were rigorously peer-reviewed and accepted for publication by the NCCSTS prior to the completion of this study ( 2 , 10 , 18 , 25 ); the conclusions of this study may not apply to case studies that were not developed in accordance with similar standards. Because case study teaching involves skills such as creative writing and management of dynamic group discussion in a way that is not commonly integrated into many other teaching methods, it is recommended that novice case study teachers seek training or guidance before writing their first case study or implementing the method. The lack of a difference observed in the use of case studies from different sources should be interpreted with some degree of caution since only two sources were represented in this study, and each by only two cases. Furthermore, in an educational setting, quantitative differences in test scores might produce meaningful qualitative differences in course grades even in the absence of a p value that is statistically significant. For example, there is a meaningful qualitative difference between test scores that result in an average grade of C− and test scores that result in an average grade of C+, even if there is no statistically significant difference between the two sets of scores.

In the future, it could be informative to confirm these findings using a larger cohort, by repeating the study at different institutions with different instructors, by evaluating different case studies, and by directly comparing the effectiveness of the case studying teaching method with additional forms of instruction, such as traditional chalkboard and slide-based lecturing, and laboratory-based activities. It may also be informative to examine whether demographic factors such as student age and gender modulate the effectiveness of the case study teaching method, and whether case studies work equally well for non-science majors taking a science course compared with those majoring in the subject. Since the topical material used in this study is often included in other classes in both high school and undergraduate education, such as cell biology, genetics, and chemistry, the conclusions of this study are directly applicable to a broad range of courses. Presently, it is recommended that the use of case studies in teaching undergraduate general biology and other science courses be expanded, especially for the teaching of capacious issues with real-world applications and in classes where development of written and oral communication skills are key objectives. The use of case studies that involve hands-on activities should be emphasized to maximize the benefit of this teaching method. Importantly, instructors can be confident in the use of pre-published case studies to promote learning, as there is no indication that the effectiveness of the case study teaching method is reliant on the production of novel, customized case studies for each course.

SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS

Acknowledgments.

This article benefitted from a President’s Faculty Innovation Grant, Kingsborough Community College. The author declares that there are no conflicts of interest.

† Supplemental materials available at http://jmbe.asm.org

What is the Case Study Method?

Overview Dropdown up

Overview dropdown down, celebrating 100 years of the case method at hbs.

The 2021-2022 academic year marks the 100-year anniversary of the introduction of the case method at Harvard Business School. Today, the HBS case method is employed in the HBS MBA program, in Executive Education programs, and in dozens of other business schools around the world. As Dean Srikant Datar's says, the case method has withstood the test of time.

Case Discussion Preparation Details Expand All Collapse All

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How Cases Unfold In the Classroom

How cases unfold in the classroom dropdown up, how cases unfold in the classroom dropdown down, preparation guidelines expand all collapse all, read the professor's assignment or discussion questions read the professor's assignment or discussion questions dropdown down, read the first few paragraphs and then skim the case read the first few paragraphs and then skim the case dropdown down, reread the case, underline text, and make margin notes reread the case, underline text, and make margin notes dropdown down, note the key problems on a pad of paper and go through the case again note the key problems on a pad of paper and go through the case again dropdown down, how to prepare for case discussions dropdown up, how to prepare for case discussions dropdown down, read the professor's assignment or discussion questions, read the first few paragraphs and then skim the case, reread the case, underline text, and make margin notes, note the key problems on a pad of paper and go through the case again, case study best practices expand all collapse all, prepare prepare dropdown down, discuss discuss dropdown down, participate participate dropdown down, relate relate dropdown down, apply apply dropdown down, note note dropdown down, understand understand dropdown down, case study best practices dropdown up, case study best practices dropdown down, participate, what can i expect on the first day dropdown down.

Most programs begin with registration, followed by an opening session and a dinner. If your travel plans necessitate late arrival, please be sure to notify us so that alternate registration arrangements can be made for you. Please note the following about registration:

HBS campus programs – Registration takes place in the Chao Center.

India programs – Registration takes place outside the classroom.

Other off-campus programs – Registration takes place in the designated facility.

What happens in class if nobody talks? Dropdown down

Professors are here to push everyone to learn, but not to embarrass anyone. If the class is quiet, they'll often ask a participant with experience in the industry in which the case is set to speak first. This is done well in advance so that person can come to class prepared to share. Trust the process. The more open you are, the more willing you’ll be to engage, and the more alive the classroom will become.

Does everyone take part in "role-playing"? Dropdown down

Professors often encourage participants to take opposing sides and then debate the issues, often taking the perspective of the case protagonists or key decision makers in the case.

View Frequently Asked Questions

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Cases are narratives, situations, select data samplings, or statements that present unresolved and provocative issues, situations, or questions (Indiana University Teaching Handbook, 2005). The case method is a participatory, discussion-based way of learning where students gain skills in critical thinking, communication, and group dynamics. It is a type of problem-based learning . Often seen in the professional schools of medicine, law, and business, the case method is now used successfully in disciplines such as engineering, chemistry, education, and journalism. Students can work through a case during class as a whole or in small groups.

In addition to the definition above, the case method of teaching (or learning):

• Is a partnership between students and teacher as well as among students.
• Promotes more effective contextual learning and long-term retention.
• Involves trust that students will find the answers.
• Answers questions not only of “how” but “why.”
• Provides students the opportunity to “walk around the problem” and to see varied perspectives.

(Bruner, 2002, and Christensen, Garvin, and Sweet, 1991)

What is the value of the case method?

Bruner (1991) states that the case method:

• Is effective: It employs active learning, involves self-discovery where the teacher serves as facilitator.
• Builds the capacity for critical thinking: It uses questioning skills as modeled by the teacher and employs discussion and debates.
• Exercises an administrative point of view: Students must develop a framework for making decisions.
• Models a learning environment: It offers an exchange and flow of ideas from one person to another and achieves trust, respect, and risk-taking.
• Models the process of inductive learning-from-experience: It is valuable in promoting life-long learning. It also promotes more effective contextual learning and long-term retention.
• Mimics the real world: Decisions are sometimes based not on absolute values of right and wrong, but on relative values and uncertainty.

What are some ways to use the case method appropriately?

Choose an appropriate case

Cases can be any of the following (Indiana University Teaching Handbook, 2005):

• Finished cases based on facts; these are useful for purposes of analysis.
• Unfinished open-ended cases; where the results are not clear yet, so the student must predict, make suggestions, and conclusions.
• Fictional cases that the teacher writes; the difficulty is in writing these cases so they reflect a real-world situation.
• Original documents, such as the use of news articles, reports, data sets, ethnographies; an interesting case would be to provide two sides of a scenario.

Develop effective questions

Think about ways to start the discussion such as using a hypothetical example or employing the background knowledge of your students.

Get students prepared

To prepare for the next class ask students to think about the following questions:

• What is the problem or decision?
• Who is the key decision-maker?
• Who are the other people involved?
• What caused the problem?
• What are some underlying assumptions or objectives?
• What decision needs to be made?
• Are there alternative responses?

Set ground rules with your students

For effective class discussion suggest the following to your students:

• Carefully listen to the discussion, but do not wait too long to participate.
• Collaboration and respect should always be present.
• Provide value-added comments, suggestions, or questions. Strive to think of the class objective by keeping the discussion going toward constructive inquiry and solutions.

Other suggestions

• Try to refrain from being the “sage on the stage” or a monopolizer. If you are, students are merely absorbing and not engaging with the material in the way that the case method allows.
• Make sure the students have finished presenting their perspective before interjecting. Wait and check their body language before adding or changing the discussion.
• Take note of the progress and the content in the discussion. One way is by using the board or computer to structure the comments. Another way, particularly useful where there is a conflict or multiple alternatives, is the two-column method. In this method, the teacher makes two columns: “For and Against” or “Alternative A and Alternative B.” All arguments/comments are listed in the respective column before discussions or evaluations occur. Don't forget to note supportive evidence.
• In addition to the discussion method, you can also try debates, role-plays, and simulations as ways to uncover the lesson from the case.
• If you decide to grade participation, make sure that your grading system is an accurate and defensible portrayal of the contributions.

In conclusion, cases are a valuable way for learning to occur. It takes a fair amount of preparation by both the teacher and the students, but don't forget these benefits (Bruner, 2002):

• The teacher is learning as well as the students. Because of the interactive nature of this method, the teacher constantly “encounters fresh perspective on old problems or tests classic solutions to new problems.”
• The students are having fun, are motivated and engaged. If done well, the students are working collaboratively to support each other.

Where can I learn more?

• Case Studies, Center for Teaching, Vanderbilt University
• Case-based Teaching, Center for Research on Teaching and Learning, University of Michigan
• Barnes, L. B., Christensen, C. R., & Hansen, A. J. (1994). Teaching and the case method (3rd ed.). Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
• Boehrer, J., & Linsky, M. (1990). Teaching with cases: Learning to question. In M. D. Svinicki (Ed.), New Directions for Teaching and Learning: No. 42, The changing face of college teaching . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
• Bruner, R. (2002). Socrates' muse: Reflections on effective case discussion leadership . New York: McGraw-Hill.
• Christensen, C. R., Garvin, D. A., & Sweet, A. (Eds.). (1991). Education for judgment: The artistry of discussion leadership . Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
• Indiana University, Bloomington, Campus Instructional Consulting. (n.d.). Teaching with the case method. In Indiana University Teaching Handbook . Retrieved June 23, 2010, from http://www.teaching.iub.edu/wrapper_big.php?section_id=case
• Mitchell, T., & Rosenstiel, T. (2003). Background and tips for case study teaching . Retrieved June 23, 2010, from http://www.journalism.org/node/1757

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Case-based Teaching and Problem-based Learning

Case-based teaching.

