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Must-see places for Russian literature lovers in Moscow

Moscow is the most important city in Russia, not only from the economic and financial point of view, but especially because it is a vast cultural centre, boasting a rich artistic and literary heritage. Moscow was house to many famous writers who made the history of the Russian literature: Mayakovski , Tolstoy , Chekhov , Dostoevsky , just to name a few. Walking around the city, you will notice that most monuments, squares or buildings are named after them.  These spots will be appealing to those who love literature and want to immerse in the atmosphere that contributed to the creation of their favourite Russian novels. Follow me in my quest to find literary footprints in this blog post!

Pushkinskaya Square – Pushkinskaya ploschad

Old Arbat ( Stary Arbat ) and its outskirts

Bolshaya Sadovaya Street, 10 – Bolshaya Sadovaya Ulitsa n° 10

Posted by Francesca Bertelli

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Explore our collection of hundreds of online resources and databases. Use our free online content to help with your research, whether it's finding a single article, tracing a family tree, learning a new language, or anything in between.

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Moscow, the Fourth Rome

Stalinism, cosmopolitanism, and the evolution of soviet culture, 1931–1941.

• Katerina Clark
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• Language: English
• Publisher: Harvard University Press
• Copyright year: 2011
• Audience: General/trade;
• Main content: 432
• Other: 4 halftones
• Published: November 15, 2011
• ISBN: 9780674062894

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10 of the best novels set in Russia – that will take you there

This list of novels and novellas will help you explore Russia’s vast landscapes and complex history Add your favourites to the comments

I spent several years wandering round Russia with books in my rucksack. And several more years reviewing Russian fiction and finding myself transported back, whether to a village with chickens pecking through orchards round a wooden church or to a drunken kitchen table debate in a high-rise overlooking the Moscow suburbs. This subjective list of engaging, relatively readable novels and novellas recreates various Russian landscapes, eras and atmospheres, often in ways that no amount of travelling could. As Ludmila Ulitskaya writes in The Big Green Tent: “Military historians have found many discrepancies in Tolstoy’s description of the Battle of Borodino, but the whole world imagines the event just as Tolstoy described it in War and Peace.”

Yevgeny Onegin by Alexander Pushkin

A bored young man inherits a country estate, where a shy, book-loving local girl falls for him. Alexander Pushkin, father of Russian literature, crams laughter, literature, duelling and tempestuous romance into his playful 1820s verse novel. A series of distilled Russian settings serve as backdrops. First: theatres, dancing, lamplit snowy streets, soft summer nights by the glass-smooth River Neva and hungover rides home in the Petersburg morning-after. Then young Onegin’s rich uncle dies, leaving him the country estate, boasting a “vast garden, overgrown/ with wistful dryads set in stone.” Inside, there are brocaded walls, portraits of tsars, tiled stoves and homemade liqueurs. Pushkin lovingly details (although they bore the novel’s hero) traditional rye beer, berry picking, seething samovars and little dishes of jam. So, finally, to Moscow, “chiselled in white stone / the buildings topped with fiery glory / A golden cross on every dome”. Translated by Anthony Briggs, Pushkin Press

Happiness is Possible by Oleg Zaionchkovsky

Moscow exerts a strong gravitational force on writers, just as it does on Chekhov’s three sisters with their refrain, “To Moscow, to Moscow…” One of the subtlest evocations of modern Moscow is Oleg Zaionchkovsky’s Happiness is Possible , a series of darkly comic vignettes published in 2012. The narrator is a struggling novelist whose ambitious wife has left him. Discursive, fatalistic and fond of sleeping in the day, he is reminiscent of Ivan Goncharov’s sluggish hero Oblomov, Russian literature’s traditional “superfluous man”. What his story lacks in plot, it amply repays in dishevelled charm and style. He shuffles, unshaven, through the dacha village of Vaskovo and fills the abandoned apartment with dog hair and ashtrays. Zaionchkovsky’s narrator conveys the city’s magnetic pull, finding a secret solace and reassurance in the deafening noise: “We are Muscovites, children of the metro; time and again we seek refuge in its maternal womb.” Translated by Andrew Bromfield, And Other Stories

The Underground by Hamid Ismailov

The palatial metro system is one of the best things about Moscow. Several novels take place in its tunnels, including Mikhail Glukhovsky’s dystopian Metro 2033, first in a series of philosophical, post-apocalyptic underground adventures. Hamid Ismailov’s The Underground uses metro stations to structure the posthumous reminiscences of young Kirill. Born nine months after the 1980 Olympics to a Siberian mother and an African father, Kirill dies soon after the collapse of the USSR a decade later. There are recurrent images of the metro as a body, with “stone intestines” or marble pillars like a woman’s legs, “bare to the hip”. Exiled Uzbek author Hamid Ismailov has woven this poignant story, a fictionalised memoir inspired by episodes from his and his family’s own peripatetic lives, into a haunting landscape-tapestry of 20th-century Moscow. Translated by Carol Ermakova, Restless Books

He Lover of Death by Boris Akunin

Boris Akunin, whose real name is Grigory Chkhartishvili, is famous for his bestselling series of clever, tsarist-era thrillers. If you haven’t read any, start with The Winter Queen, which introduces the brilliantly understated detective work of diplomat-turned-sleuth Erast Fandorin . In He Lover of Death , Oliver Twist meets Treasure Island as we follow the adventures of orphaned urchin Senka through 19th-century Moscow. Akunin recreates the slums of Khitrovka, full of spiced tea stalls and gangsters in shiny boots (today the area is all banks and top-end restaurants, of course). Senka finds a hoard of antique silver bars, hires a student to teach him how to be a gentleman and is soon at the theatre, marvelling that people will pay “seven roubles to sit in a prickly collar for three hours” and watch “men in tight underpants jumping about”. The tale’s gruesome denouement has a characteristic blend of action, deduction, intrigue and morality. Translated by Andrew Bromfield, Orion 2010

Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk by Nikolai Leskov

Florence Pugh played the title role in an unflinching 2016 film version of this brutal 19th-century novella , a tale of provincial lust and murder. If people have heard of Nikolai Leskov at all, it’s usually because of Lady Macbeth. Dostoevsky first published it in his literary magazine and Shostakovich later turned it into an ill-fated opera . From the bored merchant’s wife, romping with a newly arrived farmhand under moonlit apple blossom, to a chilling denouement near the “dark, gape-jawed waves” of the leaden Volga, the story showcases Leskov’s restless evocation of place and passion. The setting, with its buckwheat kasha and icon lamps, has bureaucratic warrants and certificates alongside folkloric elements: the locked-up tower of the merchant’s house and the wife’s lover, “like a bright falcon”. In The Enchanted Wanderer and other stories , translated by Pevear and Volokhonsky, Vintage

2017 by Olga Slavnikova

One hundred years after the 1917 revolution, a gem cutter called Krylov falls in love in a Russian city where centenary celebrations lead to repeated cycles of violence. Meanwhile, gem prospectors or “rock hounds” search for precious stones in the mythical Riphean mountains (inspired by Slavnikova’s native Urals). This winner of the 2006 Russian Booker Prize is a genre-defying mashup of speculative fiction, magic realism, romance and thriller. Among many prescient interwoven threads are an ecological catastrophe triggered by human greed, and an epidemic of nostalgia, sparking civil war. In St Petersburg, costumed revolutionary sailors try to fire a museum tank gun at the Winter Palace and in Moscow the toppled monument to murderous security chief Felix Dzerzhinsky is resurrected (this bit almost came true recently). There’s an evocative Russianness in the novel’s linguistic subtlety, the fantastical mountain gorges, the cavalcades on city streets and the pervasive, Kafkaesque sense of strangeness. Translated by Marian Schwartz, Overlook Duckworth

The Big Green Tent by Ludmila Ulitskaya

A war-wounded teacher arrives at a 1950s Moscow school and forms a Dead Poets Society-style club, where he leads the boys through the city streets, peeling back the layers of its literary and historical palimpsest. One dilapidated house, where two of the boys later lose their virginity, provides a physical metaphor for Moscow’s strata: “Its walls had been covered in silk, then in empire wallpaper, … in crude oil paint, … then layers of newsprint…” Ulitskaya is always redolent and readable. The interlocking stories in The Big Green Tent revolve around two groups of school friends. This generous novel, spanning four decades of Soviet life, has a Tolstoyan ambition to capture the spirit of an age. Beyond the deftly drawn settings (trams, ice skating, Karelian birchwood furniture) is a powerful sense of cultural baggage. “We live not in nature, but in history,” Ulitskaya writes, as her protagonists walk down a lane once trodden by Pushkin and later Pasternak, “skirting the eternal puddles.” Translated by Polly Ganon, Picador

The Mountain and The Wall by Alisa Ganieva

The Russian authorities are planning to build a wall to isolate the troublesome Caucasus from the rest of the country. That’s the rumour that drives Alisa Ganieva’s 2012 novel, set in a dystopian-yet-real version of her hometown of Makhachkala, Dagestan’s coastal capital city. Shamil, a young Dagestani reporter, wanders the streets while his girlfriend, Madina, dons a hijab and heads for the hills to marry a murderous zealot. It’s another prophetic narrative and Ganieva’s picture of the social and psychological fallout of apocalyptic events feels a bit near the knuckle in 2020. A few years ago, I joined a press trip to Makhachkala to see a new art exhibition and take a trip (with armed escort) into the waterfall-braided mountains. Dagestan is not really a holiday destination, even when there’s no pandemic, and a novel about Islamic radicalisation isn’t likely to encourage tourists. But Ganieva skilfully uses words from some of the 30-odd local languages and fragments of poems, fables, dreams and diaries to evoke this diverse republic sandwiched between war-torn Chechnya and the Caspian Sea. Translated by Carol Apollonio, Deep Vellum

Pushkin Hills by Sergei Dovlatov

Boris Alikhanov, an alcoholic, unpublished author, finds work as a summer guide in the Pushkin Hills museum, as Dovlatov himself once did. The atmosphere of Russia’s old towns and zapovedniki (nature/heritage reserves) is conjured up in this novel, set on Alexander Pushkin’s old family estate. It’s not just the physical details that resonate (log houses girdled by birch trees, linden-shaded boulevards, old ladies selling flowers outside the monastery), but also the absurdly reverential guides and clueless tourists. The comedy of Pushkin Hills coexists with bittersweet meditations on creativity, loss and identity. Alikhanov derides Soviet authors who hanker after folk verses and embroidered towels but, explaining to his wife why he won’t emigrate, he says that while he “couldn’t care less about birch trees”, he would miss “my language, my people, my crazy country”. Translated by Katherine Dovlatov, Alma Classics

The Women of Lazarus by Marina Stepnova

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Discovering a tiny corner of America in Moscow

U.S. Ambassador Michael McFaul taking the floor in the American Center in Moscow on Martin Luther King Day. Source: Courtesy U.S. Embassy in Moscow.

{***In Moscow, a tiny corner of America***}

A bust of American writer Mark Twain and a cardboard cutout of U.S. President Barack Obama greet Russians who enter the American Center, located in the Library of Foreign Literature in central Moscow. The American Center in Moscow is one of more 25 American Corners scattered throughout Russia.

“Russia is celebrating the 20th anniversary of having the American Corners program,” said Sarah Ziebell, Information Resource Officer at the U.S. Embassy in Moscow. “Russia is the first country where the U.S. established an American corner.”

The Bureau of International Information Programs, a part of U.S. State Department, determines the amount of funding the American Centers and Corners receive, although the budget comes entirely as an appropriation from the U.S. Congress.

Today, in most countries where there is an American Embassy, there is at least one American Center or Corner.

“We have more than 25 American Centers in Russia,” Ziebell said. “We also have Information Resources Centers in our Moscow Embassy and our Consulates in St. Petersburg, Yekaterinburg and Vladivostok that work in conjunction with our American Centers to provide information about the U.S. and cultural programs and to fill the information gap.”

Artem Avtandilov, an alumnus of Global UGRAD, a U.S. government-sponsored academic exchange program, said that the American Corner in Kazan exceeded his expectations in terms of the amount and quality of opportunities available.

“Visiting the American Corner is a chance to get to know not only American culture and improve language for me, but also a great chance to meet other people with similar interests and discuss important issues,” said Avtandilov.

“The American Center in Kazan organized a speaking club where everyone had a chance to talk to native English speakers. Topics of the discussions usually cover U.S.-Russia relations, cultural features of both countries and allow you to know more about Americans,” he added. 

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According to Ziebell, Avtandilov’s experience is exactly what the American Corner program aims to provide.

“It’s a long-standing idea to achieve mutual understanding between Russia and the U.S. It isn’t just government-to-government dialogue, but also it’s the dialogue and individual relations between ordinary people," she said. "It helps us understand each other better and find ways to work together.”

35 year-old Muscovite Yulia Nik came to the local American Center to improve her language skills.

“I have been keenly feeling that I need to understands and communicate in English,” she. “Since I don’t have now an opportunity to hire an English teacher, I jump at the opportunity to find other ways to study English and practice it.”

But more important to her is the opportunity for her son to learn the languge.

“As far as possible I try to involve my son in studying English,” Nik said. “My friend told me several days ago that the American Center offers free English classes for children [through the AMC Children’s Club].”

Nik hopes to get acquainted with native English-speakers and those who are interested in English and American culture.

“Here I’m looking for interested, cultural and well-educated people who can share their experience and encourage me and my son to study English more.”

{***Fostering mutual understanding ***}

Fostering mutual understanding

Both in Russia and worldwide, American Centers and Corners offer programs that fall within five main categories – providing information about the U.S., offering cultural programs in English, English language learning, and advising people who wish to pursue their higher education in the U.S.

Usually, information about the U.S. is provided through a library that incorporates books, magazines and DVDs.  The library at the American Center in Moscow includes books on topics ranging from the natural sciences to economics to history and journalism.

Statistics:

The American Center in Moscow doubled its attendance between 2010 and 2012 from 4,000 visitors per month to 8,000 visitors per month. Said American Center in Moscow coordinator Kore Gleason: “We can relate this increase to growing curiosity to the American culture on the one hand, on the other hand we have been diversifying our programs to make them more interesting and interactive for children and teenagers,” she explains.

The cultural programs provided by American Centers also touch on a wide variety of topics.

“We have been increasingly inviting prominent American speakers, famous writers [like Michael Cunningham], journalists [like John Alpert], academics, visiting scholars,” said Kore Gleason, the coordinator of the American Center in Moscow. “We have a lot of speakers – representative of U.S. universities who speak about their programs or give workshops how to write better application packages to study in the U.S.”

Gleason added that the Center is trying to encourage Russian experts who speak English to give presentations. In February, for example, the American Center invited leading Russian biologists to discuss wetlands in Russia for World Wetlands Day . 

Sometimes the cultural programs also incorporate creative uses of technology. In December the American Embassy in Moscow organized a Wildlife Conservation Day program and invited Russian specialists in this area to answer questions from Russians across the country.

“We did a live video conference to bring together people from different American Corners through Russia,” said Ziebell. “We had people in the live audiences asking questions, we had speakers responding questions and we had Russian chat moderators bringing questions forward forward from the online audience.”  

{***Fightinng the information war***}

Fighting the information war

  In many countries, including Russia, the American Centers and Corners are on the frontlines of the information war, providing information about the United States that may contradict what is reported in the local press.

Public Opinion Poll:

A year ago, 44 percent of Russians had a favorable attitude to the U.S. Today this figure has increased up to 56 percent, according to a poll conducted by the Levada Center.

When asked whether the coverage on the U.S. in media influence her opinion about the U.S., Nik said she didn’t feel that her Russian TV changed her mind about the U.S. 

“What I see in mass media about the U.S. is far from the truth, as I understand,” she said. “I am more inclined to believe [my personal experience] and friends rather than newspapers and magazines.”

Avtandilov also said he was not very influenced by the Russian press and TV.

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“When I watch so-called ‘talking heads’ on Russian TV, I expect reckless criticism of whatever is going in the world involving the United States,” he said. “That is the way all major TV channels work in Russia and I can't see the way they will be able to influence my opinion about the United States. I had the chance of a lifetime to get to know American people personally and meet many friends in the U.S. I know and understand their differences and values and can't see them as anti-Russian at all.”

The American Center in Moscow is located at the State Library of Foreign Literature, 1 Nikoloyamskaya Ulitsa (Metro: Taganskaya). For more information about American Centers and Corners in other parts of Russia, visit its website . 

All rights reserved by Rossiyskaya Gazeta.

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• The Top 10 Moscow Novels...

10 Moscow Novels That Every Muscovite Initiate Should Read

Moscow’s rich history and innumerable paradoxes has inspired some of the greatest novels in Russian literary history. More than a simple backdrop to these extraordinary narratives, Moscow is an integral character in the stories. From glamorous 19th century ballrooms to desolate suburban apartment blocks, and the metro that runs beneath them, we’ve picked 10 of the top Moscow novels that will give you a literary passport to this extraordinary city.

Day of the Oprichnik – Vladimir Sorokin

Sorokin’s striking novels have gained him substantial international recognition as an author. His novel Day of the Oprichnik , set in 2028, is both a disconcerting side-step from a recognizable Moscow and potentially more ominously, a nod to it. We experience Sorokin’s dystopian world through the eyes of one of the ‘oprichniks’ (a term dating back to the days Ivan the Terrible), who seek out enemies of the reinstated Tsar, raping and pillaging to keep the population in a state of perpetual control and fear. Sorokin’s rendering of the world is as its darkest, and the carnivalesque prose is packed with pithy comments and oddly archaic statements that strike you in their direct delivery. This is a novel that focuses on the interplay of power and the grotesque normalization of violence in service to a higher ruler.

The Lady with the Dog – Anton Chekhov

The time: night – lyudmila petrushevskaya.

This novel is a heart wrenching, intimate portrayal of struggle one woman endures as she battles to survive in poverty-stricken circumstances. The Time: Night is a novel framed as the manuscript left behind by Anna, a woman striving to keep her family together whilst latching onto her role as a the self-sacrificing ‘babushka’ to her errant children and her grandson Timur. The novel is set in the bleak post-soviet apartments of Moscow, and the atmosphere is tangibly impregnated with despair. Petrushevskaya’s work is beautifully written, undulating from torrid streams of consciousness to poetic reflection to neurotic panic. Petrushevskaya’s sharp wit and sardonic social commentary help lift the bleak narrative and create a truly unique and insightful perspective on the desperate nature of one family’s existence.

Anna Karenina – Tolstoy

Tolstoy’s Anna Karenina is a novel that delights in contrasting diametric opposites, from Levin and Kitty’s marriage and Anna and Vronsky’s love affair to the spatial opposition of Moscow and Saint Petersburg. Moscow is full of glamorous balls, elegant fashions and handsome officers. Moscow is where Anna and Vronsky see one another for the first time, and Moscow is where the novel ends. The text is ambitious and labyrinthine, creating a rich mosaic of human emotion that defies judgement of human actions. However you feel about Tolstoy’s treatment of his heroine, he does an exceptional job of representing the minutiae of contradictory and complex motivations that govern human behaviour.

The Master and Margarita – Bulgakov

Bulgakov’s masterpiece reaches past the concrete reality of an identifiable Moscow to an evanescent world beyond it. The novel follows a series of inexplicable and utterly hilarious events that ensue when the Devil arrives in fervently atheistic soviet Russia. Bulgakov satirizes the materialistic nature of Muscovite society to gesture to the spiritual void beneath it. Characters include a motley demonic band of individuals, and a droll-humoured cigar-smoking cat, wreaking havoc around town in a series of wickedly funny skits. From a magic show featuring a temporary decapitation, to a magical scene in which the eponymous Margarita flies over Moscow on a broomstick completely naked, there is no end to Bulgakov’s incredible imagination. Those familiar with the opening scene will be delighted when they visit modern day Moscow’s Patriarch Ponds, where a cautionary sign will advise you that it is ‘forbidden to talk to strangers’.

Night Watch – Sergei Lukyanenko

Night Watch was translated into English after the phenomenal success of the films based on Lukyanenko’s pentology of novels. This novel is the first in the series, a gripping sci-fi fantasy that explores the supernatural underworld lurking just beneath the surface of our everyday world. Lukyanenko’s novel reflects a trend for fantastical or allegorical fiction which is currently prevalent in Russia. In Night Watch, a supernatural race of primeval humans must ally either with agents of Dark or Light. The main protagonist, Anton, finds himself caught in the middle of this tumultuous battle and drawn into a world of moral incertitude. This is (in the most non-cliché terms) a really griping page-turner.