With case-based teaching, students develop skills in analytical thinking and reflective judgment by reading and discussing complex, real-life scenarios. The articles in this section explain how to use cases in teaching and provide case studies for the natural sciences, social sciences, and other disciplines.

Teaching with Case Studies (Stanford University)

This article from the Stanford Center for Teaching and Learning describes the rationale for using case studies, the process for choosing appropriate cases, and tips for how to implement them in college courses.

The Case Method (University of Illinois)

Tips for teachers on how to be successful using the Case Method in the college/university classroom. Includes information about the Case Method values, uses, and additional resource links.

National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science (National Science Teaching Association)

This site offers resources and examples specific to teaching in the sciences. This includes the “UB Case Study Collection,” an extensive list of ready-to-use cases in a variety of science disciplines. Each case features a PDF handout describing the case, as well as teaching notes.

The Michigan Sustainability Cases Initiative (CRLT Occasional Paper)

This paper describes the Michigan Sustainability Cases Initiative, including links to the full library of cases, and it offers advice both for writing cases and facilitating case discussions effectively.

The Case Method and the Interactive Classroom (Foran, 2001, NEA Higher Education Journal)

First-person account of how a sociology faculty member at University of California, Santa Barbara began using case studies in his teaching and how his methods have evolved over time as a professor.

Problem-based Learning

Problem-based learning (PBL) is both a teaching method and an approach to the curriculum. It consists of carefully designed problems that challenge students to use problem solving techniques, self-directed learning strategies, team participation skills, and disciplinary knowledge. The articles and links in this section describe the characteristics and objectives of PBL and the process for using PBL. There is also a list of printed and web resources.

Problem-Based Learning Network (Illinois Mathematics and Science Academy)

Site includes an interactive PBL Model, Professional Development links, and video vignettes to illustrate how to effectively use problem-based learning in the classroom. The goals of IMSA's PBLNetwork are to mentor educators in all disciplines, to explore problem-based learning strategies, and to connect PBL educators to one another.

Problem-Based Learning: An Introduction (Rhem, 1998, National Teaching and Learning Forum)

This piece summarizes the benefits of using problem-based learning, its historical origins, and the faculty/student roles in PBL. Overall, this is an easy to read introduction to problem-based learning.

Problem-Based Learning (Stanford University, 2001)

This issue of Speaking of Teaching identifies the central features of PBL, provides some guidelines for planning a PBL course, and discusses the impact of PBL on student learning and motivation.

Problem-Based Learning Clearinghouse (University of Delaware)

Collection of peer reviewed problems and articles to assist educators in using problem-based learning. Teaching notes and supplemental materials accompany each problem, providing insights and strategies that are innovative and classroom-tested. Free registration is required to view and download the Clearinghouse’s resources.

See also: The International Journal of Problem-Based Learning

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Start with a story : the case study method of teaching college science

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Description

Creators/contributors, contents/summary.

• The case for cases: We need a new approach
• What are case studies?
• Types of case studies
• How to teach with case studies: an overview
• Whole class discussion: the classical method
• Small group methods: an overview
• Problem-based learning
• Interrupted case method
• Intimate debate method
• Team-based learning
• Large-class methods
• Individual case study methods
• Hybrid case methods
• The directed case method
• How not to teach with case studies
• How to write case studies
• How to write case study teaching notes
• How to grade students using case-based teaching
• Assessment and evaluation of the case study process
• The future of case teaching.

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Teaching with the Case Method

Related links.

Investigative Case Based Learning

By Ann Velenchik Wellesley College

With considerable help from Pat Conway , Mike Hemesath , Eric Ribbens , and David Schodt

What is Teaching with the Case Method?

The case method combines two elements: the case itself and the discussion of that case. A teaching case is a rich narrative in which individuals or groups must make a decision or solve a problem. A teaching case is not a "case study" of the type used in academic research. Teaching cases provide information, but neither analysis nor conclusions. The analytical work of explaining the relationships among events in the case, identifying options, evaluating choices and predicting the effects of actions is the work done by students during the classroom discussion. Learn more about the Case Method

Why Teach with the Case Method?

In a case discussion, students "do" the work of the discipline, rather than watch or read about how it is done by others. By engaging in the case, students apply the concepts, techniques and methods of the discipline and improve their ability to apply them. Case discussions bring energy and excitement to the classroom, providing students with an opportunity to work with a range of evidence, and improving their ability to apply the vocabulary, theory and methods they have learned in the course. Learn more about teaching with Cases

How to Teach with the Case Method?

Case method teaching brings together three components: an appropriate case, students who are prepared to engage with the case material in a discussion, and an instructor who knows the case, has a plan for the discussion and is ready to deal with the unexpected. This section provides detailed instructions on how to develop each of these components. Learn how to teach with Cases

Teaching Economics with the Case Method

Case examples.

Browse the collection of teaching examples

Browse a list of references related to teaching with Cases

      Next Page »

Best Practices Manual for Teaching Oral Litigation in Mexico

Israel archundia muro, introduction.

From the reform, that brought about by the adversarial and accusatory criminal justice system, it came with a paradigm shift, both in the professional practice of the legal practitioners and in the way law is taught in our country.

Different organizations, such as the state, academic and civil society, including ABA ROLI Mexico, have contributed to the evolution of the understanding the law and its practice.

One of the main tools that have been key to the evolution of the way law is taught has been the competitions of oral litigation techniques, which have represented an unprecedented practice in our country and have served as a meeting point for all those who seek the constant improvement of the justice system.

This manual focuses on one of these forms of teaching law, which is called the case study method, specifically developed through oral litigation competitions, so we intend this instrument will be useful for you to understand the teaching method and to apply it when developing a competition of this type. 

Although much of the content of this work will deal with the Mexican accusatory criminal system, we present the premise that the oral litigation techniques used in this system are not exclusive and can be applied in other justice systems that have orality as a characteristic, so this manual is also intended to be useful for other branches of law.

We hope the advice and experiences lived during the time oral litigation competitions have been developed in our country and summarized in this work will be useful to you as a starting point in your academic and professional projects. 

Read the Report

• Best Practices Manual for Teaching Oral Litigation in Mexico  (English, 2022)

The materials contained herein represent the opinions of the authors and editors and should not be construed to be those of either the American Bar Association (ABA) or the ABA Rule of Law Initiative unless adopted pursuant to the bylaws of the Association. Nothing contained herein is to be considered as the rendering of legal advice for specific cases, and readers are responsible for obtaining such advice from their own legal counsel. These materials and any forms and agreements herein are intended for educational and informational purposes only.

Case Method 100 Years

• Harvard Business School →
• Case Method 100 Years →

Celebrating 100 Years of Case Method Teaching & Learning

Videos  .

• 01 NOV 2021
• Harvard Business School

Dean Srikant Datar Introduces the Case Method Centennial

• 30 JAN 2014

Alumni Recall Their First Cold Call

In the News  

How Natural Winemaker Frank Cornelissen Innovated While Staying True to His Brand

• 18 Jun 2024

Lessons in Business Innovation from Legendary Restaurant elBulli

• 07 May 2024

Amazon in Seattle: The Role of Business in Causing and Solving a Housing Crisis

• 23 Apr 2024

The First Case: General Shoe Company

10 may 1922, the case system named.

Universities Adopt HBS Casebooks

Case Research Funded at General Electric

Case Method Catches On

Business Schools Debate Use of the Case Method

Teaching by the Case Method at Radcliffe

15K Cases Produced in 18 Years

Case Method Flexibility Allows for Transition to Wartime Curriculum

600 Cases Written for Military

Industrial Films Introduced in the Classroom

Task force created for case writers, office of case development established, 11 jun 1953.

Aldrich Hall Dedicated

Summer Case Writing Programs Begins

The Case Method Goes Global

Number of Cases and Collections in Print Grows

Annual Goal Set for Case Writing

Groundbreaking Case Series on Swiss Watch Industry

Cases Jump from Paper to Screen

First Directory of Cases Published with 32 Business Schools

Intercollegiate Clearing House for the Distribution of Cases Developed

Learning to Teach by the Case Method

Intercollegiate case bibliography volume iv published.

Experimenting with Case Discussion Simulator

Stimulating Global Case Development

Case clearing house sells enough to break even.

Dynamic Case Series Introduced

Case Method Enters Digital Era

Ford foundation grant supports case materials in developing countries.

First Use of “Tele-Case Discussions”

Prolific Case Author Ruth Hetherston Retires

Ford foundation supports case method teachers.

AASU Founded with Call for More Black Case Protagonists

Doctoral Students Introduced to Case Method Teaching

Cases grouped in course modules.

Using Personal Computers to Analyze Case Materials

Case publishing shifts to computer fulfillment.

Teaching by the Case Method Published

Christensen named university professor.

Work Begins to Put 7K Active Cases Online

Harvard Business School Publishing Created

First Multi-media Case on Pacific Dunlop

Educational technology group founded.

California Research Center Established

Executive Education Establishes Research & Development Group

Making a case for women, research & development focuses on international cases, christensen center founded.

HBS Turns 100 and Looks to the Future of the Case Method

Shanghai Center Opens

HBS Online Introduced

Global research group becomes case research & writing group (crg).

Cold Call Podcast Launched

Collection of cases featuring women developed.

Bringing the Case Method Online During COVID-19 Pandemic

Racial equity plan calls for more black protagonists in case studies.