Moscow-Petushki – Venedikt Erofeev

This is a slight cheat, as the majority of the narrative takes place during a train journey between Moscow and Petushki, a suburban settlement that appropriates a utopian-like quality in the mind of Venichka, the drunken protagonist. There are many who believe that Erofeev’s work is untranslatable, replete as it is with cultural references to classical poems, the orthodox faith and slurred streams of consciousness. Nevertheless, we believe it would be a pity to miss out on insight into the darkly witty, tremendously sad and sparkling mind of Erofeev. His prose-poem allows us to be simultaneously privy to Venichka’s internal dialogue, the external dialogue of his accompanying passengers and to the author himself. Erofeev plays with all readerly expectations through Venichka, the proverbial holy fool who, through his tangled commentary on everything from Marx to Pushkin to vodka slowly unveils his authenticity as a character.

Red Square – Martin Cruz Smith

This is the third novel in the Investigator Renko series, following on from the incredibly popular Gorky Park and Polar Star . Red Square does not actually refer to the Moscow location but rather a missing avant-garde painting that recently resurfaced in the illegal black-markets of 1990’s Russia. Renko is shown as an individual awash in a sea of corruption, attempting to cling to the law in an atmosphere of rapid and unprecedented change. Red Square provides an in-depth insight into the emerging capitalism taking hold of Russia after the fall of the Soviet Union, its setting an interesting comparison of Russia and cultural trends in Munich and Berlin during this tumultuous period. As ever, Cruz Smith’s writing is engaging and darkly funny.

Envy – Yuri Olesha

Olesha’s 1927 novel is a slapstick examination of the tussles between a smug sausage mogul and the drunken no-hope he chances upon in the gutter one day. If that’s not the kind of scenario to secure your interest then be assured that this is a much over-looked, brilliantly-rendered and vigorously delivered poetic feat. Although Olesha only wrote one book, it seems he put all his genius into it. As with Moscow-Petushki , Envy succeeds in being simultaneously lyrical and satirical; Olesha’s wry social commentary bubbles up from the pages with incredible energy. There are some fantastically disgusting descriptions that are utterly absurd and also oddly believable. This novel probably won’t suit every taste but if you have a penchant for the avant-garde then look no further.

Metro 2033 – Dmitry Glukhovsky

This is a must-read for anyone with an interest in the Moscow metro system. The sprawling stations take on ideologies and statehoods of their own after a nuclear disaster above-ground forces survivors into a subterranean world where rifle cartridges are currency and men fight both against intangible threats and one another. Artyom, the young protagonist of the novel, has never experienced fresh air, seen grass or been exposed to natural light. His fellow inhabitants at VDNKh raise anaemic pigs on waste products and grow mushrooms for food, eking out a precarious existence in a post-apocalyptic wasteland. After meeting an enigmatic figure called Hunter, Artyom takes on an epic quest to reach the mythical city of Polis, navigating the various perils that ensue as he traverses the claustrophobic, cramped conditions of life in the metro. Metro 2033 is ultimately a study of the human psyche and man’s irrepressible desire to survive no matter what that means. With this comes a bleak insight into the moral and physical degradation of people when they are pushed to their absolute limits.

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Elena Ostrovskaya and Elena Zemskova. From International Literature to World Literature: English translators in 1930s Moscow

2019, Translation and Interpreting Studies

This article conceptualizes translation within the theoretical framework of world literature and discusses the role of translators in the multilingual leftist literary journal International Literature. It focuses on the biographies and work of three translators into English: Leonard Mins, Niall Goold-Verschoyle and Anthony Wixley. Living in Moscow in the mid-1930s, they contributed to the international circulation of authors that later became part of the canon of world literature: Georg Lukács, Bertolt Brecht, and Isaac Babel. Exploring these translations within the historical context of Soviet cosmopolitanism, this article aims to uncover the mechanism by which Moscow in this period became a temporary sub-center of world literature.

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A Gentleman in Moscow

Amor towles, ask litcharts ai: the answer to your questions.

Welcome to the LitCharts study guide on Amor Towles's A Gentleman in Moscow . Created by the original team behind SparkNotes, LitCharts are the world's best literature guides.

A Gentleman in Moscow: Introduction

A gentleman in moscow: plot summary, a gentleman in moscow: detailed summary & analysis, a gentleman in moscow: themes, a gentleman in moscow: quotes, a gentleman in moscow: characters, a gentleman in moscow: terms, a gentleman in moscow: symbols, a gentleman in moscow: theme wheel, brief biography of amor towles.

Historical Context of A Gentleman in Moscow

Other books related to a gentleman in moscow.

• Full Title: A Gentleman in Moscow
• When Written: 2009-2016
• Where Written: New York City
• When Published: 2016
• Literary Period: Contemporary
• Genre: Historical Fiction
• Setting: The Metropol Hotel, Moscow, 1922-1954
• Climax: The Count escapes from the Metropol
• Antagonist: The Bishop; the Bolsheviks
• Point of View: Third person omniscient

Extra Credit for A Gentleman in Moscow

The Grand Metropol Hotel. Although most of the characters in the novel are fictional, the Metropol Hotel is a real hotel in Moscow’s Theatre Square. It opened in 1905 and remains in business today.

An Author’s Alliteration. All of the words in the chapter titles in A Gentleman in Moscow begin with the letter “A.” Towles has stated that this is his own way of playing Zut , the game invented by the Count and Sofia in the novel, in which they must come up with answers that fit a given category.

The Historic Splendor of 19th Century Moscow: A Glimpse into the Tsarist Era

Welcome to my blog, 19th Century ! In this article, we embark on a journey to the enchanting city of Moscow in the 19th century . Explore its rich history, architectural wonders, and cultural traditions, as we delve into the realms of czars and witness the expansion of the Russian Empire . Join me as we uncover the allure and mysteries of 19th century Moscow.

Table of Contents

The Transformative Shifts in 19th Century Moscow: A Glimpse into the Cultural, Social, and Architectural Evolution

The 19th century in Moscow witnessed several transformative shifts that encompassed cultural, social, and architectural aspects. During this time, the city experienced significant growth, propelled by industrialization and urbanization.

Cultural Evolution: The 19th century saw a flourishing of cultural activities in Moscow. The city became a hub for intellectual and artistic movements, with prominent figures like Leo Tolstoy and Fyodor Dostoevsky emerging from its literary circles. Moscow’s theaters, such as the Bolshoi Theatre, gained international recognition, hosting renowned performances and attracting audiences from all over Europe.

Social Changes: The 19th century proved to be a watershed moment for the social fabric of Moscow. The abolition of serfdom in 1861 brought about radical transformations in the lives of peasants, granting them more freedom and opportunities. This societal shift led to the emergence of a new middle class and a growing emphasis on education and upward mobility.

Architectural Revolution: The cityscape of Moscow underwent a remarkable transformation in the 19th century. The classical architectural style predominant in the previous centuries gave way to eclectic and neoclassical designs. Iconic structures, such as the Cathedral of Christ the Savior and the Grand Kremlin Palace, were built during this period, defining the skyline and showcasing the grandeur of Russian architecture.

These transformative shifts in 19th century Moscow not only shaped the city’s identity but also left a lasting impact on Russian society and culture. The echoes of this era can still be seen and felt today, making Moscow a captivating destination for those interested in exploring its rich history.

Romany Polka at a Moscow Ball

Moscow’s streets in the late 19th century, what was the lifestyle in moscow like during the 19th century.

Moscow in the 19th century was a city undergoing significant changes. As with many other European cities at the time, the Industrial Revolution had a profound impact on the lifestyle and urban development of Moscow.

In terms of lifestyle, there was a stark contrast between the nobility and the working class. The nobility enjoyed a lavish lifestyle, with beautiful mansions, extravagant parties, and a focus on arts and culture. The wealthy elite often participated in social events, such as balls and operas, which were considered essential for networking and maintaining social status.

On the other hand, the working class faced harsh living conditions. Many workers lived in crowded tenements, where basic amenities were often lacking. Factory workers, artisans, and other laborers toiled long hours under difficult conditions, earning meager wages.

The urban landscape of Moscow also underwent significant changes during this period. With the development of new industries and infrastructure, the city began expanding rapidly. Stone buildings replaced wooden structures, and wide avenues were built to accommodate growing traffic.

Education also played a role in shaping the lifestyle of the city. The opening of public schools and universities allowed some members of the middle class to pursue higher education and professional careers. However, access to education remained limited for the working class.

The cultural scene in Moscow during the 19th century was vibrant and diverse. The city became a center for literature, art, and music. Writers like Leo Tolstoy and Fyodor Dostoyevsky emerged during this period, producing renowned literary works that continue to be celebrated today. The Moscow Art Theatre, founded by Konstantin Stanislavski, revolutionized theater practices and became a leading institution for performing arts.

Overall, the lifestyle in Moscow during the 19th century was characterized by a stark social divide, rapid urbanization, and a thriving cultural scene. These factors shaped the city’s identity and laid the foundation for its future development.

What events took place in 19th century Russia?

In the 19th century, Russia experienced significant political, social, and cultural events that shaped its history.

One of the most notable events was the Decembrist Revolt in 1825, which occurred following the death of Tsar Alexander I. A group of liberal nobles and military officers staged an uprising against the autocratic rule and demanded political reforms. However, the revolt was suppressed, and its leaders were either executed or exiled to Siberia.

The reign of Tsar Nicholas I from 1825 to 1855 was characterized by a policy of repression and censorship, known as Nicholasian Era . It aimed to maintain strict control over society and suppress any dissent or revolutionary movements. The government’s oppressive measures led to discontent among various groups such as intellectuals, peasants, and workers.

In 1861, Tsar Alexander II implemented the Emancipation Reform , which abolished serfdom in Russia. This significant step towards liberation aimed to modernize the country and free millions of peasants who were previously tied to the land.

During the latter half of the century, Russia underwent rapid industrialization and urbanization. This process created a burgeoning working class that faced exploitative labor conditions. These hardships contributed to the growth of political movements such as Marxism and populism, advocating for workers’ rights and social equality.

Russia’s expansionist ambitions also played a crucial role in shaping the country’s history during this period. The Crimean War (1853-1856) between Russia and an alliance of France, Britain, and the Ottoman Empire revealed the empire’s military weaknesses and prompted efforts for modernization.

Furthermore, Russia sought to extend its influence in Central Asia, leading to the Great Game rivalry with Britain over control of Afghanistan and neighboring territories.

In terms of culture and literature, the 19th century in Russia witnessed the emergence of some of the most influential writers and artists in history. Figures such as Leo Tolstoy , Fyodor Dostoevsky , and Ivan Turgenev produced masterpieces that explored themes of morality, existentialism, and social critique.