Celebrating 100 Years of the Case Method

• DOI: 10.1057/s41599-024-03349-y
• Corpus ID: 270618379

Students’ perception of peer teaching in engineering education: a mixed–method case study

• C C Dosoftei , Lidia Alexa
• Published in Humanities and Social… 20 June 2024
• Engineering, Education

36 References

Peer learning in stem: a qualitative study of a student-oriented active learning intervention program, peer-to-peer teaching in higher education: a critical literature review, learning clinical skills in the simulation suite: the lived experiences of student nurses involved in peer teaching and peer assessment., near-peer education: a novel teaching program, radiography students' perceptions of peer assisted learning., the concept of active learning and the measurement of learning outcomes: a review of research in engineering higher education, student perspectives on how different elements of constructive alignment support active learning, assessing the effectiveness of problem-based and lecture-based learning environments on students’ achievements in electronic works, a first year experience of student-directed peer-assisted learning, near-peer teaching in undergraduate nurse education: an integrative review., related papers.

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Case Method Teaching and Learning

What is the case method? How can the case method be used to engage learners? What are some strategies for getting started? This guide helps instructors answer these questions by providing an overview of the case method while highlighting learner-centered and digitally-enhanced approaches to teaching with the case method. The guide also offers tips to instructors as they get started with the case method and additional references and resources.

On this page:

What is case method teaching.

• Case Method at Columbia

Why use the Case Method?

Case method teaching approaches, how do i get started.

• Additional Resources

Case method 1 teaching is an active form of instruction that focuses on a case and involves students learning by doing 2 3 . Cases are real or invented stories 4  that include “an educational message” or recount events, problems, dilemmas, theoretical or conceptual issue that requires analysis and/or decision-making.

Case-based teaching simulates real world situations and asks students to actively grapple with complex problems 5 6 This method of instruction is used across disciplines to promote learning, and is common in law, business, medicine, among other fields. See Table 1 below for a few types of cases and the learning they promote.

Table 1: Types of cases and the learning they promote.

For a more complete list, see Case Types & Teaching Methods: A Classification Scheme from the National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science.

Back to Top

Case Method Teaching and Learning at Columbia

The case method is actively used in classrooms across Columbia, at the Morningside campus in the School of International and Public Affairs (SIPA), the School of Business, Arts and Sciences, among others, and at Columbia University Irving Medical campus.

Faculty Spotlight:

Professor Mary Ann Price on Using Case Study Method to Place Pre-Med Students in Real-Life Scenarios

Read more  

Professor De Pinho on Using the Case Method in the Mailman Core

Case method teaching has been found to improve student learning, to increase students’ perception of learning gains, and to meet learning objectives 8 9 . Faculty have noted the instructional benefits of cases including greater student engagement in their learning 10 , deeper student understanding of concepts, stronger critical thinking skills, and an ability to make connections across content areas and view an issue from multiple perspectives 11 . 

Through case-based learning, students are the ones asking questions about the case, doing the problem-solving, interacting with and learning from their peers, “unpacking” the case, analyzing the case, and summarizing the case. They learn how to work with limited information and ambiguity, think in professional or disciplinary ways, and ask themselves “what would I do if I were in this specific situation?”

The case method bridges theory to practice, and promotes the development of skills including: communication, active listening, critical thinking, decision-making, and metacognitive skills 12 , as students apply course content knowledge, reflect on what they know and their approach to analyzing, and make sense of a case. 

Though the case method has historical roots as an instructor-centered approach that uses the Socratic dialogue and cold-calling, it is possible to take a more learner-centered approach in which students take on roles and tasks traditionally left to the instructor. 

Cases are often used as “vehicles for classroom discussion” 13 . Students should be encouraged to take ownership of their learning from a case. Discussion-based approaches engage students in thinking and communicating about a case. Instructors can set up a case activity in which students are the ones doing the work of “asking questions, summarizing content, generating hypotheses, proposing theories, or offering critical analyses” 14 . 

The role of the instructor is to share a case or ask students to share or create a case to use in class, set expectations, provide instructions, and assign students roles in the discussion. Student roles in a case discussion can include: 

• discussion “starters” get the conversation started with a question or posing the questions that their peers came up with; 
• facilitators listen actively, validate the contributions of peers, ask follow-up questions, draw connections, refocus the conversation as needed; 
• recorders take-notes of the main points of the discussion, record on the board, upload to CourseWorks, or type and project on the screen; and 
• discussion “wrappers” lead a summary of the main points of the discussion. 

Prior to the case discussion, instructors can model case analysis and the types of questions students should ask, co-create discussion guidelines with students, and ask for students to submit discussion questions. During the discussion, the instructor can keep time, intervene as necessary (however the students should be doing the talking), and pause the discussion for a debrief and to ask students to reflect on what and how they learned from the case activity. 

Note: case discussions can be enhanced using technology. Live discussions can occur via video-conferencing (e.g., using Zoom ) or asynchronous discussions can occur using the Discussions tool in CourseWorks (Canvas) .

Table 2 includes a few interactive case method approaches. Regardless of the approach selected, it is important to create a learning environment in which students feel comfortable participating in a case activity and learning from one another. See below for tips on supporting student in how to learn from a case in the “getting started” section and how to create a supportive learning environment in the Guide for Inclusive Teaching at Columbia . 

Table 2. Strategies for Engaging Students in Case-Based Learning

Approaches to case teaching should be informed by course learning objectives, and can be adapted for small, large, hybrid, and online classes. Instructional technology can be used in various ways to deliver, facilitate, and assess the case method. For instance, an online module can be created in CourseWorks (Canvas) to structure the delivery of the case, allow students to work at their own pace, engage all learners, even those reluctant to speak up in class, and assess understanding of a case and student learning. Modules can include text, embedded media (e.g., using Panopto or Mediathread ) curated by the instructor, online discussion, and assessments. Students can be asked to read a case and/or watch a short video, respond to quiz questions and receive immediate feedback, post questions to a discussion, and share resources. 

For more information about options for incorporating educational technology to your course, please contact your Learning Designer .

To ensure that students are learning from the case approach, ask them to pause and reflect on what and how they learned from the case. Time to reflect  builds your students’ metacognition, and when these reflections are collected they provides you with insights about the effectiveness of your approach in promoting student learning.

Well designed case-based learning experiences: 1) motivate student involvement, 2) have students doing the work, 3) help students develop knowledge and skills, and 4) have students learning from each other.  

Designing a case-based learning experience should center around the learning objectives for a course. The following points focus on intentional design. 

Identify learning objectives, determine scope, and anticipate challenges. 

• Why use the case method in your course? How will it promote student learning differently than other approaches? 
• What are the learning objectives that need to be met by the case method? What knowledge should students apply and skills should they practice? 
• What is the scope of the case? (a brief activity in a single class session to a semester-long case-based course; if new to case method, start small with a single case). 
• What challenges do you anticipate (e.g., student preparation and prior experiences with case learning, discomfort with discussion, peer-to-peer learning, managing discussion) and how will you plan for these in your design? 
• If you are asking students to use transferable skills for the case method (e.g., teamwork, digital literacy) make them explicit. 

Determine how you will know if the learning objectives were met and develop a plan for evaluating the effectiveness of the case method to inform future case teaching. 

• What assessments and criteria will you use to evaluate student work or participation in case discussion? 
• How will you evaluate the effectiveness of the case method? What feedback will you collect from students? 
• How might you leverage technology for assessment purposes? For example, could you quiz students about the case online before class, accept assignment submissions online, use audience response systems (e.g., PollEverywhere) for formative assessment during class? 

Select an existing case, create your own, or encourage students to bring course-relevant cases, and prepare for its delivery

• Where will the case method fit into the course learning sequence? 
• Is the case at the appropriate level of complexity? Is it inclusive, culturally relevant, and relatable to students? 
• What materials and preparation will be needed to present the case to students? (e.g., readings, audiovisual materials, set up a module in CourseWorks). 

Plan for the case discussion and an active role for students

• What will your role be in facilitating case-based learning? How will you model case analysis for your students? (e.g., present a short case and demo your approach and the process of case learning) (Davis, 2009). 
• What discussion guidelines will you use that include your students’ input? 
• How will you encourage students to ask and answer questions, summarize their work, take notes, and debrief the case? 
• If students will be working in groups, how will groups form? What size will the groups be? What instructions will they be given? How will you ensure that everyone participates? What will they need to submit? Can technology be leveraged for any of these areas? 
• Have you considered students of varied cognitive and physical abilities and how they might participate in the activities/discussions, including those that involve technology? 

Student preparation and expectations

• How will you communicate about the case method approach to your students? When will you articulate the purpose of case-based learning and expectations of student engagement? What information about case-based learning and expectations will be included in the syllabus?
• What preparation and/or assignment(s) will students complete in order to learn from the case? (e.g., read the case prior to class, watch a case video prior to class, post to a CourseWorks discussion, submit a brief memo, complete a short writing assignment to check students’ understanding of a case, take on a specific role, prepare to present a critique during in-class discussion).

Andersen, E. and Schiano, B. (2014). Teaching with Cases: A Practical Guide . Harvard Business Press. 

Bonney, K. M. (2015). Case Study Teaching Method Improves Student Performance and Perceptions of Learning Gains†. Journal of Microbiology & Biology Education , 16 (1), 21–28. https://doi.org/10.1128/jmbe.v16i1.846

Davis, B.G. (2009). Chapter 24: Case Studies. In Tools for Teaching. Second Edition. Jossey-Bass. 

Garvin, D.A. (2003). Making the Case: Professional Education for the world of practice. Harvard Magazine. September-October 2003, Volume 106, Number 1, 56-107.

Golich, V.L. (2000). The ABCs of Case Teaching. International Studies Perspectives. 1, 11-29. 

Golich, V.L.; Boyer, M; Franko, P.; and Lamy, S. (2000). The ABCs of Case Teaching. Pew Case Studies in International Affairs. Institute for the Study of Diplomacy. 

Heath, J. (2015). Teaching & Writing Cases: A Practical Guide. The Case Center, UK. 

Herreid, C.F. (2011). Case Study Teaching. New Directions for Teaching and Learning. No. 128, Winder 2011, 31 – 40. 

Herreid, C.F. (2007). Start with a Story: The Case Study Method of Teaching College Science . National Science Teachers Association. Available as an ebook through Columbia Libraries. 

Herreid, C.F. (2006). “Clicker” Cases: Introducing Case Study Teaching Into Large Classrooms. Journal of College Science Teaching. Oct 2006, 36(2). https://search.proquest.com/docview/200323718?pq-origsite=gscholar  

Krain, M. (2016). Putting the Learning in Case Learning? The Effects of Case-Based Approaches on Student Knowledge, Attitudes, and Engagement. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching. 27(2), 131-153. 

Lundberg, K.O. (Ed.). (2011). Our Digital Future: Boardrooms and Newsrooms. Knight Case Studies Initiative. 

Popil, I. (2011). Promotion of critical thinking by using case studies as teaching method. Nurse Education Today, 31(2), 204–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2010.06.002

Schiano, B. and Andersen, E. (2017). Teaching with Cases Online . Harvard Business Publishing. 

Thistlethwaite, JE; Davies, D.; Ekeocha, S.; Kidd, J.M.; MacDougall, C.; Matthews, P.; Purkis, J.; Clay D. (2012). The effectiveness of case-based learning in health professional education: A BEME systematic review . Medical Teacher. 2012; 34(6): e421-44. 

Yadav, A.; Lundeberg, M.; DeSchryver, M.; Dirkin, K.; Schiller, N.A.; Maier, K. and Herreid, C.F. (2007). Teaching Science with Case Studies: A National Survey of Faculty Perceptions of the Benefits and Challenges of Using Cases. Journal of College Science Teaching; Sept/Oct 2007; 37(1). 

Weimer, M. (2013). Learner-Centered Teaching: Five Key Changes to Practice. Second Edition. Jossey-Bass.

Additional resources 

Teaching with Cases , Harvard Kennedy School of Government. 

Features “what is a teaching case?” video that defines a teaching case, and provides documents to help students prepare for case learning, Common case teaching challenges and solutions, tips for teaching with cases. 

Promoting excellence and innovation in case method teaching: Teaching by the Case Method , Christensen Center for Teaching & Learning. Harvard Business School. 

National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science . University of Buffalo. 

A collection of peer-reviewed STEM cases to teach scientific concepts and content, promote process skills and critical thinking. The Center welcomes case submissions. Case classification scheme of case types and teaching methods:

• Different types of cases: analysis case, dilemma/decision case, directed case, interrupted case, clicker case, a flipped case, a laboratory case. 
• Different types of teaching methods: problem-based learning, discussion, debate, intimate debate, public hearing, trial, jigsaw, role-play. 

Columbia Resources

Resources available to support your use of case method: The University hosts a number of case collections including: the Case Consortium (a collection of free cases in the fields of journalism, public policy, public health, and other disciplines that include teaching and learning resources; SIPA’s Picker Case Collection (audiovisual case studies on public sector innovation, filmed around the world and involving SIPA student teams in producing the cases); and Columbia Business School CaseWorks , which develops teaching cases and materials for use in Columbia Business School classrooms.

Center for Teaching and Learning

The Center for Teaching and Learning (CTL) offers a variety of programs and services for instructors at Columbia. The CTL can provide customized support as you plan to use the case method approach through implementation. Schedule a one-on-one consultation. 

Office of the Provost

The Hybrid Learning Course Redesign grant program from the Office of the Provost provides support for faculty who are developing innovative and technology-enhanced pedagogy and learning strategies in the classroom. In addition to funding, faculty awardees receive support from CTL staff as they redesign, deliver, and evaluate their hybrid courses.

The Start Small! Mini-Grant provides support to faculty who are interested in experimenting with one new pedagogical strategy or tool. Faculty awardees receive funds and CTL support for a one-semester period.

Explore our teaching resources.

• About the TOF Program
• 2017-18 Fellows
• 2016-17 Fellows

CTL resources and technology for you.

• About the LTF Program
• 2015-16 Fellows
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• The origins of this method can be traced to Harvard University where in 1870 the Law School began using cases to teach students how to think like lawyers using real court decisions. This was followed by the Business School in 1920 (Garvin, 2003). These professional schools recognized that lecture mode of instruction was insufficient to teach critical professional skills, and that active learning would better prepare learners for their professional lives. ↩
• Golich, V.L. (2000). The ABCs of Case Teaching. International Studies Perspectives. 1, 11-29. ↩
• Herreid, C.F. (2007). Start with a Story: The Case Study Method of Teaching College Science . National Science Teachers Association. Available as an ebook through Columbia Libraries. ↩
• Davis, B.G. (2009). Chapter 24: Case Studies. In Tools for Teaching. Second Edition. Jossey-Bass. ↩
• Andersen, E. and Schiano, B. (2014). Teaching with Cases: A Practical Guide . Harvard Business Press. ↩
• Lundberg, K.O. (Ed.). (2011). Our Digital Future: Boardrooms and Newsrooms. Knight Case Studies Initiative. ↩
• Heath, J. (2015). Teaching & Writing Cases: A Practical Guide. The Case Center, UK. ↩
• Bonney, K. M. (2015). Case Study Teaching Method Improves Student Performance and Perceptions of Learning Gains†. Journal of Microbiology & Biology Education , 16 (1), 21–28. https://doi.org/10.1128/jmbe.v16i1.846 ↩
• Krain, M. (2016). Putting the Learning in Case Learning? The Effects of Case-Based Approaches on Student Knowledge, Attitudes, and Engagement. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching. 27(2), 131-153. ↩
• Thistlethwaite, JE; Davies, D.; Ekeocha, S.; Kidd, J.M.; MacDougall, C.; Matthews, P.; Purkis, J.; Clay D. (2012). The effectiveness of case-based learning in health professional education: A BEME systematic review . Medical Teacher. 2012; 34(6): e421-44. ↩
• Yadav, A.; Lundeberg, M.; DeSchryver, M.; Dirkin, K.; Schiller, N.A.; Maier, K. and Herreid, C.F. (2007). Teaching Science with Case Studies: A National Survey of Faculty Perceptions of the Benefits and Challenges of Using Cases. Journal of College Science Teaching; Sept/Oct 2007; 37(1). ↩
• Popil, I. (2011). Promotion of critical thinking by using case studies as teaching method. Nurse Education Today, 31(2), 204–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2010.06.002 ↩
• Weimer, M. (2013). Learner-Centered Teaching: Five Key Changes to Practice. Second Edition. Jossey-Bass. ↩
• Herreid, C.F. (2006). “Clicker” Cases: Introducing Case Study Teaching Into Large Classrooms. Journal of College Science Teaching. Oct 2006, 36(2). https://search.proquest.com/docview/200323718?pq-origsite=gscholar ↩

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METHODS OF EDUCATION OF RELIGIOUS AND MORAL VALUES IN EARLY CHILDHOOD IN ANIMATED SERIES

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Research Trends in STEM Clubs: A Content Analysis

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• Rabia Nur Öndeş   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9787-4382 1  

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To identify the research trends in studies related to STEM Clubs, 56 publications that met the inclusion and extraction criteria were identified from the online databases ERIC and WoS in this study. These studies were analysed by using the descriptive content analysis research method based on the Paper Classification Form (PCF), which includes publishing years, keywords, research methods, sample levels and sizes, data collection tools, data analysis methods, durations, purposes, and findings. The findings showed that, the keywords in the studies were used under six different categories: disciplines, technological concepts, academic community, learning experiences, core elements of education, and psychosocial factors (variables). Case studies were frequently employed, with middle school students serving as the main participants in sample groups ranging from 11–15, 16–20, and 201–250. Surveys, questionnaires, and observations were the primary methods of data collection, and descriptive analysis was commonly used for data analysis. STEM Clubs had sessions ranging from 2 to 16 weeks, with each session commonly lasting 60 to 120 min. The study purposes mainly focused on four themes: the impact of participation on various aspects such as attitudes towards STEM disciplines, career paths, STEM major selection, and academic achievement; the development and implementation of a sample STEM Club program, including challenges and limitations; the examination of students' experiences, perceptions, and factors influencing their involvement and choice of STEM majors; the identification of some aspects such as attitudinal effects and non-academic skills; and the comparison of STEM experiences between in-school and out-of-school settings. The study results mainly focused on three themes: the increase in various aspects such as academic achievement, STEM major choice, engagement in STEM clubs, identity, interest in STEM, collaboration-communication skills; the design of STEM Clubs, including sample implementations, design principles, challenges, and factors affecting their success and sustainability; and the identification of factors influencing participation, motivation, and barriers. Overall, this study provides a comprehensive understanding of STEM Clubs, leading the way for more targeted and informed future research endeavours.