Overall, the 19th century in Russia was a period characterized by political upheaval, social change, and cultural flourishing, setting the stage for the momentous events that would unfold in the following century.

What was the name of Russia in the 19th century?

Russia was known as the Russian Empire during the 19th century. It was a vast empire that stretched across Eastern Europe and Asia, with its capital in Saint Petersburg. The Russian Empire was ruled by a series of tsars, starting with Tsar Nicholas I in 1825 and ending with Tsar Nicholas II in 1917.

What was the previous name of Moscow before it was called Moscow?

Moscow , the capital of Russia, has had several names throughout its history. However, during the 19th century, it was known by the same name as it is today, Moscow. The city’s name has remained unchanged for centuries, even during this era.

Frequently Asked Questions

How did the rapid industrialization in 19th century moscow impact the city’s social structure and urban development.

The rapid industrialization in 19th century Moscow had a significant impact on the city’s social structure and urban development.

Industrialization brought about a massive influx of people from rural areas into cities like Moscow in search of employment opportunities. This led to a dramatic increase in population, with the city’s population growing exponentially during this period. As a result, Moscow experienced rapid urbanization, with new neighborhoods and districts emerging to accommodate the expanding population.

The social structure of Moscow also underwent significant changes. The emergence of factories and industries created a new working class, consisting of laborers and factory workers who lived in poor conditions and were subjected to long working hours. This working class formed the backbone of the industrial economy, but they faced many challenges, including low wages, unsafe working conditions, and lack of social welfare.

On the other hand, the industrialization and economic growth also brought wealth and prosperity to a new class of industrialists and entrepreneurs. These wealthy individuals constructed grand mansions and palaces in the city center, showcasing their newfound affluence and social status. This created a stark contrast between the rich and the poor, leading to increased social inequality within the city.

Moreover, the rapid industrialization also had a profound impact on the physical landscape of Moscow. Factories and industrial facilities began to dominate the outskirts of the city, polluting the air and water sources. The expansion of railways and the introduction of new infrastructure projects transformed the city’s transport networks and facilitated the movement of goods and people.

The rapid industrialization of 19th-century Moscow had both positive and negative effects on the city. While it brought economic growth and development, it also led to social inequality, urban overcrowding, and environmental degradation. These changes shaped the social structure and urban development of Moscow, setting the stage for further transformations in the following decades.

What were the major political and social movements that took place in 19th century Moscow, and how did they shape the city’s history?

In the 19th century, Moscow experienced significant political and social movements that shaped its history. One major movement was the Decembrist revolt of 1825, in which a group of Russian military officers staged a failed uprising against the autocratic rule of Tsar Nicholas I. The revolt emphasized the desire for political reform and liberalization.

Another important movement was the rise of Slavophilism in the mid-19th century. Slavophiles were intellectuals who believed in the uniqueness and distinctiveness of Slavic culture, rejecting Western influences and advocating for a more traditional and conservative Russia. This movement had an impact on various aspects of Moscow’s society, including art, literature, and religious institutions.

The 19th century also witnessed the growth of nationalism and the drive for independence among various ethnic groups in the Russian Empire. In Moscow, this was particularly evident among the Polish population. The November Uprising of 1830-1831, led by Polish nationalists against Russian rule, saw many Poles fleeing to Moscow, bringing with them their own cultural and political ideologies.

Furthermore, the 19th century industrialization and urbanization in Moscow fueled the emergence of a working-class movement . Factory workers and laborers organized trade unions and participated in strikes to demand better wages and working conditions. These movements played a crucial role in the development of the workers’ movement across Russia, ultimately leading to the formation of socialist and Marxist parties.

Lastly, the abolition of serfdom in 1861 had profound social implications in Moscow, as it brought about significant changes in the agrarian structure and the lives of the peasants. Many former serfs migrated to the city in search of employment and opportunities, contributing to the growth of the urban population and the transformation of Moscow’s social fabric.

Overall, these political and social movements in 19th century Moscow reflected the diverse aspirations and desires of different groups within society. They played a pivotal role in shaping the city’s history by influencing cultural, political, and economic developments during this period.

What were the main economic activities in 19th century Moscow, and how did they contribute to the city’s growth and prosperity?

In the 19th century, Moscow experienced significant economic growth and development. The city’s main economic activities during this time included trade, manufacturing, and services, which played crucial roles in contributing to Moscow’s growth and prosperity.

Trade: Moscow served as a major center for trade, facilitating the exchange of goods between various regions of Russia and international markets. The city’s strategic location on several trade routes, including the Silk Road, promoted commerce and attracted merchants from different parts of the world. The establishment of trade fairs, such as the famous Yaroslavl and Nizhny Novgorod Fairs, further stimulated economic activity and wealth accumulation in Moscow.

Manufacturing: The 19th century witnessed the development and expansion of manufacturing industries in Moscow. Textiles were a particularly important sector, with the city becoming a major producer of textiles and garments. Moscow’s skilled artisans and craftsmen also excelled in other areas such as metalworking, jewelry making, and ceramics. The growth of manufacturing not only boosted the local economy but also contributed to the city’s reputation for quality products.

Services: As the capital city, Moscow offered a wide range of services that supported its economic growth. Financial institutions, including banks and exchange offices, facilitated transactions and investment. Educational institutions and cultural establishments flourished, attracting students and intellectuals from all over Russia. Furthermore, the city became a hub for administrative and governmental activities, hosting various bureaucratic offices and serving as the center of political power.

Overall, the combination of trade, manufacturing, and services propelled Moscow’s economic growth in the 19th century . These activities generated income, created employment opportunities, and attracted skilled workers and entrepreneurs. The resulting prosperity allowed for the expansion of infrastructure, including the construction of grand buildings, roads, and railways. Additionally, the economic growth in Moscow fueled urbanization, leading to an increase in population and the development of new residential areas.

19th century Moscow was a city of immense historical significance and cultural transformation. The city underwent rapid changes as it transitioned from a traditional feudal society to a bustling metropolis. The industrial revolution had a profound impact on the city, leading to significant urbanization and modernization.

During this era, Moscow experienced a surge in population growth, accompanied by the construction of architectural marvels that still stand today. The iconic Kremlin and Red Square became symbols of power and authority, while the grandeur of the St. Basil’s Cathedral showcased the artistic and religious spirit of the time.

Additionally, the 19th century marked a period of great cultural flourishing in Moscow. The city became a hub for intellectuals, artists, and writers, with notable figures such as Tolstoy , Chekhov , and Dostoevsky calling the city their home. This intellectual ferment gave rise to the famous Moscow Art Theater and literary movements such as Realism and Naturalism .

Despite the advancements, 19th century Moscow also faced social and political challenges. The Serfdom system, which tied peasants to landowners, persisted until its abolition in 1861. The city witnessed various political upheavals, including the Decembrist revolt in 1825 and the Revolution of 1905 , which foreshadowed the larger changes that would come in the following century.

19th century Moscow was a dynamic and transformative period that shaped the city’s trajectory for years to come. Its remarkable architecture, cultural renaissance, and socio-political struggles make it a fascinating subject of study for understanding the complex history of this iconic Russian city.

To learn more about this topic, we recommend some related articles:

A Journey into the World of 19th Century Russian Novels

Exploring 19th Century European Art Movements: A Journey Through Time and Style

The Reign of Russian Czars: Unraveling the Power and Intrigue of the 19th Century

Exploring the Economic Transformation: The 19th Century Russian Economy

Exploring the Rich Palette of 19th Century French Literature: A Journey Through the Words of Victor Hugo, Gustave Flaubert, and Honoré de Balzac

Exploring the Authenticity of 19th Century French Realism: A Dive into Art, Literature, and Society

Assessment Types

• Critical Review

Literature Review

• Presentations

What is a Literature Review?

A literature review is different to an essay. It provides a snapshot of what we know about the research on a particular topic. The author is required to do a comprehensive search of relevant and recent literature (journal articles, text books, websites) to identify what is known about a topic. The main themes are then identified and crtically analysed. A literature review should cover:

• Compare and contrast the research, what are the common themes in the research?
• Are there any debates or disagreements in findings?
• Are there any gaps or limitations in the research reviewed?
• What are the strengths and limitations of the research?

What are the steps to write a literature review?

Adapted from Scribbr. Click here to learn more

Tips for Success Writing a Literature Review

• If it is your first time allow more time that you would for an essay or report.
• Finding quality research will make every step easier. Contact the library for help finding research.
• It can be difficult keeping track of sources. Use a note taking guide.
• Be flexible. Your structure may change as you write.

How do I Structure a Literature Review?

Organising Body Paragraphs

Do not arrange by articles. 

Arrange by themes and ideas across the articles. 

What does it look like?

Adapted from:

Ni Shé, C., Farrell, O., Brunton, J., & Costello, E. (2021). Integrating design thinking into instructional design: The #OpenTeach case study.  Australasian Journal of Educational Technology ,  38 (1), 33–52. https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.6667

What language do I use in a Literature Review?

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Educate to Empower aims to break down barriers to breast cancer screenings

With the president’s engagement prize, fourth-years simran rajpal and gauthami moorkanat plan to deliver education and resources directly to community centers in philadelphia, tackling medical mistrust, health literacy, and more..

Black women are 40% more likely to die from breast cancer than white women. Understanding this gap and its relationship to the historical and ongoing treatment of Black and Brown women in medicine has been the focus of Penn fourth-years Simran Rajpal and Gauthami Moorkanat.

Those stark statistics have driven their work toward breaking down the barriers to breast cancer screenings in marginalized communities in Philadelphia and led to their creation of Educate to Empower. Their focus is on using culturally-tailored messaging to overcome mistrust and fear of the medical establishment, as well as improving access and overcoming social, financial, and logistical barriers to evidence-based care.

Educate to Empower is one of two projects chosen this year to receive the President’s Engagement Prize , which awards $100,000 to fund each project and a $50,000 living stipend for each student. The Prize is meant to empower Penn seniors to design and undertake post-graduation projects that make a positive, lasting difference in the world.

Educate to Empower aims to deliver education and resources directly to community centers in Philadelphia. While working to address medical mistrust and health literacy, the program is positioned to influence early screening and detection in populations that may not be adequately reached by existing interventions.

“Simran Rajpal and Gauthami Moorkanat are inspiring student leaders who have spent their four years at Penn engaged deeply in service to local and global communities,” says Interim President J. Larry Jameson . “It’s fitting that their dedication and care for others has led to the thoughtful initiative Educate to Empower, which, through meaningful partnerships, will work to mitigate, and hopefully eliminate, health inequities in our city. I look forward to seeing this project flourish and evolve.”

Rajpal, a health and societies and biology double major from Chester Springs, Pennsylvania, and Moorkanat, a biochemistry major from Stirling, New Jersey, met each other in their second year in Penn Thillana, Penn’s classical Indian dance team. They both became captains of the team at the end of their second year, and after working so closely, realized they had similar interests in public health and women’s health. 

“It’s not one of the reasons we became friends but it’s one thing we did bond over, and we started talking about creating a project together that could help the Philly community,” Rajpal says.

The summer before her third year at Penn, Rajpal’s mother was diagnosed with Stage I breast cancer, and has now completed treatment and is doing well. “The diagnostic process really struck a chord in me because I realized how little I knew about my own breast health, or my own health in general. And if I knew so little about my own reproductive or breast health, and I want to go into women’s health and community health as a career, I can almost guarantee that a lot of other people don't know their risk of disease,” she says. 

She and Moorkanat then decided to focus on community health education and breast cancer.

“In Philadelphia, in particular West Philly, there’s a lot of communities that don’t have the access to health care that they need, even though Penn is right here,” Moorkanat says. “Our thinking behind this was that if we can deliver the resources to them, instead of making them come to Penn, maybe we can start to bridge that gap.”

Here’s how it will work: Cycles of four, one-hour workshops will operate during mealtimes at various community centers across Philadelphia. Each cycle cohort will be made up of 12 participants and 2 facilitators to cultivate small-group conversation and support. Sessions will cover self-examinations, screening guidelines, personal breast cancer risk assessment, and modifiable risk factors. All facilitators will undergo training to ensure competencies in the curriculum, cultural relativity training, and leadership skills. 

After completion of the program, participants interested in screening will be assisted in enrolling in Penn Medicine’s Breast Health Initiative to schedule their first free mammogram. Additionally, in collaboration with an advisory board composed of community partners, past participants, and experts, Educate to Empower will continue refining its curriculum and delivery to better address the needs of Philadelphia residents.

“Our ultimate goal is to use our four weeks in these community centers to not only alleviate medical mistrust and work to combat a lot of these access disparities, but to also provide our participants with enough confidence and reassurance that even if they have to enter the medical system, they’ll be OK and there are ways to support them,” Rajpal says.

Both agree that their time at Penn opened their eyes to the various ways they can address health inequities, both across the globe and down the street.

Moorkanat has been conducting global health research since her first year at Penn, initially looking at cervical cancer in Botswana.

“Cervical cancer is a very preventable disease if there’s proper public health measures, like HPV vaccination and routine screening, but sitting thousands of miles away, it’s really difficult to do something about that,” Moorkanat says. “The classes and all the different opportunities I’ve had here at Penn have shown me that just outside of our campus, there’s so much you can do to help our communities around us.”

For Rajpal, one of Penn’s biggest assets is its location in Philadelphia. “I’ve done such a random assortment of things across the city. I've worked for the Department of Public Health; I've volunteered at a free health clinic in South Philly; I work with the Netter Center and deliver programming to four schools a semester; it's a lot of very seemingly random things,” she says. “But at the end of the day, every single thing I do revolves around, ‘how can I bring resources to Philly neighborhoods and help reduce disparities?’ And if anything, taking classes in health and societies, working on research in a few different fields of study, and collaborating with faculty and staff on all of the various, lovely, random things that Penn has brought me has only increased my commitment to continuously pursuing that work and effort even beyond Penn.”

The team is mentored by Leisha Elmore , an assistant professor of surgery at the University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine and Chief of Breast Surgery at Penn Presbyterian Medical Center .

“The project was very advanced for their level of training. It was insightful, well-designed, and well- thought through, and what stood out to me very early was ‘wow, they are truly the future,’” Elmore says. “They are so bright, and it makes me optimistic about advancing health equity in future generations.”

Many programs trying to tackle similar issues are “one in, one out” programs, and while Elmore thinks those can play a role and have an impact, to truly make change, one needs to establish a footprint in the community.

“Educate to Empower is unique in that it’s designed to both create an educational component and impact on the community. But it also facilitates graduates of the program to join their efforts to continue increasing awareness around screening and overcoming barriers.”

Early detection truly saves lives, Elmore says. “One study that can be done very quickly can be the difference between someone with a curable disease who has a long lifespan beyond treatment of cancer versus those who we have a limited capacity to help.” 

“Simran and Gauthami are one-of-a-kind mentees who are truly motivated to make an impact and it's my honor to be their mentor,” Elmore says.

Class of 2025 relishes time together at Hey Day

Picturing artistic pursuits

Hundreds of undergraduates take classes in the fine arts each semester, among them painting and drawing, ceramics and sculpture, printmaking and animation, photography and videography. The courses, through the School of Arts & Sciences and the Stuart Weitzman School of Design, give students the opportunity to immerse themselves in an art form in a collaborative way.

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Penn celebrates operation and benefits of largest solar power project in Pennsylvania

Solar production has begun at the Great Cove I and II facilities in central Pennsylvania, the equivalent of powering 70% of the electricity demand from Penn’s academic campus and health system in the Philadelphia area.

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Investing in future teachers and educational leaders

The Empowerment Through Education Scholarship Program at Penn’s Graduate School of Education is helping to prepare and retain teachers and educational leaders.

‘The Illuminated Body’ fuses color, light, and sound

A new Arthur Ross Gallery exhibition of work by artist Barbara Earl Thomas features cut-paper portraits reminiscent of stained glass and an immersive installation constructed with intricately cut material lit from behind.

Leonard Lief Library at Lehman College recently acquired the works of internationally acclaimed poet, translator, scholar, and Lehman professor emeritus Joseph Tusiani (1924-2020), which is now available to the public for study and research. In tandem with the launch of the collection, the library is also featuring an exhibit about the poet's life and work. Tusiani retired from Lehman College in 1983.  

The special collection is accessible through a dedicated website .

“The careful curation of Joseph Tusiani’s life’s work marks a significant milestone in preserving his literary legacy,” said Kenneth Schlesinger, associate dean and chief librarian. “This archival collection enhances our library’s resources, enabling students to broaden their perspective and enrich their understanding and appreciation of literature, language, and culture.” 

The archive preserves Tusiani’s most notable works, ranging from those he authored himself to translations, poems, essays, and more across five languages. Enhancing the collection is a series of video interviews that provide an opportunity to hear Tusiani reflect on his life, family, and writing. These intimate conversations offer insight into the poet’s mind and the creative process that helped shape his work.

Working under direction of Special Collections Librarian Janet Butler Munch, the collection was curated by Lehman alumna Marguerite Zappa, who assisted Tusiani over many years in preserving his legacy. 

“A literary masterpiece, the Professor Joseph Tusiani Collection is vast in scope, rich and brilliant in content. Through his poetry, translations, essays, novels, and other writings, the legacy he leaves to us is testament of his humanity, intellectual rigor, and genius,” said Zappa.

Tusiani was honored with the Distinguished Accomplishment in Literature Award at the Lehman College Foundation’s 2015 Awards Dinner, and named New York State Poet Laureate Emeritus the following year. Watch a video profile of him here .

2024 marks the 100th anniversary of Tusiani’s birth. Known as the “Poet of Two Lands,” his contributions to literature are recognized worldwide and have inspired generations of poets. In March, his hometown of San Marco in Italy’s Apulia region dedicated a bench featuring a life-sized bronze sculpture of him.

To learn more and access the special collection, visit the website or consult the finding aid directly.

Minnesota Law

Law Library's Jewels of the Collection: Treasures of the Riesenfeld Rare Books Research Center Receives the American Association of Law Libraries 2024 Joseph L. Andrews Legal Literature Award 

May 8, 2024 The University of Minnesota Law School's  Law Library has been awarded the American Association of Law Libraries (AALL)   2024 Joseph L. Andrews Legal Literature Award for  Jewels of the Collection: Treasures of the Riesenfeld Rare Books Research Center.  The Andrews Award recognizes a significant textual contribution to legal bibliographical literature and is one of the most prestigious awards presented by A ALL . The  Jewels of the Collection  was c o-authored by Ryan Greenwood , curator of rare books and special collections,  and Patrick Graybill ,  former digital initiatives technologist.    This is the third time since 2010 that the Law Library has received the Andrews Award . Congratulations Professor Greenwood and Patrick Graybill!     SOURCE Read more about the Jewels of the Collection on the Reisenfeld Rare Books Blog Read about the Joseph L. Andrews Legal Literature Award.

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HK court bans democracy song

Source: NYT (5/8/24) Hong Kong Court Bans Democracy Song, Calling It a ‘Weapon’ The decision could give the government power to force Google and other tech companies to limit access to “Glory to Hong Kong,” an anthem of 2019 protests. By  Tiffany May , Reporting from Hong Kong

People singing “Glory to Hong Kong” during a pro-democracy rally in Hong Kong in 2019. Credit…Philip Fong/Agence France-Presse — Getty Images

A Hong Kong court on Wednesday granted a government request to ban a popular pro-democracy anthem, raising further concerns about free speech in the city.

The decision, which overturned an  initial ruling , could give the government power to force Google and other tech companies to restrict online access to the song in Hong Kong. The decision threatens to deepen anxiety about the city’s status as an international gateway to China, away from its censorship controls.

At issue in the case is “ Glory to Hong Kong ,” which emerged in 2019 as an unofficial anthem for democracy protests and a flashpoint for the authorities, who considered it an insult to China’s national anthem. The song has been banned from Hong Kong schools and has drawn angry official rebukes when played,  apparently by mistake , at international sports events.

Beijing has asserted greater control over the former British colony in recent years by imposing a national security law that has crushed nearly all forms of dissent. People convicted of posting seditious content online have gone to prison.

Lin Jian, a spokesman of China’s foreign ministry, said in a news briefing that the court’s verdict was a “legitimate and necessary move by Hong Kong to fulfill its constitutional responsibility of safeguarding national security and the dignity of the national anthem.”

In March, the Hong Kong government enacted  new security legislation that criminalized offenses like “external interference” and the theft of state secrets, creating potential risks for multinational companies operating in the Asian financial center.

In the “Glory to Hong Kong” case, a lower court judge ruled against the government last July and warned that an injunction against the song would cause a “chilling effect” in Hong Kong.

But in flipping that decision, three appellate judges said Wednesday that the anthem was a “weapon” that could be used to undermine national security.