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Introduction

Worldwide, STEM education, which integrates the disciplines of science, technology, engineering, and math, is gaining popularity in K-12 settings due to its capacity to enhance 21st-century skills such as adaptability, problem-solving, and creative thinking (National Research Council [NRC], 2015 ). In STEM lessons, students are frequently guided by the engineering design process, which involves identifying problems or technical challenges and creating and developing solutions. Furthermore, higher achievement in STEM education has been linked to increased enrolment in post-secondary STEM fields, offering students greater opportunities to pursue careers in these domains (Merrill & Daugherty, 2010 ). However, STEM activities require dedicated time and the restructuring of integrated curricula, necessitating careful organization of lessons. Recognizing the complexity of developing 21st-century STEM proficiency, schools are not expected to tackle this challenge alone. In addition to regular STEM classes, there exists a diverse range of extended education programs, activities, and out-of-school learning environments (Baran et al., 2016 ; Kalkan & Eroglu, 2017 ; Schweingruber et al., 2014 ). In this paper, out-of-school learning environments, informal learning environments, extended education, and afterschool programs were used synonymously. It is worth noting that the literature lacks a universally accepted definition for out-of-school learning environments, leading to the use of various interchangeable terms (Donnelly et al., 2019 ). Some of these terms include informal learning environments, extended education, afterschool programs, all-day school, extracurricular activities, out-of-school time learning, extended schools, expanded learning, and leisure-time activities. These terms refer to optional programs and clubs offered by schools that exist outside of the standard academic curriculum (Baran et al., 2016 ; Cooper, 2011 ; Kalkan & Eroglu, 2017 ; Schweingruber et al., 2014 ).

Out-of-school learning, in contrast to traditional in-school learning, offers greater flexibility in terms of time and space, as it is not bound by the constraints of the school schedule, national or state standards, and standardized tests (Cooper, 2011 ). Out-of-school learning experiences typically involve collaborative engagement, the use of tools, and immersion in authentic environments, while school environments often emphasize individual performance, independent thinking, symbolic representations, and the acquisition of generalized skills and knowledge (Resnick, 1987 ). They encompass everyday activities such as family discussions, pursuing hobbies, and engaging in daily conversations, as well as designed environments like museums, science centres, and afterschool programs (Civil, 2007 ; Hein, 2009 ). On the other hand, extended education refers to intentionally structured learning and development programs and activities that are not part of regular classes. These programs are typically offered before and after school, as well as at locations outside the school (Bae, 2018 ). As a result, out-of-school learning environments encompass a wide range of experiences, including social, cultural, and technical excursions around the school, field studies at museums, zoos, nature centres, aquariums, and planetariums, project-based learning, sports activities, nature training, and club activities (Civil, 2007 ; Donnelly et al., 2019 ; Hein, 2009 ). At this point, STEM clubs are a specialized type of extracurricular activity that engage students in hands-on projects, experiments, and learning experiences related to scientific, technological, engineering, and mathematical disciplines. STEM Clubs, described as flexible learning environments unconstrained by time or location, offer an effective approach to conducting STEM studies outside of school (Blanchard et al., 2017 ; Cooper, 2011 ; Dabney et al., 2012 ).

Out-of-school learning environments, extended education or afterschool programs, hold tremendous potential for enhancing student learning and providing them with a diverse and enriching educational experience (Robelen, 2011 ). Extensive research supports the notion that these alternative educational programs not only contribute to students' academic growth but also foster their social, emotional, and intellectual development (NRC, 2015 ). Studies have consistently shown that after-school programs play a vital role in boosting students' achievement levels (Casing & Casing, 2024 ; Pastchal-Temple, 2012 ; Shernoff & Vandell, 2007 ), and contributing to positive emotional development, including improved self-esteem, positive attitudes, and enhanced social behaviour (Afterschool Alliance, 2015 ; Durlak & Weissberg, 2007 ; Lauer et al., 2006 ; Little et al., 2008 ). Moreover, engaging in various activities within these programs allows students to develop meaningful connections, expand their social networks, enhance leadership skills (Lipscomb et al., 2017 ), and cultivate cooperation, effective communication, and innovative problem-solving abilities (Mahoney et al., 2007 ).

Implementing STEM activities in out-of-school learning environments not only supports students in making career choices and fostering meaningful learning and interest in science, but also facilitates deep learning experiences (Bybee, 2001 ; Dabney et al., 2012 ; Sahin et al., 2018 ). Furthermore, STEM Clubs enhance students' emotional skills, such as a sense of belonging and peer-to-peer communication, while also fostering 21st-century skills, facilitating the acquisition of current content, and promoting career awareness and interest in STEM professions (Blanchard et al., 2017 ). In summary, engaging in STEM activities through social club activities not only addresses time constraints but also complements formal education and contributes to students' overall development. Hence, STEM Clubs, which are part of extended education, can be defined as dynamic and flexible learning environments that provide an effective approach to conducting STEM studies beyond traditional classroom settings. These clubs offer flexibility in terms of time and location, with intentionally structured programs and activities that take place outside of regular classes. They provide students with unique opportunities to explore and deepen their understanding of STEM subjects through collaborative engagement, hands-on use of tools, and immersive experiences in authentic environments (Bae, 2018 ; Blanchard, et al., 2017 ; Bybee, 2001 ; Cooper, 2011 ; Dabney et al., 2012 ). STEM Clubs have gained immense popularity worldwide, providing students with invaluable opportunities to explore and cultivate their interests and knowledge in these crucial fields (Adams et al., 2014 ; Bell et al., 2009 ). According to America After 3PM, nearly 75% of afterschool program participants, around 5,740,836 children, have access to STEM learning opportunities (Afterschool Alliance, 2015 ).

STEM Clubs as after-school programs come in various forms and provide diverse tutoring and instructional opportunities. For instance, the Boys and Girls Club of America (BGCA) operates in numerous cities across the United States, annually serving 4.73 million students (Boys and Girls Club of America, 2019 ). This program offers students the chance to engage in activities like sports, art, dance, field trips, and addresses the underrepresentation of African Americans in STEM. Another example is the Science Club for Girls (SCFG), established by concerned parents in Cambridge to address gender inequity in math, science, and technology courses and careers. SCFG brings together girls from grades K–7 through free after-school or weekend clubs, science explorations during vacations, and community science fairs, with approximately 800 to 1,000 students participating each year. The primary goal of these clubs is to increase STEM literacy and self-confidence among K–12 girls from underrepresented groups in these fields. More examples can be found in the literature, such as the St. Jude STEM Club (SJSC), where students conducted a 10-week paediatric cancer research project using accurate data (Ayers et al., 2020 ), and After School Matters, based in Chicago, offers project-based learning that enhances students' soft skills and culminates in producing a final project based on their activities (Hirsch, 2011 ).

The Purpose of The Study

The literature on STEM Clubs indicates a diverse range of such clubs located worldwide, catering to different student groups, operating on varying schedules, implementing diverse activities, and employing various strategies, methodologies, experiments, and assessments (Ayers et al., 2020 ; Blanchard et al., 2017 ; Boys and Girls Club of America, 2019 ; Hirsch, 2011 ; Sahin et al., 2018 ). However, it was previously unknown which specific sample groups were most commonly studied, which analytical methods were used frequently, and which results were primarily reported, even though the overall topic of STEM Clubs has gained significant attention. Therefore, organizing and categorizing this expansive body of literature is necessary to gain deeper insights into the current state of knowledge and practices in STEM Clubs. By systematically reviewing and synthesizing the diverse range of studies on this topic, we can develop a clearer understanding of the focus areas, methodologies, and key findings that have emerged from the existing research (Fraenkel et al., 2012 ). At this point, using a content analysis method is appropriate for this purpose because this method is particularly useful for examining trends and patterns in documents (Stemler, 2000 ). Similarly, some previous research on STEM education has conducted content analyses to examine existing studies and construct holistic patterns to understand trends (Bozkurt et al., 2019 ; Chomphuphra et al., 2019 ; Irwanto et al., 2022 ; Li et al., 2020 ; Lin et al., 2019 ; Martín-Páez et al., 2019 ; Noris et al., 2023 ). However, there is a lack of content analysis specifically focused on studies of STEM Clubs in the literature and showing the trends in this topic. Analysing research trends in STEM Clubs can help build upon existing knowledge, identify gaps, explore emerging topics, and highlight successful methodologies and strategies (Fraenkel et al., 2012 ; Noris et al., 2023 ; Stemler, 2000 ). This information can be valuable for researchers, educators, and policymakers to stay up-to-date and make informed decisions regarding curriculum design (Bozkurt et al., 2019 ; Chomphuphra et al., 2019 ; Irwanto et al., 2022 ; Li et al., 2020 ; Lin et al., 2019 ; Martín-Páez et al., 2019 ; Noris et al., 2023 ), the development of effective STEM Club programs, resource allocation, and policy formulation (Blanchard et al., 2017 ; Cooper, 2011 ; Dabney et al., 2012 ). Therefore, the identification of research trends in STEM Clubs was the aim of this study.

To identify research trends, studies commonly analysed documents by considering the dimensions of articles such as keywords, publishing years, research designs, purposes, sample levels, sample sizes, data collection tools, data analysis methods, and findings (Bozkurt et al., 2019 ; Chomphuphra et al., 2019 ; Irwanto et al., 2022 ; Li et al., 2020 ; Sozbilir et al., 2012 ). Using these dimensions as a framework is a useful and common approach in content analysis because this framework allows researchers to systematically examine the key aspects of existing studies and uncover patterns, relationships, and trends within the research data (Sozbilir et al., 2012 ). Hence, since the aim of this study is to identify and analyse research trends in STEM Clubs, it focused on publishing years, keywords, research designs, purposes, sample levels, sample sizes, data collection tools, data analysis methods, and findings of the studies on STEM Clubs.

As a conclusion, the main problem of this study is “What are the characteristics of the studies on STEM Clubs?”. The following sub-questions are addressed in this study:

What is the distribution of studies on STEM Clubs by year?

What are the frequently used keywords in studies on STEM Clubs?