“It has the effect of justifying and even romanticizing and glorifying the unlawful and violent acts inflicted on Hong Kong in the past few years, arousing and rekindling strong emotions and the desire to violent confrontations,” the court wrote.

The petition does not name any companies or individuals but listed 32 links to videos of “Glory to Hong Kong” on YouTube or its sibling company, Google.

The government injunction , the court said, was “necessary to persuade” technology companies to “remove” the songs from their platforms.

A representative for Google said the company was reviewing the court’s ruling and declined to comment further.

Analysts said that the verdict could compel YouTube to make the song unavailable in Hong Kong. It could also force Google to ensure that videos about “Glory to Hong Kong” are no longer listed in search results.

Lokman Tsui, a research fellow in Amsterdam with The Citizen Lab, a cybersecurity watchdog group, said the court was wrong to describe the song as a legitimate threat to national security.

“For speech to be censored or infringed on national security grounds, you have to be able to demonstrate intent and harm, and that the remedies you propose are the least restrictive,” said Mr. Tsui, the former head of free expression for Asia and the Pacific at Google. He added that he did not consider the evidence presented as legitimate national security threats.

After Google declined a public request by the government to remove the song in December 2022, Hong Kong’s security chief called the company’s decision “unthinkable.”

Like most tech companies, Google has a  policy  of  removing or restricting access  to material that is deemed illegal by a court in certain countries or places.

In recent years, requests to tech companies by the Hong Kong authorities to remove content have soared. But the internet in the city, in contrast to mainland China, has remained largely free of government control.

Facebook and Twitter were blocked from mainland China in 2009. A year later, Google shut down its China services and rerouted users to its search engine in Hong Kong, then a bastion of political freedom on Chinese soil.

The Asia Internet Coalition, an association representing companies including Google, X, Apple, and Meta on internet policy, said that it would assess how the ruling was carried out and its impact on businesses.

“We believe that a free and open internet is fundamental to the city’s ambitions to become an international technology and innovation hub,” Jeff Paine, the managing director of the association, said in a statement.

George Chen, a co-chair of digital practice at the Asia Group, a consulting firm in Washington, said he hoped the government would narrowly define the boundaries of the ban. Mr. Chen is the former head of public policy for Greater China at Meta.

“If the scope is too broad, the chilling effects will become more real, and that will hurt the reputation of Hong Kong as a regional business hub,” he said.

Amy Chang Chien contributed reporting.

Tiffany May  is a reporter based in Hong Kong, covering the politics, business and culture of the city and the broader region.   More about Tiffany May

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This paper is in the following e-collection/theme issue:

Published on 8.5.2024 in Vol 10 (2024)

The Scope of Virtual Reality Simulators in Radiology Education: Systematic Literature Review

Authors of this article:

• Shishir Shetty 1 , PhD ; 
• Supriya Bhat 2 , MDS ; 
• Saad Al Bayatti 1 , MSc ; 
• Sausan Al Kawas 1 , PhD ; 
• Wael Talaat 1 , PhD ; 
• Mohamed El-Kishawi 3 , PhD ; 
• Natheer Al Rawi 1 , PhD ; 
• Sangeetha Narasimhan 1 , PhD ; 
• Hiba Al-Daghestani 1 , MSc ; 
• Medhini Madi 4 , MDS ; 
• Raghavendra Shetty 5 , PhD

1 Department of Oral and Craniofacial Health Sciences, College of Dental Medicine, University of Sharjah, , Sharjah, , United Arab Emirates

2 Department of Oral Medicine and Radiology, AB Shetty Memorial Institute of Dental Sciences, Nitte (Deemed to be University), , Mangalore, , India

3 Department of Preventive and Restorative Dentistry, College of Dental Medicine, University of Sharjah, , Sharjah, , United Arab Emirates

4 Department of Oral Medicine and Radiology, Manipal College of Dental Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, , Manipal, , India

5 Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Dentistry, Ajman University, , Ajman, , United Arab Emirates

Corresponding Author:

Supriya Bhat, MDS

Background: In recent years, virtual reality (VR) has gained significant importance in medical education. Radiology education also has seen the induction of VR technology. However, there is no comprehensive review in this specific area. This review aims to fill this knowledge gap.

Objective: This systematic literature review aims to explore the scope of VR use in radiology education.

Methods: A literature search was carried out using PubMed, Scopus, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar for articles relating to the use of VR in radiology education, published from database inception to September 1, 2023. The identified articles were then subjected to a PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses)–defined study selection process.

Results: The database search identified 2503 nonduplicate articles. After PRISMA screening, 17 were included in the review for analysis, of which 3 (18%) were randomized controlled trials, 7 (41%) were randomized experimental trials, and 7 (41%) were cross-sectional studies. Of the 10 randomized trials, 3 (30%) had a low risk of bias, 5 (50%) showed some concerns, and 2 (20%) had a high risk of bias. Among the 7 cross-sectional studies, 2 (29%) scored “good” in the overall quality and the remaining 5 (71%) scored “fair.” VR was found to be significantly more effective than traditional methods of teaching in improving the radiographic and radiologic skills of students. The use of VR systems was found to improve the students’ skills in overall proficiency, patient positioning, equipment knowledge, equipment handling, and radiographic techniques. Student feedback was also reported in the included studies. The students generally provided positive feedback about the utility, ease of use, and satisfaction of VR systems, as well as their perceived positive impact on skill and knowledge acquisition.

Conclusions: The evidence from this review shows that the use of VR had significant benefit for students in various aspects of radiology education. However, the variable nature of the studies included in the review reduces the scope for a comprehensive recommendation of VR use in radiology education.

Introduction

The use of technology in education helps students achieve improved acquisition of professional knowledge and practical skills [ 1 - 3 ]. Virtual reality (VR) is a modern technology that simulates experience by producing 3D interactive situations and presenting objects in a virtual world with spatial dimensions [ 4 , 5 ]. VR technology can be classified as nonimmersive or immersive [ 6 ]. In a nonimmersive VR, the simulated 3D environment is experienced through a computer monitor [ 6 ]. On the other hand, an immersive VR provides a sense of presence in a computer-generated environment, created by producing realistic sights, sounds, and other sensations that replicate a user’s physical presence in a virtual environment [ 6 , 7 ]. Using VR technology, a person can look about the artificial world, navigate around in it, and interact with simulated objects or items [ 5 , 8 ]. Due to the broad nature of VR technology, it has many applications, some of which are in the field of medicine [ 9 , 10 ].

The use of VR in medicine started in the 1990s when medical researchers were trying to create 3D models of patients’ internal organs [ 11 - 13 ]. Since then, VR use in the field of medicine and general health care has increased substantially to cover many areas including medical education. Radiology education has also come to see the use of VR technology in the recent past [ 14 ]. The use of VR in radiology education enables students to practice radiography in a virtual environment, which is radiation free [ 15 ]. Additionally, the use of VR enables effective and repeatable training. This allows trainees to recognize and correct errors as they occur [ 16 , 17 ]. The aim of this review is to explore the scope of VR in radiology education.

This systematic review has been performed using the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis) guidelines [ 18 ] [ Checklist 1 ]).

Information Sources and Study Selection

The bibliographic databases used were PubMed, Scopus, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar. A systematic literature search was conducted for articles published from database inception to September 1, 2023. Topic keywords were used to generate search strings. The search strings that were used are provided in Table 1 . Only the first 10 pages of Google Scholar results were exported. The identified studies were then subjected to a study selection process. The search string for ScienceDirect was shorter because the database only allows a maximum of 8 Boolean operators, hence the sting had to be shortened. The search in PubMed was limited to the title and abstract. The searches in Scopus and ScienceDirect were limited to title, abstract, and keywords.

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

Original research articles written in the English language were included in the review. Studies conducted on medical, dental, and allied health sciences students (undergraduate and postgraduate) from any part of the world were included in the review. Studies exploring the use of VR learning in radiology education were included.

Narrative reviews, scoping reviews, systematic reviews, meta-analyses, editorials, and commentaries were excluded. Studies that did not align with the required study objective were excluded.

Method of Quality Assessment

Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and randomized experimental studies were appraised using the RoB 2 tool from the Cochrane Collaboration [ 19 ]. A visualization of the risk-of-bias assessment was done using the web-based robvis tool [ 20 ]. Cross-sectional studies were appraised using the appraisal checklist for analytical cross-sectional studies from the Joanna Briggs Institute [ 21 ].

Data Extraction

Each article included in the review was summarized in a table, including basic study characteristics. The extracted attributes were study author(s), publication year, study design, type and number of participants, type of radiology education under study, and the outcome being assessed. The extracted data are provided in Table 2 .

a RCT: randomized controlled trial.

b CT: computed tomography.

Search Results

The database search identified a total of 2877 studies; 374 (13%) studies were from PubMed, 2169 (75.4%) were from Scopus, 234 (8.1%) were from ScienceDirect, and 100 (3.5%) were from Google Scholar. Before the screening procedure, 37 duplicates were removed. During title and abstract screening, 2808 articles were excluded since they did not align with the eligibility criteria. The remaining 32 articles were then subjected to a full-text review, and 15 were excluded for reasons provided in Figure 1 , which shows the study selection process [ 38 ]. At the end of the process, 17 studies were found eligible for inclusion in the review.

Characteristics of Included Studies

Among the 17 studies, 3 (18%) RCTs, 7 (41%) randomized experimental trials, and 7 (41%) cross-sectional studies were included. The studies encompassed various aspects of radiology education, including dental radiology [ 28 , 29 ], diagnostic radiology [ 22 , 24 ], and interventional radiology [ 25 , 31 ].

Results of Quality Assessment

Among the 7 cross-sectional studies, 2 (29%) scored “good” in overall quality and the remaining 5 (71%) scored “fair.” The results for the quality appraisal of cross-sectional studies are shown in Table 3 . Studies were appraised using the checklist for analytical cross-sectional studies from the Joanna Briggs Institute [ 21 ].