What are the commonly employed research designs in studies on STEM Clubs?

What are the typical purposes explored in studies on STEM Clubs?

What are the commonly observed sample levels in studies on STEM Clubs?

What are the commonly observed sample sizes in studies on STEM Clubs?

What are the commonly utilized data collection tools in studies on STEM Clubs?

What are the commonly utilized data analysis methods in studies on STEM Clubs?

What are the typical durations reported in studies on STEM Clubs?

What are the commonly reported findings in studies on STEM Clubs?

In this study, the descriptive content analysis research method was employed, which allows for a systematic and objective examination of the content within articles, and description of the general trends and research results in a particular subject matter (Lin et al., 2014 ; Suri & Clarke, 2009 ; Sozbilir et al., 2012 ; Stemler, 2000 ). Given the aim of examining research trends in STEM Clubs, the utilization of this method was appropriate, as it provides a structured approach to identify patterns and trends (Gay et al., 2012 ). To implement the content analysis method, this study followed the three main phases proposed by Elo and Kyngäs ( 2008 ): preparation, organizing, and reporting. In the preparation phase, the unit of analysis, such as a word or theme, is selected as the starting point. So, in this study, the topic of STEM Clubs was carefully selected. During the organizing process, the researcher strives to make sense of the data and to learn "what is going on" and obtain a sense of the whole. So, in this study, during the analysis process, the content analysis framework (sample levels, sample sizes, data collection tools, research designs, etc.) was used to question the collected studies. Finally, in the reporting phase, the analyses are presented in a meaningful and coherent manner. So, the analyses were presented meaningfully with visual representations such as tables, graphs, etc. By adopting the content analysis research method and following the suggested phases, this study aimed to gain insights into research trends in STEM Clubs, identify recurring themes, and provide a comprehensive analysis of the collected data.

Search and Selection Process

The online databases ERIC and Web of Science were searched using keywords derived from a database thesaurus. These databases were chosen because of their widespread recognition and respect in the fields of education and academic research, and they offer a substantial amount of high-quality, peer-reviewed literature. The search process involved several steps. Firstly, titles, abstracts, and keywords were searched using Boolean operators for the keywords "STEM Clubs," "STEAM Clubs," "science-technology-engineering-mathematics clubs," "after school STEM program" and "extracurricular STEM activities" in the databases (criterion-1). Secondly, studies were collected beginning from November to the end of December 2023. So, the studies published until the end of December 2023 were included in the search, without a specific starting date restriction (criterion-2). Thirdly, the search was limited to scientific journal articles, book chapters, proceedings, and theses, excluding publications such as practices, letters to editors, corrections, and (guest) editorials (criterion-3). Fourthly, studies published in languages other than English were excluded, focusing exclusively on English language publications (criterion-4). Fifthly, duplicate articles found in both databases were identified and removed. Next, the author read the contents of all the studies, including those without full articles, with a particular focus on the abstract sections. After that, studies related to after school program and extracurricular activities that did not specifically involve the terms STEM or clubs were excluded, even though “extracurricular STEM activities” and “after school STEM program” were used in the search process, and there were studies related to after school program or extracurricular activities but not STEM (criterion-5). Additionally, studies conducted in formal and informal settings within STEM clubs were included, while studies conducted in settings such as museums or trips were excluded (criterion-6). Because STEM Clubs are a subset of informal STEM education settings, which also include museums and field trips, the main focus of this study is to show the trends specifically related to STEM Clubs. Moreover, studies focusing solely on technology without incorporating other STEM components were also excluded (criterion-7). Finally, 56 publications that met the inclusion and extraction criteria were identified. These publications comprised two dissertations, seven proceedings, and 47 articles from 36 different journals. By applying these criteria, the search process aimed to ensure the inclusion of relevant studies while excluding those that did not meet the specified criteria as shown in Fig.  1 .

Flowchart of article process selection

Data Analysing Process

Two different approaches were followed in the content analysis process of this study. In the first part, deductive content analysis was used, and a priori coding was conducted as the categories were established prior to the analysis. The categorization matrix was created based on the Paper Classification Form (PCF) developed by Sozbilir et al. ( 2012 ). The coding scheme devised consisted of eight classification groups for the sections of publication years, keywords, research designs, sample levels, sample sizes, data collection tools, data analysis methods, and durations, with sub-categories for each section. For example, under the research designs section, the sub-categories included qualitative and quantitative methods, case study, design-case study, comparative-case study, ethnographic study, phenomenological study, survey study, experimental study, mixed and longitudinal study, and literature review study. These sub-categories were identified prior to the analysis. Coding was then applied to the data using spreadsheets in the Excel program, based on the categorization matrix. Frequencies for the codes and categories created were calculated and presented in the findings section with tables. Line charts were used for the publication years section, while word clouds, which visually represent word frequency, were used for the keywords section. Word clouds display the most frequently used words in different sizes and colours based on their frequencies (DePaolo & Wilkinson, 2014 ). So, in this part, the analysis was certain since the studies mostly provided related information in their contents.

In the second part, open coding and the creation of categories and abstraction phases were followed for the purposes and findings sections. Firstly, the stated purposes and findings of the studies were written as text. The written text was then carefully reviewed, and any necessary terms were written down in the margins to describe all aspects of the content. Following this open coding, the lists of categories were grouped under higher order headings, taking into consideration their similarities or dissimilarities. Each category was named using content-characteristic words. The abstraction process was repeated to the extent that was reasonable and possible. In this coding process, two individuals independently reviewed ten studies, considering the coding scheme for the first part and conducting open coding for the second part. They then compared their notes and resolved any differences that emerged during their initial checklists. Inter-rater reliability was calculated as 0.84 using Cohen's kappa analysis. Once coding reliability was ensured, the remaining articles were independently coded by the author. After completing the coding process, consensus was reached through discussions regarding any disagreements among the researchers regarding the codes, as well as the codes and categories constructed for the purpose and findings sections. At this point, there were mostly agreements in the coding process since the studies had already clearly stated their key characteristics, such as research design, sample size, sample level, and data collection tools. Additionally, when coding the studies' stated purposes and results, the researchers closely referred to the original sentences in the studies, which led to a high level of consistency in the coded content between the two raters.

Studies related to the STEM Clubs were initially conducted in 2009 (Fig.  2 ). The noticeable increase in the number of studies conducted each year is remarkable. It can be seen that the majority of the 47 articles that were examined (56 articles) were published after 2015, despite a decrease in the year 2018. Additionally, it was observed that the articles were most frequently published (8) in the years 2019 and 2022, least frequently (1) in the years 2009, 2010, and 2014, and there were no publications in 2012.

Number of articles by years

Word clouds were utilized to present the most frequently used keywords in the articles, as shown in Fig.  3 . However, due to the lack of reported keywords in the ERIC database, only 30 articles were included for these analyses. The keywords that exist in these studies were represented in a word cloud in Fig.  3 . The most frequently appearing keywords, such as "STEM," "education" and "learning" were identified. Additionally, by using a content analysis method, these keywords were categorized into six different groups: disciplines, technological concepts, academic community, learning experiences, core elements of education, and psychosocial factors (variables) in Table  1 .

Word cloud of the keywords used in articles

The purposes of the identified studies identified were classified into six main themes: “effects of participation in STEM Clubs on” (25), “evolution of a sample program for STEM Clubs and its implementation” (25), “examination of” (11), “identification of” (3), “comparison of in-school and out-school STEM experiences” (2) and “others” (6). Table 2 presents the distribution of the articles’ purposes based on the classification regarding these themes. Therefore, it can be seen that purposes of “effects of participation in STEM Clubs on,” and “evolution of a sample program for STEM Clubs and its implementation” were given the highest and equal consideration, while the purposes related to "identification of" (3) and "comparison of in-school and out-of-school STEM experiences" (2) were given the least consideration among them.

Within the theme of "effects of participation in STEM Clubs on" there are 11 categories. The aims of the studies in this section are to examine the effect of participation in STEM Clubs on various aspects such as attitudes towards STEM disciplines or career paths, STEM major choice/career aspiration, achievement in math, science, STEM disciplines, or content knowledge, perception of scientists, strategies used, value of clubs, STEM career paths, enjoyment of physics, use of complex and scientific language, interest in STEM, creativity, critical thinking about STEM texts, images of mathematics, or climate-change beliefs/literacy. It is evident that the majority of research in this section focuses on the effects of participation in STEM Clubs on STEM major choice/career aspiration (5), achievement (4), perception of something (4), and interest in STEM (3).

Within the theme of "evolution of a sample program for STEM Clubs and its implementation" there are three categories: development of program/curriculum/activity (14), identification of program's challenges and limitations (3), and implementation of program/activity (8). The studies in this section aim to develop a sample program for STEM Clubs and describe its implementation. It can be seen that the most preferred purpose among them is the development of program/curriculum/activity (14), while the least preferred purpose is the identification of program's challenges and limitations (3). In addition, studies that focus on the development of the program, curriculum, or activity were classified under the "general" category (10). Sub-categories were created for studies specifically expressing the development of the program with a focus on a particular area, such as the maker movement or Arduino-assisted robotics and coding. Similarly, studies that explicitly mentioned the development of the program based on presented ideas and experiences formed another sub-category. Furthermore, the category related to the implementation of program/activity was divided into eight sub-categories, each indicating the specific centre of implementation, such as problem-based learning-centred and representation of blacks-centred.

The theme of "examination of" refers to studies that aim to examine certain aspects, such as the experiences and perceptions of students (7) and the factors influencing specific subjects (4). Studies focusing on examining the experiences and perceptions of students were labelled as "general" (4), while studies exploring their experiences and perceptions regarding specific content, such as influences and challenges to participation in STEM clubs (2) and assessment (1), were labelled accordingly. Additionally, studies that focused on examining factors affecting the choice of STEM majors (2), participation in STEM clubs (1), and motivation to develop interest in STEM (1) were categorized in line with their respective focuses. As shown in Table  2 , it is evident that studies focusing on examining the experiences and perceptions of students (7) were more frequently conducted compared to studies focusing on examining the factors affecting specific subjects (4).

The theme of "identification of" refers to studies that aim to identify certain aspects, such as the types of attitudinal effects (1), types of changes in affect toward engineering (1), and non-academic skills (1). Additionally, the theme of "comparison of in-school and out-of-school STEM experiences" (2) refers to studies that aim to compare STEM experiences within school and outside of school. Lastly, studies that did not fit into the aforementioned categories were included in the "others" theme (6) as no clear connection could be identified among them.

Research Designs

The research designs employed in the examined articles were identified as follows: qualitative methods (36), including case study (20), design-case study (6), comparative-case study (4), ethnographic study (2), phenomenological study (2), and survey study (2); quantitative methods (7), including survey study (4) and experimental study (3); mixed methods and longitudinal studies (10); and literature review (3), as illustrated in Table  3 . It can be observed that among these methods, case study was the most commonly utilized. Furthermore, it is evident that quantitative methods (7) and literature reviews (3) were employed less frequently compared to qualitative (36) and mixed methods (10). Additionally, survey studies were utilized in both quantitative and qualitative studies.

Sample Levels

The frequencies and percentages of sample levels in the examined articles are presented in Table  4 . The studies involved participants at different educational levels, including elementary school (8), middle school (23), high school (14), pre-service teachers or undergraduate students (6), teachers (4), parents (3), and others (1). It is apparent that middle school students (23) were the most commonly utilized sample among them, while high school students (14) were more frequently chosen compared to elementary school students (8). It should be noted that while grade levels were specified for both elementary and middle school students, separate grade levels were not identified for high school students in these studies. Additionally, studies that involved mixed groups were labelled as 3-5th and 6-8th grades. However, when the mixed groups included participants from different educational levels such as elementary, middle, or high school, teachers, parents, etc., they were counted as separate levels. Furthermore, the studies conducted with participants such as pre-service teachers, undergraduates, teachers, and parents were less frequently employed compared to K-12 students.

Sample Sizes

The frequencies of sample sizes in the examined articles are presented in Table  5 . It was observed that in 15 studies, the number of sample sizes was not provided. The intervals for the sample size were not equally separated; instead, they were arranged with intervals of 5, 10, 50, and 100. This choice was made to allow for a more detailed analysis of smaller samples, as smaller intervals can provide a more granular examination of data instead of cumulative amounts. The analysis reveals that the studies primarily prioritized sample groups with 11–15 (f:8) participants, followed by groups of 16–20 (f:4) and 201–250 (f:4). Additionally, it is evident that sample sizes of 6–10, 21–25, 41–50, 50–100, and more than 2000 (f:1) were the least commonly studied.

Data Collection Tools

The frequencies and percentages of data collection tools in the examined articles are presented in Table  6 . The analysis reveals that the studies primarily employed survey or questionnaires (31.6%) and observations (30.5%) as data collection methods, followed by interviews (15.8%), documents (13.7%), tests (4.2%), and field notes (4.2%). Regarding survey/questionnaires, Likert-type scales (f:23) were more commonly employed compared to open-ended questions (f:7). Tests were predominantly used as achievement tests (f:2) and assessments (f:2), representing the least preferred data collection tools. Furthermore, the table illustrates that multiple data collection tools were frequently employed, as the total number of tools (95) is nearly twice the number of studies (56).

Data Analysing Methods

The frequencies and percentages of data analysing methods in the examined articles are presented in Table  7 . The table reveals that the studies predominantly employed descriptive analysis (f:33, 41.25%), followed by inferential statistics (f:16, 20%), descriptive statistics (f:15, 18.75%), content analysis (f:14, 17.5%), and the constant-comparative method (f:2, 2.5%). It is notable that qualitative methods (f:49, 61.25%) were preferred more frequently than quantitative methods (f:31, 38.75%) in the examined studies related to STEM Clubs. Within the qualitative methods, descriptive analysis (f:33) was utilized nearly twice as often as content analysis (f:14), while within the quantitative methods, descriptive statistics (f:15) and inferential statistics (f:16), including t-tests, ANOVA, regression, and other methods, were used with comparable frequency.

The durations of STEM Clubs in the examined studies are presented in Table  8 . Based on the analysis, there are more studies (f:37) that do not state the duration of STEM Clubs than studies (f:19) that do provide information on the durations. Additionally, among the studies that do state the durations, there is no common period of time for STEM Clubs, as they were implemented for varying numbers of weeks and sessions, with session durations ranging from several minutes. Therefore, it can be observed that STEM Clubs were conducted over the course of 3 semesters (academic year and summer), 5 months, 2 to 16 weeks, with session durations ranging from 60 to 120 min. Furthermore, the durations of "3 semesters," "10 weeks with 90-min sessions per week," and "unknown weeks with 60-min sessions per week" were used more than once in the studies.

The content analysis of the findings of the identified examined articles are presented by their frequencies in Table  9 . Although the studies cover a diverse range of topics, the analysis indicates that the results can be broadly classified into three themes, namely, the "development of or increase in certain aspects" (f:68), "design of STEM Clubs" (f:17), and "identification of various aspects" (f:16). Based on the analysis, the findings in the studies are associated with the development of certain aspects such as skills or the increase in specific outcomes like academic achievement. Furthermore, the studies explore the design of STEM Clubs through the description of specific cases, such as sample implementations and challenges. Additionally, the studies focus on the identification of various aspects, such as factors and perceptions.

It is evident from the findings that the studies predominantly yield results related to the development of or increase in certain aspects (f:68). Within this theme, the most commonly observed result is the development of STEM or academic achievement or STEM competency (f:11). This is followed by an increase in STEM major choice or career aspiration (f:9), an increase in engagement or participation in STEM clubs (f:5), the development of identity including STEM, science, engineering, under-representative groups (f:5), the development of interest in STEM (f:4), an increase in enjoyment (f:4), and the development of collaboration, leadership, or communication skills (f:4). Furthermore, it can be observed that there are some results, such as the development of critical thinking, perseverance and the teachers’ profession, that were yielded less frequently (f:1). The results of 16 studies were found with a frequency of 1.

Within the design of STEM Clubs, the sample implementation or design model for different purposes such as the usage of robotic program or students with disabilities (f:7), design principles or ideas for STEM clubs, activities or curriculum (f:4), challenges or factors effecting STEM Clubs success and sustainability (f:3) were presented as a result. Additionally, the comparison was made between in-school and out-of-school learning environments (f:3), highlighting the contradictions of STEM clubs and science classes, as well as the differences in STEM activities and continues-discontinues learning experiences in mathematics. Within the identification of various aspects, the most commonly gathered result was the identification of factors affecting participation or motivation to STEM clubs (f:5). This was followed by the identification of barriers to participation (f:2). The identification of other aspects, such as parents' roles and perspectives on STEM, was comparatively less frequent.

Considering the wide variety of STEM Clubs found in different regions around the world, this study aimed to investigate the current state of research on STEM Clubs. It is not surprising to observe an increase in the number of studies conducted on STEM Clubs over the years. This can be attributed to the overall growth in research on STEM education (Zhan et al., 2022 ), as STEM education often includes activities and after-school programs as integral components (Blanchard et al., 2017 ). Identifying relevant keywords and incorporating them into a search strategy is crucial for conducting a comprehensive and rigorous systematic review (Corrin et al., 2022 ). To gain a broader understanding of keyword usage in the context of STEM Clubs, a word cloud analysis was performed (McNaught & Lam, 2010 ). Additionally, based on the content analysis method, six different categories for keywords were immerged: disciplines, technological concepts, academic community, learning experiences, core elements of education, and psychosocial factors (variables). The analysis revealed that the keyword "STEM" was used most frequently in the studies examined. This may be because authors want their studies to be easily found and widely searchable by others, so they use "STEM" as a general term for their studies (Corrin et al., 2022 ). Similarly, the frequent use of keywords like "education" and "learning" from the "core elements of education" category could be attributed to authors' desire to use broad, searchable terms to make their studies more discoverable (Corrin et al., 2022 ). Additionally, it was observed that from the STEM components, only "science" and "engineering" were used as keywords, while "mathematics" and "technology" were not present. This finding aligns with claims in the literature that mathematics is often underemphasized in STEM integration (Fitzallen, 2015 ; Maass et al., 2019 ; Stohlmann, 2018 ). Although the specific term "technology" did not appear in the word cloud, technology-related keywords such as "arduino," "robots," "coding," and "innovative" were present. Furthermore, the analysis revealed that authors preferred to use keywords related to their sample populations, such as "middle (school students)," "elementary (students)," "high school students," or "teachers." Additionally, keywords describing learning experiences, such as "extracurricular," "informal," "afterschool," "out-of-school," "social," "clubs," and "practice" were commonly used. This preference may stem from the fact that STEM clubs are often part of informal learning environments, out-of-school programs, or afterschool activities, and these concepts are closely related to each other (Baran et al., 2016 ; Cooper, 2011 ; Kalkan & Eroglu, 2017 ; Schweingruber et al., 2014 ). Moreover, the analysis showed that keywords related to psychosocial factors (variables), such as "disabilities," "skills," "interest," "attainment," "enactment," "expectancy-value," "self-efficacy," "engagement," "motivation," "career," "gender," "cognitive," and "identity" were also prevalent. This suggests that the articles investigated the effects of STEM club practices on these psychosocial variables. To sum up, by using these keywords, researchers can gain valuable insights and effectively search for relevant articles related to STEM clubs, enabling them to locate appropriate resources for their research (Corrin et al., 2022 ).