Among the 10 randomized trials, 3 (30%) had a low risk of bias, 5 (50%) showed some concerns, and 2 (20%) had a high risk of bias. These results are shown in Table 4 . RCTs were appraised using the RoB 2 tool from the Cochrane Collaboration [ 19 ]. A risk-of-bias graph ( Figure 2 ) and a risk-of-bias summary ( Figure 3 ) are also provided.

a Item 1: were the criteria for inclusion in the sample clearly defined?

b Item 2: were the study subjects and the setting described in detail?

c Item 3: was the exposure measured in a valid and reliable way?

d Item 4: were objective, standard criteria used for measurement of the condition?

e Item 5: were confounding factors identified?

f Item 6: were strategies to deal with confounding factors stated?

g Item 7: were the outcomes measured in a valid and reliable way?

h Item 8: was appropriate statistical analysis used?

i N/A: not assessable.

a D1: risk of bias arising from the randomization process.

b D2: risk of bias due to deviations from the intended interventions (effect of assignment to intervention).

c D3: risk of bias due to missing outcome data.

d D4: risk of bias in measurement of the outcome.

e D5: risk of bias in selection of the reported result.

Type of VR Hardware and Software Used in the Studies

The studies used a wide range of VR software and hardware. Some of the studies used 3D simulation software packages displayed on 2D desktop computers [ 22 , 24 , 25 , 36 ], whereas others used headsets for an immersive VR environment [ 15 , 23 , 26 , 35 , 37 ]. The most used VR teaching software were the CETSOL VR Clinic software [ 33 , 35 ], Virtual Medical Coaching VR software [ 15 , 30 , 32 ], Projection VR (Shaderware) software [ 36 ], SieVRt VR system (Luxsonic Technologies) [ 37 ], medical imaging training immersive environment software [ 23 ], VR CT Sim software [ 25 ], VitaSim ApS software [ 26 ], VR X-Ray (Skilitics and Virtual Medical Coaching) software [ 27 ], and radiation dosimetry VR software (Virtual Medical Coaching Ltd) [ 31 ].

Effect of VR Teaching on Skill Acquisition

Ahlqvist et al [ 22 ] looked at how virtual simulation can be used as an effective tool to teach quality assessment of radiographic images. They also compared how it faired in comparison to traditional teaching. The study reported a statistically significant improvement in proficiency from before training to after training. Additionally, the study reported that the proficiency score improvement for the VR-trained students was higher than that for the students trained using conventional method.

In the study conducted by Sapkaroski et al [ 34 ], students in the VR group demonstrated significantly better patient positioning skills compared to those in the conventional role-play group. The positioning parameters that were assessed were digit separation and palm flatness (the VR group scored 11% better), central ray positioning onto the third metacarpophalangeal joint (the VR group scored 23% better), and a control position projection of an oblique hand. The results for the control position projection indicated no significant difference in positioning between the 2 groups [ 34 ].

Bridge et al [ 23 ] also performed a performance comparison between students trained by VR and traditional methods. They assessed skills about patient positioning, equipment positioning, and time taken to complete a performative role-play. Students in the VR group performed better than those in the control group, with 91% of them receiving an overall score of above average (>3). The difference in mean group performance was statistically significant ( P =.0366). Similarly, Gunn et al [ 24 ] reported improved and higher role-play skill scores for students trained using VR software simulation compared to those trained on traditional laboratory simulation. The mean role-play score for the VR group was 30.67 and that for the control group was 28.8 [ 24 ].

Another study reported that students trained using VR performed significantly better (ranked as “very good” or “excellent”) than the control group (conventional learning) in skills such as patient positioning, selecting exposure factors, centering and collimating the x-ray beam, placing the anatomical marker, appraisal of image quality, equipment positioning, and procedure explanation to the patient [ 30 ]. Another recently conducted study found that the VR-taught group achieved better test duration and fewer errors in moving equipment and positioning a patient. There was no significant difference in the frequency of errors in the radiographic exposure setting such as source-to-image distance between the VR and the physical simulation groups [ 32 ].

Nilsson et al [ 28 ] developed a test to evaluate the student’s ability to interpret 3D information in radiographs using parallax. This test was applied to students before and after training. There was a significantly larger ( P <.01) pre-post intervention mean score for the VR group (3.11 to 4.18) compared to the control group (3.24 to 3.72). A subgroup analysis was also performed, and students with low visuospatial ability in the VR group had a significantly higher improvement in the proficiency test compared to those in the control group. The same authors conducted another follow-up study to test skill retention [ 29 ]. Net skill improvement was calculated as the difference in test scores after 8 months. The results from the proficiency test showed that the ability to interpret spatial relations in radiographs 8 months after the completion of VR training was significantly better than before VR training. The students who trained conventionally showed almost the same positive trend in improvement. The group difference was smaller and not statistically significant. This meant that, 8 months after training, the VR group and the traditionally trained group had the same skill level [ 29 ].

Among the included studies, only 1 reported that the VR group had lower performance in proficiency tests and radiographic skill tests, compared to a conventionally trained group. The study, conducted in 2022, showed that the proficiency of the VR group was significantly lower than that of the conventional technique group in performing lateral elbow and posterior-anterior chest radiography [ 27 ]. An itemized rubric evaluation used in the study revealed that the VR group also had lower performance in most of the radiographic skills, such as locating and centering of the x-ray beam, side marker placement, positioning the x-ray image detector, patient interaction, and process control and safety [ 27 ]. The study concluded that VR simulation can be less effective than real-world training in radiographic techniques, which requires palpation and patient interaction. These results may be different from those of other studies due to different outcome evaluation methods and since they used head-mounted display VR coaching, whereas the other studies, except O’Connor et al [ 15 ], used VR on a PC monitor.

All of the studies except Kato et al [ 27 ] agreed that VR use was more effective for students in developing radiographic and radiologic skills. Despite this general agreement, there were slight in-study variations in learning outcomes, which made some of the studies look at factors that may influence skill and knowledge acquisition during VR use. In studies such as Bridge et al [ 23 ], it was noted that the arrangement of equipment had the greatest influence on the overall score. After performing a multivariable analysis, Gunn et al [ 24 ] reported that there was no effect of age, gender, and gaming skills or activity on the outcome of VR learning. In the study by Shanahan [ 36 ], a few students (19/84, 23%) had previously used VR simulation software. This had no bearing on the learning outcomes. Another observation in the same study was that student age was found to significantly affected the student’s confidence about skill acquisition after VR training [ 36 ].

Students’ Perception of VR Uses for Learning

The findings from the study by Gunn et al [ 25 ] revealed that 68% of students agreed or strongly agreed that VR simulation was significantly helpful in learning about computed tomography (CT) scanning. In another study by Jensen et al [ 26 ], 90% of the students strongly agreed that VR simulators could contribute to learning radiography, with 90% reporting that the x-ray equipment in the VR simulation was realistic. In the study by Wu et al [ 37 ], most of the students (55.6%) agreed or somewhat agreed that VR use was useful in radiology education. Similarly, 83% of the students in Shanahan’s [ 36 ] study regarded VR learning with an ease of use. In the same study, students also reported that one of the major benefits of VR learning include using the simulation to repeat activities until being satisfied with the results (95% of respondents). Students also stated that VR enabled them to quickly see images and understand if changes needed to be made (94%) [ 36 ]. In the study by Gunn et al [ 25 ], 75% of medical imaging students agreed on the ease of use and software enjoyment in VR simulated learning. In the same study, 57% of the students reported a positive perceived usefulness of VR. Most respondents (80%) in the study by Rainford et al [ 31 ] favored the in-person VR experience over web-based VR. Similarly, 58% of the respondents in the study conducted by O’Connor et al [ 15 ] reported enjoying learning using VR simulation. In the study by Wu et al [ 37 ], 83.3% of students agreed or strongly agreed that they enjoyed using VR for learning. Similarly, the studies by Rainford et al [ 31 ] and O’Connor et al [ 15 ] reported student recommendation of 87% and 94%, respectively, for VR as a learning tool.

Students’ Perceived Skill and Knowledge Acquisition

In the study by Bridge et al [ 23 ], students who trained using VR reported an increase in perceived skill acquisition and high levels of satisfaction. The study authors attributed this feedback to the availability of “gold standards” that showed correct positioning techniques, as well as instant feedback provided by the VR simulators. Gunn et al [ 25 ] examined students’ confidence in performing a CT scan in a real clinical environment after using VR simulations as a learning tool. The study reported an increase (from before to after training) in the students’ perceived confidence in performing diagnostic CT scans. Similarly, the study by Jensen et al [ 26 ] reported that the use of VR had influenced students’ self-perceived readiness to perform wrist x-ray radiographs. The study, however, found no significant difference in pre- and posttraining (perceived preparedness) scores. The pre- and posttraining scores were 75 (95% CI 54-96) and 77 (95% CI 59-95), respectively. The study by O’Connor et al [ 15 ] looked at the effect of VR on perceived skill adoption. Most of the students in the study reported high levels of perceived knowledge acquisition in the areas of beam collimation, anatomical marker placement, centering of the x-ray tube, image evaluation, anatomical knowledge, patient positioning, and exposure parameter selection to their VR practice. However, most students felt that VR did not contribute to their knowledge of patient dose tracking and radiation safety [ 15 ]. In the study by Rainford et al [ 31 ], 73% of radiography and medical students felt that VR learning increased their confidence across all relevant learning outcomes. The biggest increase in confidence level was regarding their understanding of radiation safety matters [ 31 ]. Sapkaroski et al [ 33 ] performed a self-perception test to see how students viewed their clinical and technical skills after using VR for learning. In their study, students reported a perceived improvement in their hand and patient positioning skills. Their study also compared 2 software, CETSOL VR Clinic and Shaderware. The cohort who used CETSOL VR Clinic had higher scores on perceived improvement [ 33 ]. Sapkaroski et al [ 35 ] compared the student’s perception scores on the educational enhancement of their radiographic hand positioning skills, after VR or clinical role-play scenario training. Although the VR group scored higher, there was no significant difference between the scores for the 2 groups [ 35 ]. In the study by Shanahan [ 36 ], when the perception of skill development was evaluated, most of the students reported that the simulation positively developed their technical (78%), radiographic image evaluation (85%), problem-solving (85%), and self-evaluation (88%) abilities. However, in the study by Kato et al [ 27 ], there was no difference in the perceived acquisition of knowledge among students using traditional teaching and VR-based teaching.

Principal Findings

The results presented in this review reveal strong evidence for the effectiveness of VR teaching in radiology education, particularly in the context of skill acquisition and development [ 22 , 24 , 27 , 30 , 32 , 34 ].

In this review, quality appraisal of the cross-sectional studies revealed that the strategies for deal with confounding factors was one of the factors directly affecting the reliability of the results. Similarly, the appraisal of the randomized trials revealed that the bias arising due to missing outcome data was one of the factors directly affecting the reliability of the results.