The popularity of case studies as a research design, based on the analysis, can be attributed to the fact that studies on STEM Clubs were conducted in diverse learning environments, highlighting sample implementation designs (Adams et al., 2014 ; Bell et al., 2009 ; Robelen, 2011 ). At this point, case studies offer the opportunity to present practical applications and real-world examples (Hamilton & Corbett-Whittier, 2012 ), which is highly valuable in the context of STEM Clubs. Additionally, the observation that quantitative methods were not as commonly utilized as qualitative methods in studies related to STEM Clubs contrasts with the predominant reliance on quantitative methods in STEM education research (Aslam et al., 2022 ; Irwanto et al., 2022 ; Lin et al., 2019 ). This suggests a lack of quantitative studies specifically focused on STEM Clubs, indicating a need for more research in this area employing quantitative approaches. Therefore, it is important to prioritize and conduct additional quantitative studies to further enhance our understanding of STEM Clubs and their impact. In studies on STEM Club, there is a higher frequency of research involving K-12 students, particularly middle school students, parallel to some studies on literature (Aslam et al., 2022 ), compared to other groups such as pre-service teachers, undergraduate students, teachers, and parents. This can be attributed to the fact that STEM Clubs are designed for K-12 students, and middle school is a crucial period for introducing them to STEM concepts and careers. Middle school students are developmentally ready for hands-on and inquiry-based learning, commonly used in STEM education. Additionally, time constraints, especially for high school students preparing for university, may limit their involvement in extensive STEM activities. Furthermore, STEM Clubs were primarily employed with sample groups ranging from 11–15, 16–20, and 201–250 participants. The preference for 11–20 participants, rather than less than 10, may be attributed to the collaborative nature of STEM activities, which often require a larger team for effective teamwork and group dynamics (Magaji et al., 2022 ). Utilizing small groups as samples can result in the case study research design being the most frequently employed approach due to its compatibility with smaller sample sizes. On the other hand, the inclusion of larger groups (201–250) is suitable for survey studies, as this number can represent the total student population attending STEM Clubs throughout a semester with multiple sessions (Boys & Girls Club of America, 2019 ).

According to studies on STEM Clubs, surveys or questionnaires and observations were predominantly used as data collection methods. This preference can be attributed to the fact that surveys or questionnaires allow researchers to gather data on diverse aspects, including students' attitudes, perceptions, and experiences related to STEM Clubs, facilitating generalization and comparison (McLafferty, 2016 ). Furthermore, observations were frequently employed because they can offer a deeper understanding of the lived experiences and actual practices within STEM Clubs (Baker, 2006 ). Along with data collection tools, descriptive analysis was predominantly utilized in studies on STEM Clubs, with quantitative methods including descriptive statistics and inferential statistics being used to a similar extent. The preference for descriptive analysis may arise from its effectiveness in describing activities, experiences, and practices within STEM Clubs. Given the predominance of case study research in the analysed studies, it is not surprising to observe a high frequency of descriptive statistics in the findings. On the other hand, the extensive use of quantitative analysing methods can be attributed to the need for statistical analysis of surveys and questionnaires (Young, 2015 ). Consequently, future studies on STEM Clubs could benefit from considering the use of tests and field notes as additional data collection tools, along with surveys, observations and interviews. Additionally, the development of tests specifically designed to assess aspects related to STEM could provide valuable insights (Capraro & Corlu, 2013 ; Grangeat et al., 2021 ). Moreover, increasing the utilization of content analysis and constant comparative analysis methods could further enhance the depth and richness of data analysis in STEM Club research (White & Marsh, 2006 ). In the studies on STEM Clubs, the duration and scheduling of the clubs varied considerably. While there was no common period of time for STEM Clubs, they were implemented for different numbers of weeks and sessions, with session durations ranging from several minutes to 60 to 120 min. However, it was observed that STEM Clubs were predominantly conducted over the course of three semesters, including the academic year and summer, or for durations of 2 to 16 weeks. This scheduling pattern can be attributed to the fact that STEM Clubs were often implemented as after-school programs, and they were designed to align with the academic semesters and summer school periods to effectively reach students. Additionally, the number of weeks in these studies may have been arranged according to the duration of academic semesters, although some studies were conducted for less than a semester (Gutierrez, 2016 ). The most common use of multiple sessions with a time range of 60 to 120 min can be attributed to the nature of the activities involved in STEM Clubs. These activities often require more time than regular class hours, and splitting them into separate sessions allows students to effectively concentrate on their work and engage in more in-depth learning experiences (Vennix et al., 2017 ).

The purposes of the studies on STEM Clubs were mostly related to effects of participation in STEM Clubs on various aspects such as attitudes towards STEM disciplines or career paths, STEM major choice/career aspiration, achievement etc., evolution of a sample program for STEM Clubs and its implementation including the development of program/activity, identification of program's challenges and limitations, and implementation of it, followed by the examination of certain aspects such as the experiences and perceptions of students and the factors influencing specific subjects, identification of such as the types of attitudinal effects and non-academic skills, and comparison of in-school and out-school STEM experiences. Therefore, the results of the studies parallel to the purposes were mostly related to development of or increase in certain aspects such as STEM or academic achievement or STEM competency STEM major choice or career aspiration engagement or participation in STEM Clubs, identity, interest in STEM, enjoyment, collaboration, communication skills, critical thinking, the design of STEM Clubs including the sample implementation or design model for different purposes such as the usage of robotic program or students with disabilities, design principles or ideas for STEM clubs or activities, challenges or factors effecting STEM Clubs success and sustainability, and the comparison between in-school and out-of-school learning environments. Also, they are related to the identification of various aspects such as factors affecting participation or motivation to STEM clubs, barriers to participation. At this point, it is evident that these identified categories align with the findings of studies in the literature. These studies claim that after-school programs, such as STEM Clubs, have positive impacts on students' achievement levels (NRC, 2015 ; Kazu & Kurtoglu Yalcin, 2021 ; Shernoff & Vandell, 2007 ), communication, and innovative problem-solving abilities (Mahoney et al., 2007 ), leadership skills (Lipscomb et al., 2017 ), career decision-making (Bybee, 2001 ; Dabney et al., 2012 ; Sahin et al., 2018 ; Tai et al., 2006 ), creativity (Wan et al., 2023 ), 21st-century skills (Hirsch, 2011 ; Zeng et al., 2018 ), interest in STEM professions (Blanchard et al., 2017 ; Chittum et al., 2017 ; Wang et al., 2011 ), and knowledge in STEM fields (Adams et al., 2014 ; Bell et al., 2009 ). Furthermore, it can be inferred that the studies on STEM Clubs paid significant attention to the design descriptions of programs or activities (Nation et al., 2019 ). This may be because there is a need for studies that focus on designing program models for different cases (Calabrese Barton & Tan, 2018 ; Estrada et al., 2016 ). These studies can serve as examples and provide guidance for the development of STEM clubs in various settings. By creating sample models, researchers can contribute to the improvement and expansion of STEM clubs across different environments (Cakir & Guven, 2019 ; Estrada et al., 2016 ).

In conclusion, as the studies on the trends in STEM education (Bozkurt et al., 2019 ; Chomphuphra et al., 2019 ; Irwanto et al., 2022 ; Li et al., 2020 ; Lin et al., 2019 ; Martín-Páez et al., 2019 ; Noris et al., 2023 ), the analysis of prevailing research trends specifically in STEM Clubs, which are implemented in diverse environments with varying methods and purposes, can provide a comprehensive understanding of these clubs as a whole.

It can also serve as a valuable resource for guiding future investigations in this field. By identifying common approaches and identifying gaps in methods and results, a holistic perspective on STEM Clubs can be achieved, leading to a more informed and targeted direction for future research endeavours.

Recommendations

Future research on STEM Clubs should consider the trends identified in the study and address methodological gaps. For instance, there is a lack of research in this area that employs quantitative approaches. Therefore, it is important for future studies to incorporate quantitative methods to enhance the understanding of STEM Clubs and their impact. This includes exploring underrepresented populations, investigating the long-term impacts of STEM Clubs, and examining the effectiveness of specific pedagogical approaches or interventions within these clubs. Researchers should conduct an analysis to identify common approaches used in STEM Clubs across different settings. This analysis can help uncover effective strategies, best practices, and successful models that can be replicated or adapted in various contexts. By undertaking these efforts, researchers can contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of STEM Clubs, leading to advancements in the field of STEM education.

Limitations

It is important to consider the limitations of the study when interpreting its findings. The study's findings are based on the literature selected from two databases, which may introduce biases and limitations. Additionally, the study's findings are constrained by the timeframe of the literature review, and new studies may have emerged since the cut-off date, potentially impacting the representation and generalizability of the research trends identified. Another limitation lies in the construction of categories during the coding process. The coding scheme used may not have fully captured or represented all relevant terms or concepts. Some relevant terms may have been inadequately represented or identified using different words or phrases, potentially introducing limitations to the analysis. While efforts were made to ensure validity and reliability, there is still a possibility of unintended biases or inconsistencies in the categorization process.

Data Availability

The datasets (documents, excel analysis) utilized in this article are available upon request from the corresponding author.

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Öndeş, R.N. Research Trends in STEM Clubs: A Content Analysis. Int J of Sci and Math Educ (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-024-10477-z

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