All the studies found that VR-based teaching had a positive impact on various areas of radiographic and radiologic skill development. In comparison to the traditional way of teaching, only 1 study by Kato et al [ 27 ] reported VR teaching as inferior to traditional teaching. The studies consistently reported better improvements in proficiency, patient positioning outcomes, equipment handling, and radiographic techniques among students trained using VR. According to Nilsson et al [ 29 ], O’Connor et al [ 15 ], and Wu et al [ 37 ], the improvements were due to the immersive and interactive nature of VR simulations, which allowed learners to engage with radiological scenarios in a dynamic and hands-on manner. The studies also revealed that VR learning has the ability to easily and effectively introduce students to new skills. It was also found that existing skills could be improved, mainly through simulation feedback that happens in real time during training [ 22 , 24 , 28 , 30 , 36 ].

The improvement of skills after VR training have been noted in different domains, including patient positioning, equipment positioning, equipment knowledge, assessment of radiographic image quality, and patient interaction. Improvement was also observed in other skills such as as central ray positioning, source-to-image distance, image receptor placement, and side marker placement [ 22 , 24 , 30 , 32 , 34 ]. Two studies, Nilsson et al [ 28 ] and Nilsson et al [ 29 ], looked at how VR affected the students’ ability to interpret 3D information in radiographs using parallax. They both reported a positive effect. Nilsson et al [ 29 ] also gave insights into the long-term benefits of VR training in radiology. Eight months after training, the control (traditionally taught) group in Nilsson et al [ 29 ] showed a slight increase in skills, but the VR-trained group still maintained a significantly higher skill level. This finding shows the enduring impact of VR-based education on skill acquisition in radiology. Although most studies supported the effectiveness of VR in radiology education, 1 study reported contrasting results [ 27 ]. VR-trained students were found to perform worse than traditionally trained students in conducting lateral elbow and posterior-anterior chest radiography in Kato et al [ 27 ]. This difference in results was, according to the authors, attributed to the use of a different rubric evaluation method and the use of a head-mounted display–based immersive VR system, which was not used in other studies. These 2 reasons may be the reason for the variation in study findings.

A wide range of VR software with different functions were used in the studies. In addition to acquiring radiographic images, the CETSOL VR Clinic software facilitated students to interact with their learning environment [ 33 , 35 ]. Students using the Virtual Medical Coaching VR software performed imaging exercise on a virtual patient with VR headsets and hand controllers [ 15 , 30 , 32 ]. The SieVRt VR system displayed Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine format images in a virtual environment, thus facilitating teaching [ 37 ]. The medical imaging training immersive environment simulation software provided automated feedback to the learners including a rerun of procedures, thus highlighting procedural errors [ 23 ]. The VR CT Sim software allowed the student virtually to perform the complete CT workflow [ 25 ]. Students could manipulate patient positioning and get feedback from the VitaSim ApS software [ 26 ]. The VR X-Ray software allowed students to manipulate radiographic equipment and patient’s position with a high level of immersive experience [ 27 ]. Radiation dosimetry VR software facilitated virtual movement of the staff and equipment to radiation-free areas, thus optimizing radiation protection [ 31 ].

The included studies also looked at factors that could influence skill acquisition when VR is used in radiology education. Bridge et al [ 23 ], Gunn et al [ 24 ], Kato et al [ 27 ], and Shanahan [ 36 ] investigated factors such as age, gender, prior gaming experience, and familiarity with VR technology. However, these factors were shown to have no significant effect on VR learning outcomes. This shows that VR education can equally accommodate a wide range of learners, regardless of experience or existing attributes.

Across several studies, positive feedback emerged regarding the utility, ease of use, enjoyment, and perceived impact on skill and knowledge acquisition. The included studies consistently reported positive perceptions of VR use among students [ 25 , 26 , 37 ]. Gunn et al [ 25 ] reported that a significant proportion of medical imaging and radiation therapy students found the use of VR simulation to be significantly helpful in learning about CT scanning. Similarly, Jensen et al [ 26 ] and Wu et al [ 37 ] reported that a majority of students agreed on the usefulness of VR in radiology education. Another aspect that received positive feedback was the ease of use. Students liked the ability to repeat tasks until they were satisfied with the results and the ability to quickly visualize radiographs to determine the need for revisions [ 36 ]. Rainford et al [ 31 ] and O’Connor and Rainford [ 30 ] found that most students would recommend VR as a learning tool to other students.

Several studies investigated student’s perceptions of skill and knowledge acquisition when using VR for radiology education. Bridge et al [ 15 ] and O’Connor et al [ 23 ] discovered an increase in students’ perceived acquisition of radiographic skills. Gunn et al [ 25 ] reported an increase in students’ perceived confidence to perform CT scans after learning using VR simulations. According to Rainford et al [ 31 ], a large percentage of radiography and medical students felt that VR learning boosted their confidence across all relevant learning outcomes, with the highest levels of confidence recorded in radiation safety. Sapkaroski et al [ 33 ] discovered that after using VR for learning, students experienced an improvement in their hand and patient placement skills. In summary, the positive feedback from the students shows that VR use in radiology education is a useful, engaging, and effective teaching tool. This perceived acquisition of skills is backed by the results from the proficiency tests.

The VR modalities used in some of the studies allowed remote assistance from an external agent (teacher), as the VR training is conducted in front of a screen while being part of a team, with the teacher making constant corrections and indications [ 22 , 24 , 27 ]. However, researchers are looking into VR systems with artificial intelligence–supported tutoring, which includes the assessment of learners, generation of learning content, and automated feedback [ 39 ].

Findings from the included studies show that VR-based teaching offers substantial benefits in various aspects of radiographic and radiologic skill development. The studies consistently reported that students educated using VR systems improved significantly in overall proficiency, patient positioning, equipment knowledge, equipment handling, and radiographic techniques. However, the variable nature of the studies included in the review reduces the scope for a comprehensive recommendation of VR use in radiology education. A key contributing factor to relatively better learning outcomes was the immersive and interactive nature of VR systems, which provided real-time feedback and dynamic learning experiences to students. Factors such as age, gender, gaming experience, and familiarity with VR systems did not significantly influence learning outcomes. This shows that VR can be used for diverse groups of students when teaching radiology. Students generally provided positive feedback about the utility, ease of use, and satisfaction of VR, as well as its perceived impact on skill and knowledge acquisition. These students’ reports show the value of VR as an important, interesting, and effective tool in radiology education.

Conflicts of Interest

None declared.

PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) checklist.

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Abbreviations

Edited by A Hasan Sapci, Taiane de Azevedo Cardoso; submitted 23.09.23; peer-reviewed by FernandezHerrero Jorge, Stacey Kassutto; final revised version received 01.02.24; accepted 31.03.24; published 08.05.24.

© Shishir Shetty, Supriya Bhat, Saad Al Bayatti, Sausan Al Kawas, Wael Talaat, Mohamed El-Kishawi, Natheer Al Rawi, Sangeetha Narasimhan, Hiba Al-Daghestani, Medhini Madi, Raghavendra Shetty. Originally published in JMIR Medical Education (https://mededu.jmir.org), 8.5.2024.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work, first published in JMIR Medical Education, is properly cited. The complete bibliographic information, a link to the original publication on https://mededu.jmir.org/ , as well as this copyright and license information must be included.

COLT Department of Comparative Literature

• Undergraduate
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Leah Middlebrook Appointed the New Director of the Oregon Humanities Center

The Office of the Vice President for Research and Innovation (OVPRI) and the Oregon Humanities Center (OHC) announce that Leah Middlebrook has been appointed as the new director of the OHC. Current OHC director, Paul Peppis, will retire June 30, 2024. Leah will take the helm on July 1.

“Leah has a rich history of service to the university, strength as a leader as department head of Comparative Literature, and active participation in the humanities community of scholarship,” said Anshuman “AR” Razdan, vice president for research and innovation. “Paul Peppis’s long stewardship of the Oregon Humanities Center leaves big shoes to fill, but I am confident in Leah’s ability to take the Center to new heights.”

Leah Middlebrook is an associate professor of Comparative Literature and Spanish. She received her doctorate in Comparative Literature in 1998 from the University of California, Berkeley, where she specialized in 16th century Spanish, French, and English lyric poetry. She spent 1994–1995 in Madrid as a Fulbright Scholar. From 1998–2000 she was an Andrew W. Mellon Postdoctoral Fellow in the Humanities in the Department of Comparative Literature at Stanford University, where she continued as a lecturer 2000–2001, before joining Comparative Literature and Romance Languages at the University of Oregon in 2002.

Middlebrook’s research and teaching interests include the lyric, poetry and poetics, early modern translation, theories of the subject, and critical constructions of Western modernity, particularly as those constructions shape our ideas about the “early” modern. She has published essays on early modern poetry and poetics, on Cervantes, and on comparative issues in seventeenth-century Spanish and French theater. Her books include  Imperial Lyric: New Poetry and New Subjects in Early Modern Spain  (Pennsylvania State University Press, 2009) and  Poiesis and Modernity in the Old and New Worlds , co-edited with Anthony J. Cascardi (Vanderbilt University Press, 2012). Amphion: Lyre, Poetry, and Politics in Modernity  is forthcoming from the University of Chicago Press in 2024. Her current book project sets Velázquez’s 1636 painting  Las Meninas  at the center of an extended consideration of gender and woman-ness as tropes of early, high, and late modernity; a second project situates Ovid’s  Metamorphoses  in extra-European contexts.

Middlebrook received the Herman Award for Distinguished Teaching at the University of Oregon in 2016. She received the Ersted Award for Distinguished Teaching at the junior faculty level in 2007. She served as department head for Comparative Literature (2018–2021) and on the College of Arts and Sciences Deans Advisory Committee (2011–2013) and Faculty Personnel Committee (2016–2018). Middlebrook served as president for the Society for Renaissance and Baroque Hispanic Poetry (2018–22). She has also served on boards, panels, and executive committees for the Modern Languages Association (2018–23), the Society for Renaissance and Baroque Hispanic Poetry (2004–08), and  Renaissance Quarterly  (2019–24).

“The Oregon Humanities Center is a vibrant source of intellectual inspiration, and it provides indispensable support for the broad-ranging humanistic inquiry carried out by faculty, graduate students, and undergraduate students at the University of Oregon,” said Middlebrook. “The center also plays an important role as a hub of intersection between the university and our wider communities and publics, both in Eugene and throughout Oregon. I am delighted beyond words to have been appointed to the directorship. It’s an honor I take seriously, and I look forward to getting to know our community, the center’s many constituents and stakeholders: researchers, friends, staff, and publics, in the coming months.”